MACRO-PRODUCTIVITY INDICATORS PROJECT

Transcription

1 MACRO-PRODUCTIVITY INDICATORS PROJECT 2012

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES II LIST OF FIGURES III LIST OF BOXES III EXECUTIVE SUMMARY IV INTRODUCTION 1 TRENDS IN BARBADIAN PRODUCTIVITY 4 National Productivity Indicators 4 Survey-Based Productivity Indicators 4 CALCULATING PRODUCTIVITY 10 COMPARATIVE RESULTS BY INDUSTRY 11 PRODUCTIVITY INDICATORS 12 Labour Productivity Growth 12 Output per Employee Growth 13 Unit Labour Cost Indicator 15 ABSENTEEISM 20 CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY 23 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS 25 APPENDICES 26 Table A.1: Combined Sales of Surveyed Establishments Table A.2: Total Number of Full-Time Employees Table A.3: Total Number of Part-Time Employees Table A.4: Average Overtime Hours (Per Employee) Table A.5: Average Vacation Days (Per Employee) Table A.6: Average Certified Sick Days (Per Employee) Table A.7: Average Uncertified Sick Days (Per Employee) LIST OF TABLES 1: Number of Establishments Participating in the National Survey of Productivity 6 2: Descriptive Statistics for Firms Responding to Survey 7 3: Labour Productivity Growth in Selected Industries in (Percent Change) 11 4: Output per Employee Growth in 2010 and : Unit Labour Cost in 2010 and : Labour Productivity Growth in Selected Industries in : Absenteeism Rate 20 i

3 LIST OF FIGURES 1: Macro-Productivity Growth (Percent Change) : Descriptive Statistics for Firms Responding to Survey (Sales) 7 3: Descriptive Statistics for Firms Responding to Survey (Full-Time Employment) 8 4. Descriptive Statistics for Firms Responding to Survey (Part-Time Employment) 8 5: Trends in Labour Productivity in Select Industries ( ) 12 6: Labour Productivity in Five (5) Industries Surveyed 2012 (Percent Change) 18 7: Absenteeism Rate for Five (5) Industries Surveyed LIST OF BOXES 1: Communication and Productivity 3 2: Motivation One of the Keys to Unlocking Employee Productivity 9 3: Is the Boss the Barrier? CARICOM Competitiveness Performance 22 ii

4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Macro-Productivity Indicators Project provides a report that presents analysis of productivity growth at both the national and sectoral levels. The specific sectors included in the project are accommodation, construction, financial services, manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade. The results at the national level suggest that average productivity growth for 2011 was estimated at 2.2 percent, down from 3.7 percent in Productivity is simply a convenient term for summarising and expressing a relationship. In essence, it is a measure of how efficiently a firm manipulates its resources or factors of production (human capital, materials, equipment, space, energy and knowledge) within the production of goods and services. However, productivity is not only related to the fostering of maximum efficiency by doing things right but it also involves the attainment of maximum effectiveness of doing the right things. Increased productivity is basically achieved by accomplishing more with the same amount of resources or achieving higher output in terms of volume and quality for the same input. It is usually stated as: Several factors affect productivity growth at the macro level: (1) macro-economic structural change and policies, both fiscal and monetary (2) sectoral allocation of resources (3) economies of scale (4) trade orientation (5) education and training policy (6) human resource development policy (7) research and development policy (8) technological change (9) social infrastructure development (10) regulatory environment (11) international business (12) political environment (13) business cycle (14) use/exploitation of the natural environment It is known widely that productivity is essential to the expansion of national welfare. All human activity can benefit from an improvement in productivity. This can be said because an increase in Gross Domestic Product is attained as a result of improving the effectiveness and quality of manpower instead of using additional labour and capital. Basically, Gross Domestic Product grows faster than the input factors when productivity is improved. Therefore, expansions in productivity result in direct increases in the standard of living, and productivity is definitely one of, if not the most important source of real economic growth and social progress. Changes in productivity are considered a major influence on a number of social and economic trends, such as economic growth, high standard of living and improvements in a nation s balance of payments, inflation control and even the amount and quality of leisure. These changes in turn influence wage levels, cost or price relationships, capital investment needs and employment. This was the rationale for the development of the Macro-Productivity Indicators Project and National Survey of Productivity; because monitoring and maintenance of productivity, must be preceded by measurement. iii

5 The report presents the results of the National Survey of Productivity conducted in five (5) industries accommodation, construction, financial services, manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade. The results are three specific forms of labour productivity indicators and the absenteeism rate. The results suggest that four of the five industries under review had positive rates of growth: these were accommodation (1.6 percent); financial services (37.0 percent) the highest for 2011; manufacturing (0.4 percent) and wholesale and retail trade (9.3 percent). The other industry, construction registered a contraction of 3.0 percent. The lowest absenteeism rate recorded for the overall industries in 2011 was in the construction industry, 13.3 percent. With regards to the sub-sectors under review, food, beverage and tobacco fish processors 3.8 percent had the lowest overall average absenteeism rate. This was followed by apartments (8.1 percent), clothing and textiles textiles (8.6 percent) and service stations (9.6 percent). The highest absenteeism rate for the industries was in the financial services sector 17.9 percent. However, significant absenteeism rates were registered for clothing and textiles framing (24.5 percent), chemicals (23.5 percent), retail house and hardware supplies and mining and quarrying (21.3 percent), retail books and stationery (20.7 percent) and non-metallic mineral products cement and concrete (20.1 percent). iv

6 INTRODUCTION 1. What is productivity? Productivity means how much and how well we produce from the resources used. If we produce more and better goods from the same resources, we increase productivity. Or, if we produce the same goods from fewer resources, we also increase productivity. The same applies to services. If we provide more services or better quality services from the same resources, our productivity has increased. Or, if we provide the same services and just as good, from less resources, we also improve productivity. In this context, resources means all human and physical resources, that is, the people who produce the goods or provide the services, and the assets with which the people can produce the goods or provide the services. The physical resources that people use include the land and buildings, fixed and moving machines and equipment, tools, raw materials, inventories and other current assets. 2. What is not productivity? If sales increase due to inflation, it is not a productivity increase because productivity means real increase, not just monetary increase. If sales volume increases but also the resources used increase, it is not necessarily a productivity increase. Productivity improvement means the increase of the production of goods or services per resources used. 3. Who benefits from increased productivity? Everyone benefits: Companies, workers, customers and the general public. In fact, the country s standard of living can increase only through increased productivity. The country can borrow money, but it must be paid back. The only way we can have more is to produce more from our resources, that is, by increasing our productivity. Employers benefit through increased sales, increased profitability, increased competitiveness, more turn-over, more stable and growing business, less waste and less absenteeism, to name a few. Workers benefit because more productive, successful companies provide more stable employment, better pay and working conditions, better career opportunities, better management-labour relations and so on. Customers/clients benefit through better quality and less expensive products and improved services. General public benefits (through governments) by improved public services without increased taxes. 4. Can productivity be improved significantly? There is overwhelming evidence worldwide, both in developed and developing countries that conscious productivity improvements can bring dramatic one-time productivity improvement as well as very substantial, say five (5) percent on greater productivity increases annually. It has also been proven that organisations which have productivity improvement programmes have much better results than those that do not have productivity programmes. 1

7 As a result, the Macro-Productivity Indicators Project was initiated, to assist companies in measuring, monitoring and ultimately maintaining high productivity levels. Hence, the results derived from the project can aid in the development of a plan that can move the country forward in terms of improving its level of productivity for the total economy and the five industries under review. The Macro-Productivity Indicators Report is a product of the National Survey of Productivity and is structured as follows. The report begins with an executive summary followed by the introduction which gives some insight into what productivity is and is not and what benefits can be derived from an increase in productivity. The remainder of the report comprises the analysis of the trends in the productivity and absenteeism indicators for the firms surveyed. The final section of the report is the conclusion and summary. Article written by John Pilgrim was taken from the Newsletter of the National Productivity Board (January March 1994) 2

8 Box 1: Communication and Productivity One of the greatest needs in any workplace is that people have the ability to communicate effectively. Effective communication is essential for any business, enterprise or organisation to prosper. Communication can raise the energy levels, enthusiasm and productivity of any organisation! Active communication allows one to reap valuable results: Satisfying relationships with others Well co-ordinated, goal directed work activity New ideas Agreement of shared priorities Avoidance of costly mistakes Increased profits and market place competitiveness when employees take action on important messages. But, what really is communication? Communication is the exchange of ideas between two or more people for the purpose of eliciting some kind of action. It is usually considered the expression of our ideas to someone else. But is that really all? William James known as the founder of modern psychology said that the greatest human need is to be understood and appreciated and that in order to achieve this, effective communicators must understand others before trying to influence them. Successful communication is basically a two-way process. One must present ideas in a way that others comprehend; and then in turn listen to others in order to determine whether the message was indeed received. This mutual understanding is necessary, if true communication is to be achieved. Poor communication can be disastrous for an organisation it can lead to an increase in production time and a decrease in the bottom line. Effective communication increases productivity because it empowers employees. The more information each employee has, the more he/she will feel empowered to execute tasks put before him/her with confidence and a sense of purpose and direction. Employees with accurate understanding of what needs to be done are usually more willing and motivated to do it. Effective communication empowers people to do their job correctly the first time. On the other hand, miscommunication and misunderstandings can lead to the downfall of an organisation. Lack of proper communication can produce a constant state of confusion. Direction motivates employees to achieve the end goal, making them more willing to be more productive. Knowing where you are, where you need to go and what is needed to get you there. This strong purpose and sense of direction both promote a healthy culture in our organisation. Every organisation has its own culture; one where there is effective communication allows employees to feel respected and understood, and thus perform at a relatively high level. Effective communication, direction and a healthy culture can lead to an organisation where the workers are prone to hold each other accountable. Communication provides clear instruction, thus each employee knows what is expected of him. In this case, communication helps coworkers maintain a certain level of accountability with each other, which increases productivity. No accountability means there is no incentive to improve. Effective communication can be daunting for some, but if the employees and employers of an organisation can perfect this skill, the rewards and benefits can be innumerable, which in turn can lead to great expansions in a company s productivity. 3

9 TRENDS IN BARBADIAN PRODUCTIVITY National Productivity Indicators The Macro-Productivity Indicators Project report presents two types of productivity indicators for Barbados. The national or macro productivity indicators are calculated using National Accounting Statistics, while the sector productivity indicators are calculated from the annual National Survey of Productivity. Figure 1: Macro-Productivity Growth (Percent Change) Productivity Computed from: Hours Worked for the Labour Force Survey and Real GDP Sources: Barbados Statistical Service and Central Bank of Barbados National productivity growth is computed using the index for real Gross Domestic Product and hours worked. The changes in the productivity ratio are then calculated and the results are displayed above in Figure 1. This shows that in 2011, national productivity fell by 2.2 percent, down from 3.7 percent in A general trend of productivity growth can be determined from the national productivity indicator; however this indicator cannot detect or assist in the identification of problems at the micro level. These indicators should be supplemented with data from the firms surveyed within the Macro-Productivity Indicators Project in order to influence strategy and policy formulation. Survey-Based Productivity Indicators The 10 th annual National Survey of Productivity was launched by The Productivity Council at the end of April 2012; this initiated the first phase of the Macro-Productivity Indicators Project. This report constitutes the beginning of the second phase of the project and contains the analysis of productivity data for the period in five sectors of the economy accommodation, construction, distribution, financial services and manufacturing. It also details the methodology, measurement challenges, data selection and the results of the aforementioned. The establishments that made up the accommodation sample set were selected from the members of Barbados Hotel and Tourism Association. The construction sector was represented by all the companies registered as such. The distribution establishments selected were chosen from the VAT Office s registrations. The sample for the financial services sector included all the companies engaged in banking and finance activities registered with the Central Bank of Barbados. The firms surveyed in the manufacturing sector were selected from the Barbados Investment and Development Corporation s register of active manufacturing companies. 4

10 The annual National Survey of Productivity collects both labour and output information for the two-year period prior to the year of the exercise. In mid-may, the survey instruments were hand delivered by the enumerators, and the deadline was set at July 27 th, The project team consisted of one (1) supervisor and five (5) enumerators. During the initial months of the project, the respondents of the accommodation and construction sectors were not as co-operative as expected, and the deadline was extended until August 30 th, 2012 to further facilitate the data collection process. The initial sample set for the Macro-Productivity Indicators Project consisted of: Sixty-six (66) accommodation establishments; Twenty-eight (28) construction companies; Two hundred and fifty-one (251) businesses for the distribution sector; Fifty-two (52) companies for the financial services sector; and Two hundred and seventy-eight (278) establishments for the manufacturing sector. The project was promoted in the print (Nation Newspaper and Barbados Advocate) and broadcast media (radio interview). These initiatives encouraged the business community to participate in the data collection exercise. The response rate was exceptional this year, as a great deal of first time companies responded to the survey. However, there were a number of reasons that other companies did not respond, below is a break-down by industry: 1. The accommodation sector lost twenty-five (25) companies, eighteen (18) refused to complete the survey instrument and seven (7) closed during the period under review. Therefore, the total number of establishments in the sample set for the said industry was forty-one (41). 2. For the construction industry, five (5) companies refused to complete the survey and four (4) closed or were in the process of closing. One (1) company actually changed its operations and is no longer considered a construction company. Therefore, the sample set for the sector was eighteen (18). 3. From the original sample set of the distribution sector, there were forty-three (43) establishments that had no interest in participating in the project and twenty-one (21) closed their doors to business. Thus, the total sample set for this industry was one hundred and eighty-seven (187). 4. The financial services sector had an initial sample set of fifty-two (52) companies, which decreased to fortyfour (44), when eight (8) establishments refused to participate. 5. The manufacturing industry had thirty-nine (39) companies close during the period under review and fortysix (46) companies refused to participate in this year s National Survey of Productivity. Also, three (3) companies changed their sector of operation from manufacturing. This left the sample set at one hundred and ninety (190) establishments. Table 1 provides a summary of the sample sets and the number of respondents to the National Survey of Productivity by sub-sector. 5

11 Table 1: Number of Establishments Participating in the National Survey of Productivity Total Number of Establishments Number of Respondents Industry Surveyed Accommodation Guest Houses 3 5 Apartments 3 Apartment Hotels 3 4 Hotels Construction Financial Services Commercial Banks 4 4 Credit Unions Finance and Trust 6 8 Insurance 6 8 Offshore Banks 5 2 Manufacturing Food, Beverage & Tobacco Food 7 8 Beverages 2 4 Bakeries 5 10 Confectionery & Snacks - 2 Fish Processors - 2 Non-Metallic Mineral Products 8 11 Paint & Finishes 6 2 Cement & Concrete 2 9 Furniture 3 8 Clothing & Textiles 5 14 Clothing - 4 Drapery & Soft Furnishings 3 5 Textiles 2 3 Framing 3 2 Rubber & Plastic Products 2 2 Chemicals 4 4 Printing & Publishing 7 20 Printing 7 16 Signage - 4 Building Materials - 3 Recycling - 3 Mining & Quarrying 2 2 Other 8 11 Wholesale & Retail Trade Car Dealerships 5 3 Service Stations - 2 Wholesale & Commission Trade 9 12 Retail Air Conditioning - 4 Apparel - 6 Auto Supplies 6 11 Books & Stationery Supplies 2 3 Chemicals - 2 Fabric Sales 2 3 Food Production - 2 Health Care Supplies 4 3 Home Furnishings n/a 2 House & Hardware Supplies n/a 4 Jewellery n/a 5 Lumber 3 4 Meat Processors n/a 3 Supermarkets 2 6 Other

12 Millions The issues and problems faced by the enumerators were mainly that representatives of companies were reluctant to disclose the companies information, as a number of establishments have not necessarily been performing as they should, during the current global recession. There was still the issue of some persons deliberately avoiding the enumerators and also the lack of co-operation among the departments of a number of firms. The survey instrument was often passed back and forth between the Human Resource and Finance Units, or to and from head office with little or none of its completed and returned. However, this year a large number of companies must be commended for their efforts to collect data in a format to facilitate the completion of the questionnaire. One issue that still plagues the process is false reports and, to a lesser extent, recording errors. Consequently, the data was subjected to multiple rounds of investigation. Questionnaires were manually checked by the enumerators and the project co-ordinator from The Productivity Council to identify possible errors in reporting. Secondly, a statistical approach was introduced to identify and eliminate any remaining outliers from the estimation sample. Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for the sample set of firms for the 2012 National Survey of Productivity. An analysis of the respondent firms suggests that the establishments participating in the survey had average sales of $8.1 million. The sales for the firms ranged from $1,500 to $243.5 million hence proving that there actually is a wide variation in the firms. After analysing employment and sales, both the average sales statistics and employment figures showed that the firms in the sample can be classified as small, medium and large businesses. The analysis also showed that the average number of full time employees per firm was fifty (50), reaching as high as five hundred and thirty-one (531) persons per company. Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for Firms Responding to Survey Category Mean Median Min Max Sales (million) $8.1 $1.4 $ $243.5 Employment Full-Time Males Females Part-Time Males Females Source: 2012 National Survey of Productivity Figure 2: Descriptive Statistics for Firms Responding to Survey (Sales) Mean Min Median Max Sales Source: 2012 National Survey of Productivity 7

13 Persons Persons Figure 3: Descriptive Statistics for Firms Responding to Survey (Full-Time Employment) 100% 50% % 0 Mean Min Median Max Total Males Females Source: 2012 National Survey of Productivity Figure 4: Descriptive Statistics for Firms Responding to Survey (Part-Time Employment) 100% 80% % % 20% % 0 Mean Min Median Max Total Males Females Source: 2012 National Survey of Productivity 8

14 Box 2: Motivation: - One of the Keys to Unlocking Employee Productivity (Extracted from Effective Motivation: Key to Business Success by Mrs Nadia E.M. Skeete) It can be said that all people are motivated! However, they just may not be motivated to do what you want them to do. That, of course, is where the difficulty arises. But, what exactly is motivation? Motivation can be defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviours. It is what causes us to act. Motivation also involves the biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that activate behaviour. In everyday use, motivation simply describes why a person actually does something. There are three major components of motivation: activation, persistence and intensity. Activation is the decision to initiate a particular behaviour, persistence is the continued effort towards a goal even though obstacles may exist; and intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigour that goes into pursuing a goal. Motivation can be considered important to both the individual and the business because: It can help the employee achieve both personal and professional goals If an individual is motivated, he/she will have some level of job satisfaction It helps with regards to the person s self-development The more motivated the employees are, the more empowered the team is The greater the contribution made by either the individual and team, then the business would be more profitable and successful Motivation could lead to an optimistic and challenging attitude Employees are essentially the building blocks of an organisation. Organisational success depends on the collective efforts of the employees and if employees are motivated then they will collectively contribute to organisational growth. Below are a few tips that can be used by a manager to motivate employees: Evaluate yourself Know your staff members Provide employees with certain benefits Provide feedback to staff constantly Acknowledge the achievements of your staff Have stress management training sessions Give employees learning opportunities Set a good example Listen effectively Ensure effective communication Develop and encourage creativity Don t be rigid and inflexible Adopt job enrichment Respect your team The aforementioned tips can be quite useful for both superiors and subordinates. However, both parties must always remember that: Certain factors need to be present for motivation to occur Although persons are motivated by rewards, different people find different things rewarding in different situations Sometimes doing the work itself is rewarding (intrinsic), sometimes other rewards are desired (extrinsic) Allow employee participation when people have the expertise Link rewards to performance, and Understand the importance to many people of non-monetary rewards such as autonomy, good relations and recognition. 9

15 Calculating Productivity The aggregate productivity indices for a particular industry are obtained in two (2) steps. In the first step, the elementary productivity indicators for each firm are calculated using the following formula: output productivity of firm i hours worked In the second step, the elementary productivity indicator is aggregated using output weights. As a result, the overall formula for productivity can be written as: aggregate productivity weight productivity of firm1 1 weight productivity of firm 2 2 weight productivity of firm n Hours worked is estimated based on the number of hours of a normal work week, employment (full-time and part-time) and the amount of overtime. The output index on the other hand is derived from the sales of the firm. Three (3) other productivity related statistics are calculated: (1) output per employee; (2) unit labour cost; and (3) absenteeism rate. The output employment ratio is calculated similar to the productivity index derived above, however, the hours worked included in the denominator is replaced by the number of employed individuals. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM) project developed an indicator of labour trends, known as the unit labour cost (ULC) ratio, based on total labour compensation per unit of gross value added produced. The ratio rises when the compensation or benefits to labour rise faster than labour productivity and falls when productivity growth exceeds labour compensation. The statistic is calculated using the formula below: ULC w total labour cos ti / total hours worked i output / total hours worked i i i i where the weight used in the production of the labour productivity statistic is also employed for the unit labour cost estimate. The final productivity related statistic, the absenteeism rate, is calculated using the ratio of unscheduled hours away from work to the total number of hours that should have been worked. n 10

16 Comparative Results by Industry Table 3: Labour Productivity Growth in Selected Industries in (% Change) Labour Productivity Growth (Percent Change) Accommodation All Establishments (2.2) 7.2 (9.7) Guest Houses (1.0) (9.5) Apartments (2.7) (8.4) Apartment Hotels 1.0 (2.9) (4.1) (10.4) 7.5 Hotels (2.2) Construction All Establishments n/a (28.7) (3.0) Financial Services All Establishments 0.5 (9.4) Commercial Banks (6.4) Credit Unions 9.3 (5.1) Finance and Trust 7.6 (21.3) Insurance n/a 14.2 (3.5) Offshore Banks n/a n/a (19.4) Manufacturing All Establishments (0.9) (5.0) 0.4 Food, Beverage & Tobacco n/a (0.5) (2.7) Food (1.7) (2.1) Beverages 13.3 (6.1) (1.8) (1.3) (8.6) Bakeries (1.5) (7.4) Confectionery & Snacks n/a (16.2) 19.8 n/a 2.8 Fish Processors n/a n/a n/a n/a 24.8 Non-Metallic Mineral Products n/a 11.7 (6.2) (2.4) (3.9) Paint & Finishes 13.3 (6.8) (15.8) Cement & Concrete (10.0) 17.0 (9.2) (5.0) (6.1) Furniture (12.2) (0.6) (2.5) Clothing & Textiles n/a (1.3) Clothing n/a n/a n/a n/a 9.8 Drapery & Soft Furnishings (3.4) 4.4 (11.2) Textiles n/a (38.8) Framing n/a n/a (6.1) (12.7) 18.9 Rubber & Plastic Products n/a (2.7) 1.2 Chemicals n/a n/a (8.8) Printing & Publishing (14.0) (4.2) (0.2) Printing n/a n/a n/a n/a (0.2) Signage n/a n/a n/a n/a (0.1) Mining & Quarrying n/a n/a n/a 20.4 (29.3) Building Materials n/a n/a n/a n/a (19.5) Recycling n/a n/a n/a n/a 1.9 Other (0.6) 5.0 Wholesale & Retail Trade All Establishments (1.1) (6.4) 9.3 Car Dealerships (17.0) Service Stations n/a n/a 6.7 n/a (5.0) Wholesale & Commission Trade 10.4 (5.9) (6.3) (9.5) 4.7 Retail n/a n/a Air Conditioning Services n/a 13.1 (11.7) n/a (11.4) Apparel n/a n/a n/a n/a (0.5) Auto Supplies (6.8) 8.7 Books & Stationery (1.1) 1.5 Chemicals n/a n/a n/a n/a (18.2) Fabric Sales n/a n/a (26.4) (30.4) (11.5) Food Production n/a n/a n/a n/a 1.4 Health Care Supplies (1.8) Home Furnishings n/a n/a n/a n/a (14.6) House & Hardware Supplies (7.9) n/a 18.0 Jewellery n/a n/a n/a n/a 37.3 Lumber n/a n/a (10.5) Meat Processors n/a n/a n/a n/a 20.9 Supermarkets n/a Other 9.9 (2.7) (4.0) Source: National Surveys of Productivity 11

17 Accommodation Construction Financial Services Manufacturing Wholesale & Retail Figure 5: Labour Productivity in Five Industries Surveyed 2012 (% Change) Productivity Output per Employee Unit Labour Cost Source: 2012 National Survey of Productivity Productivity Indicators Labour Productivity Growth Productivity growth was calculated for all the sub-sectors within the five (5) industries. Table 3 shows the estimated rates of change in labour productivity for the establishment classifications within the five (5) industries surveyed. On average, the financial services sector had the best overall rate of productivity growth (37.0 percent), while construction for the second straight year had the worst with a contraction of 3.0 percent. Within the sub-sectors, the highest estimated positive labour productivity growth was registered in the retail jewellery (37.3 percent), food, beverage and tobacco fish processors (24.8 percent); clothing and textiles framing (18.9 percent) and retail house and hardware supplies (18.0 percent). Conversely, the lowest registered negative productivity growth rates in the sub-sectors were in the clothing and textiles textiles (38.8 percent), mining and quarrying (29.3 percent), building materials (19.5 percent) and nonmetallic mineral products paints and finishes (15.8 percent). Accommodation Establishments From the 2012 National Survey of Productivity, productivity growth in this sector of the economy rose slightly by approximately 1.6 percent. One sub-sector apartments registered a contraction of 8.4 percent; while the highest expansion was recorded in the guest houses sub-sector (16.3 percent). The hotel sub-grouping produced a small increase in labour productivity of 0.3 percent and to round out the sector, apartment hotels expanded by 7.5 percent. (See Table 3) Construction Companies In 2011, labour productivity within the construction industry contracted by 3.0 percent; however this was less than the decrease recorded in 2010 of 28.7 percent. (See Table 3) 12

18 Financial Services Institutions Labour productivity in the financial services institutions increased by 37.0 percent in 2011, following a slight expansion in 2010 of 1.0 percent. This sector registered the largest rise in labour productivity for the five (5) sectors under review. All sub-sectors recorded positive growth from 2.7 percent in offshore banks to 12.5 percent in the insurance sub-sector. (See Table 3) Manufacturing Establishments Labour productivity among the manufacturing firms surveyed rose ever so slightly by 0.4 percent in 2011, after a contraction of approximately 5.0 percent in Significant reductions were registered for clothing and textiles textiles (38.8 percent), mining and quarrying (29.3 percent), building materials (19.5 percent) and non-metallic mineral products paints and finishes (15.8 percent). Conversely, large expansions were recorded for food, beverage and tobacco fish processors (24.8 percent), clothing and textiles framing (18.9 percent) and clothing and textile clothing (9.8 percent). (See Table 3) Wholesale & Retail Trade Establishments High productivity growth rates were recorded for five (5) of the wholesale and retail trade sub-sectors, namely retail jewellery (37.3 percent), retail meat processors (20.9 percent) house and hardware supplies (18.0 percent) and retail (12.5 percent). Contractions were registered for eight (8) sub-sectors within the industry: chemicals (18.2 percent), home furnishings (14.6 percent), fabric sales (11.5 percent), air conditioning (11.4 percent), service stations (5.0), other (4.0 percent), health care supplies (1.8 percent) and apparel (0.5 percent). (See Table 3) Output per Employee Growth The most significant increase recorded in the five (5) sectors under review was in the financial services sector (15.3 percent) followed by the wholesale and retail trade (12.1 percent). However, larger expansions were estimated for retail meat processors (72.7 percent), clothing and textiles drapery and soft furnishings (62.1 percent), retail apparel (46.2 percent) and insurance (44.8 percent). (See Table 4) Accommodation Output per employee for this industry was an estimated 3.7 percent, as a result of expansions in the guest houses (15.7 percent), apartment hotels (10.2 percent) and hotels (1.7 percent) sub-groupings. The final sub-sector apartments registered the only decrease for the industry (5.0 percent). (See Table 4) Construction There was a 6.4 percent change in the output per employee indicator for the construction companies participating in 2012 National Survey of Productivity. (See Table 4) Financial Services The output per employee ratio for this sector estimated to have expanded by approximately 15.3 percent. This increase was due mainly to the insurance sub-sector (44.8 percent) and the credit union and finance and trust sub-groupings (7.6 percent) for both. One contraction was registered for the output per employee indicator in the offshore banking sector (10.5 percent). (See Table 4) Manufacturing The manufacturing industry was the sole industry registering a decline in output per employee (0.4 percent). This sector registered major contractions of 34.8 percent clothing and textiles (textiles), 21.5 percent printing and publishing and 10.3 percent recycling. This significantly outweighed large expansions of 62.1 percent clothing and textiles (drapery and soft furnishings), 22.3 percent food, beverage and tobacco (fish processors), 18.2 percent clothing and textiles (framing), 13.4 percent food, beverages and tobacco (confectionery and snacks), and 10.6 percent clothing and textiles clothing. (See Table 4) 13

19 Wholesale & Retail There was an expansion of 12.1 percent in the output per employee indicator for the wholesale and retail industry. This increase was fuelled by rises in a number of sub-sectors of the industry: retail meat processors (72.7 percent) and retail apparel (46.2 percent), despite significant contractions in the same industry. These decreases were recorded in the retail food production (51.9 percent), retail air conditioning (22.7 percent) and retail chemicals (17.7 percent). (See Table 4) Table 4: Output per Employee Growth in 2010 and Accommodation All Establishments (17.9) 3.7 Guest Houses 15.7 (5.6) Apartments (5.0) Apartment Hotels (11.1) 10.2 Hotels Construction All Establishments Financial Services All Establishments (9.7) 15.3 Commercial Banks (6.6) 4.1 Credit Unions Finance and Trust (20.6) 7.6 Insurance Offshore Banks (13.4) (10.5) Manufacturing All Establishments 0.6 (0.4) Food, Beverage & Tobacco (3.9) (3.8) Food (1.4) (6.5) Beverages (1.5) (7.7) Bakery (17.3) (8.3) Confectionery & Snacks n/a 13.4 Fish Processors n/a 22.3 Non-Metallic Mineral Products (1.8) (3.1) Paint & Finishes 5.3 (4.2) Cement & Concrete (4.1) 4.7 Furniture (14.1) (2.6) Clothing & Textiles Clothing n/a 10.6 Drapery & Soft Furnishings Textiles 9.1 (34.8) Framing Rubber & Plastic Products (1.4) 1.5 Chemicals Printing & Publishing (6.5) (21.5) Printing n/a 0.9 Signage n/a (2.3) Building Materials n/a 6.0 Recycling n/a (10.3) Mining & Quarrying Other (6.1) 5.2 Wholesale & Retail Trade All Establishments (6.5) 12.1 Car Dealerships (13.4) 0.9 Service Stations n/a (0.3) Wholesale & Commission Trade (8.9)

20 Unit Labour Cost Indicator Retail (4.2) 12.5 Air Conditioning n/a (22.7) Apparel n/a 46.2 Auto Supplies Books & Stationery Supplies 2.8 (4.5) Chemicals n/a (17.7) Fabric Sales (9.6) (3.4) Food Production n/a (51.9) Health Care Supplies Home Furnishings n/a (2.3) House & Hardware Supplies n/a (0.2) Jewellery n/a (10.4) Lumber Meat Processors n/a 72.7 Supermarkets Other (12.0) 11.0 Source: National Surveys of Productivity For the unit labour cost indicator the highest percentages of expenditure spent on labour was on average 78.6 percent in the manufacturing sector; while the lowest was in the construction sector, 27.6 percent. While the highest percentage for all the sub-sectors was in the other manufacturing (93.9 percent) then non-metallic mineral products (80.9 percent), followed by clothing and textiles textiles (75.3 percent) and then retail food production (75.2 percent). Conversely, the lowest percentages were recorded in the retail jewellery (18.0 percent), apartments (18.6 percent), recycling (19.2 percent) and commercial banks (19.7 percent). (See Table 5) Accommodation The unit labour cost of the firms surveyed within the accommodation industry registered that on average 32.8 percent of expenditure is spent on its employees. Guest houses spent the largest percentage of the industry on labour (39.4 percent), while apartments spent the least amount of 18.6 percent. (See Table 5) Construction With respect to the unit labour cost indicator, the construction industry registered 27.6 percent. This rate was the lowest for all industries reviewed. (See Table 5) Financial Services Unit labour cost for the financial services sector was recorded at 28.2 percent for 2011; insurance companies registered the highest percentage of 36.3 percent, while the lowest was in the commercial banks of 19.7 percent. (See Table 5) Manufacturing The highest unit labour cost rate for all five industries under review was estimated at percent in the manufacturing industry 78.6 percent. Within the industry, the highest unit labour cost rate was in the other manufacturing sub-grouping (93.9 percent), while the lowest was 19.2 percent in the recycling. (See Table 5) Wholesale & Retail The wholesale and retail trade recorded a unit labour cost of 35.8 percent. Retail food production registered a significant rate of 75.2 percent, closely followed by retail chemicals (64.9 percent) and retail other (59.3 percent). The lowest rates for this industry were in the retail jewellery (18.0 percent), retail house and hardware supplies (18.8 percent) and retail books and stationery supplies (21.0 percent). (See Table 5) 15

21 Table 5: Unit Labour Cost in 2010 and Accommodation All Establishments Guest Houses Apartments 18.6 Apartment Hotels Hotels Construction All Establishments Financial Services All Establishments Commercial Banks Credit Unions Finance and Trust Insurance Offshore Banks Manufacturing All Establishments Food, Beverage & Tobacco Food Beverages Bakery Confectionery & Snacks n/a 66.7 Fish Processors n/a 56.3 Non-Metallic Mineral Products Paint & Finishes Cement & Concrete Furniture Clothing & Textiles Clothing n/a 24.6 Drapery & Soft Furnishings Textiles Framing Rubber & Plastic Products Chemicals Printing & Publishing Printing n/a 55.1 Signage n/a 34.0 Building Materials n/a 35.4 Recycling n/a 19.2 Mining & Quarrying Other Wholesale & Retail Trade All Establishments Car Dealerships Service Stations n/a 11.9 Wholesale & Commission Trade Retail Air Conditioning n/a 50.9 Apparel n/a 31.2 Auto Supplies Books & Stationery Supplies Chemicals n/a 64.9 Fabric Sales Food Production n/a

22 Health Care Supplies Home Furnishings n/a 37.9 House & Hardware Supplies n/a 18.8 Jewellery n/a 18.0 Lumber Meat Processors n/a 24.1 Supermarkets Other Source: National Surveys of Productivity Table 6: Labour Productivity Growth in Selected Industries in 2011 Productivity (% Change) Output per Employee (% Change) Unit Labour Costs Accommodation All Establishments Guest Houses Apartments (8.4) (5.0) 18.6 Apartment Hotels Hotels Construction All Establishments (3.0) Financial Services All Establishments Commercial Banks Credit Unions Finance and Trust Insurance Offshore Banks 2.7 (10.5) 28.3 Manufacturing All Establishments 0.4 (0.4) 78.6 Food, Beverage & Tobacco (2.7) (3.8) 46.4 Food (2.1) (6.5) 47.1 Beverages (8.6) (7.7) 40.8 Bakeries (7.4) (8.3) 42.0 Confectionery & Snacks Fish Processors Non-Metallic Mineral Products (6.1) (3.1) 80.9 Paint & Finishes (15.8) (4.2) 66.4 Cement & Concrete (3.9) Furniture (2.5) (2.6) 42.3 Clothing & Textiles (1.3) Clothing Drapery & Soft Furnishings Textiles (38.8) (34.8) 75.3 Framing Rubber & Plastic Products Chemicals Printing & Publishing (0.2) (21.5) 50.9 Printing (0.2) Signage (0.1) (2.3) 34.0 Building Materials (19.5) Recycling 1.9 (10.3) 19.2 Mining & Quarrying (29.3) Other Wholesale & Retail Trade All Establishments Car Dealerships Service Stations (5.0) (0.3) 11.9 Wholesale & Commission Trade Retail Air Conditioning (11.4) (22.7) 50.9 Apparel (0.5) Auto Supplies Books & Stationery Supplies 1.5 (4.5) 21.0 Chemicals (18.2) (17.7)

23 Accommodation Construction Financial Services Manufacturing Wholesale & Retail Productivity (% Change) Output per Employee (% Change) Unit Labour Costs Fabric Sales (11.5) (3.4) 43.3 Food Production 1.4 (51.9) 75.2 Health Care Supplies (1.8) (0.2) 53.2 Home Furnishings (14.6) (2.3) 37.9 House & Hardware Supplies Jewellery Lumber Meat Processors Supermarkets Other (4.0) Source: 2012 National Survey of Productivity Table 6 presents a summary of productivity indicators for 2011 labour productivity, output per employee and unit labour cost. The financial services had the highest rate of average labour productivity growth (37.0 percent), while the construction sector recorded the lowest, a contraction of 3.0 percent. The financial services sector was the only industry with all sub-sectors having positive rates of growth. With respect to output per employee, all industries except manufacturing (0.4 percent) registered increases. The lowest expansion was in the accommodation industry (3.7 percent) and conversely the highest in financial services sector (15.3 percent). The construction sector had the lowest percentage of expenditure spent on labour (27.6 percent), while manufacturing (78.6 percent) had the highest, as reflected in the unit labour cost ratio. Figure 4: Labour Productivity in Five Industries Surveyed 2011 (% Change) Productivity Output per Worker Unit Labour Cost Source: 2012 National Survey of Productivity 18

24 Box 3: Is the Boss the Barrier? Leadership plays an integral role in the development of an organisation. It is what is expected from a boss, a manager, a supervisor or even a team leader. There are specific qualities that are considered essential for a strong leader the ability to adapt to change, the ability to make decisions, maintaining good communication and assisting others to reach the completion of tasks and goals. Leadership can be defined as the process of influencing the activities of an individual or group in efforts towards goal achievement in a given situation. There are four main leadership styles: dictatorial, authoritative, consultative and participative. The amount of authority shared between top management and the workforce helps to distinguish between the different types of leadership styles. 1. Dictatorial Style the manager takes all power in the decision making process with respect to what, when, where and how things are done and who will actually do them. This type of leader tends to make impractical work demands, use excessive disciplinary action and doesn t allow or appreciate persons questioning his decisions or authority. 2. Authoritative (Autocratic) Style provide clear expectations as to what needs to be done and how. There is usually a lack of creativity, as all decisions are made independently with little or no input from the group. This leader tends to be bossy and extremely controlling; he is always right, highly competitive and action oriented and seldom gives encouragement or recognition for a job well done 3. Consultative Style this is basically task oriented and always focuses on the end result by using the skills of others in developing plans and making decisions. But, ultimately the final decision making power lies with the leader. The final decision is reached by using the inputs from the members who will be affected by the decision. In this style, the leader becomes a mentor, the facilitator of the team, usually, but (not always) accepts ideas and thoughts from the team even when it contradicts his own. He also pays more attention to stimulating creativity and innovation. 4. Participative Style all members of the team are involved in the identification of the goals and the development of procedures and strategies to reach these goals. The leader functions as a facilitator and not a dictator. The final decision will always be made by the leader, but the participation of every member of the team provides input to the ultimate decision. With any of the four leadership styles there are short and long term effects. For example, the authoritative style may lead to great results in a short amount of time. Overuse of authority will lead to a reduction in productivity in the long-run. People become disgruntled and leave or are forced to complete boring, repetitive tasks with no creativity or innovation. Whereas, a participative style may be unproductive in the short term; but the longer this style of leading is used, the more productive a company can become. Leadership undeniably affects an organisation s performance. Job satisfaction, productivity and organisational commitment are all affected by the different leadership behaviours. For organisations to achieve a higher level of productivity there are a number of steps and activities that can be undertaken: Employee ownership and accountability with projects Defining projects, initiatives and goals Managing employees satisfaction Communication Recognition and incentives Innovation Leaders have a great impact on the productivity of all those they lead. Leadership effectiveness is directly connected to employee productivity, from innovation to output. Simply, a poor leader can make even the best employee, an average worker. Conversely, an awesome leader can make an average employee, an extraordinary one. Essentially, it is true that a leader s mood, emotion, expertise, drive and ambition can all be passed on to the team members. There are a number of different ways a person can become an extraordinary leader a great leader uses a variety of skills to inspire and motivate their employees to higher levels of productivity and success which in turn contributes to the success of the organisation. 19

25 Absenteeism The absenteeism rate is one of the major indicators determined under the Macro-Productivity Indicators Project. This rate is the number of hours actually worked as a ratio of the total number of hours that should have been worked. Table 7: Absenteeism Rate * (R) Accommodation All Establishments Guest Houses Apartments Apartment Hotels Hotels Construction All Establishments n/a Financial Services All Establishments Commercial Banks Credit Unions Finance and Trust Insurance n/a Offshore Banks n/a n/a n/a n/a 15.6 Manufacturing All Establishments Food, Beverage & Tobacco n/a n/a n/a Food Beverages Bakeries Confectionery & Snacks n/a n/a 15.3 Fish Processors n/a n/a n/a n/a 3.8 Non-Metallic Mineral Products n/a n/a n/a Paint & Finishes Cement & Concrete Furniture Clothing & Textiles n/a n/a n/a Clothing n/a n/a n/a n/a 13.5 Drapery & Soft Furnishings Textiles n/a Framing n/a n/a Rubber & Plastic Products Chemicals n/a n/a n/a Printing & Publishing Printing n/a n/a n/a n/a 16.5 Signage n/a n/a n/a n/a 12.0 Mining & Quarrying n/a n/a n/a Building Materials n/a n/a n/a n/a 14.8 Recycling n/a n/a n/a n/a 12.9 Other Wholesale & Retail Trade All Establishments Car Dealerships Service Stations n/a n/a 2.6 n/a 9.6 Wholesale & Commission Trade Retail n/a n/a n/a Air Conditioning Services n/a n/a 12.1 Apparel n/a n/a n/a n/a 14.3 Auto Supplies Books & Stationery Chemicals n/a n/a n/a n/a 14.8 Fabric Sales n/a n/a Food Production n/a n/a n/a n/a 13.5 Health Care Supplies House & Hardware Supplies n/a

26 * (R) Home Furnishings n/a n/a n/a n/a 16.3 Jewellery n/a n/a n/a n/a 12.5 Lumber n/a n/a Meat Processors n/a n/a n/a n/a 16.9 Supermarkets Other Source: National Surveys of Productivity *All figures have been revised using a new formula for Absenteeism Rate. The lowest absenteeism rate recorded overall for the industries in 2011 was in the construction industry 13.3 percent. With regards to the sub-sectors under review, food, beverage and tobacco fish processors had the lowest overall average absenteeism rate (3.8 percent). This was followed by apartments (8.1 percent), clothing and textiles craft (8.6 percent) and service stations (9.6 percent). The highest absenteeism rate for the industries was in the financial services sector 17.9 percent. However, significant absenteeism rates were registered for clothing and textiles framing (24.5 percent), chemicals (23.5 percent), retail home furnishings and mining and quarrying both (21.3 percent), retail books and stationery (20.7 percent) and non-metallic mineral products cement and concrete (20.1 percent). Figure 6: Absenteeism Rate for Five Industries Surveyed Accommodation Construction Financial Services Manfacturing Wholesale & Retail Source: National Surveys of Productivity 21

27 Box 4: CARICOM Competitiveness Performance Barbados dropped two places to 44 th in the Global Competitiveness Index out of a possible 144 countries. The other CARICOM countries ranked were Trinidad and Tobago -84 th, down from 81, Jamaica 97 th up 10 places, Guyana 109 th (same), Suriname 114 th down 2 and Haiti 142 nd, down 1. The table below shows the comparison between the six countries based on specific performance based categories. Barbados Guyana Haiti Jamaica Suriname Trinidad & Tobago GCI Basic Requirements st pillar: Institutions nd pillar: Infrastructure rd pillar: Macroeconomic stability th pillar: Health and primary education Efficiency Enhancers th pillar: Higher education and training th pillar: Goods market efficiency th pillar: Labour market efficiency th pillar: Financial market sophistication th pillar: Technological readiness th pillar: Market size Innovation and sophistication factors th pillar: Business sophistication th pillar: Innovation According to the Global Competitiveness Report , The continued deterioration of the macroeconomic framework has led Barbados to fall two notches in the rankings, to 44 th place. With one of the lowest national savings rates (136 th ) and one of the highest government debt levels (139 th ), the macroeconomic conditions in the country (134 th ) are strangling the access of businesses to financing through local equity markets (92 nd ), loans (74 th ) or venture capital (94 th ). As a result, the business community continues to face important challenges in engaging in new investment projects. Notwithstanding theses serious weaknesses, which sharply affect economic activity (24 th ) and good infrastructure (22 nd ). Moreover, a very high quality educational system (11 th ), a high use of ICT (36 th ) helps foster innovation in a service-oriented economy despite the low research and development investment (72 nd ) and technological innovation capacity (91 st ). The most problematic factors that affect business development in Barbados as determined by business executives in the 2012 edition of the World Economic Forum s Executive Opinion Survey are: 1. Inefficient government bureaucracy 2. Access to financing 3. Poor work ethic in national labour force 4. Insufficient capacity to innovate 5. Tax rates. The three factors that impact the least according to business executives in Barbados with respect to running a business differ ever so slightly from those of 2011: 1. Poor public health 2. Corruption and; 3. Policy instability. 22

28 CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY A simple way of looking at productivity in a business organization is to think of it in terms of the productivity model illustrated below. Productivity is basically a ratio to measure how well an organisation (or individual or industry or country) converts input resources (labor, materials, machines, et al.) into goods and services. The Productivity Conceptual Model below takes the form of a 'productivity tree'. The roots denote the inputs to the system, the trunk the conversion process and the foliage and fruits the systems outputs. Productivity affects everyone in the economy. It drives economic growth and a highly-productive economy means we are able to: produce more goods and services with the same amount of resources (new wealth), or produce the same level of goods and services with less resources (more wealth) 23

29 Using the productivity model, improvements can be realised by: Achieving more output for the same input Achieving the same output from less input Achieving much more output for slightly more input Getting slightly less output for much less input There are six (6) main ways to improve the productivity ratio of an organisation, these are: Improve basic processes by research and development (long term) Improve and provide new plant, equipment, and machinery (long term) Simplify product and reduce variety (medium term) Improve existing methods and procedures (short term) Improve the planning of work and the use of manpower (short term) Increase the overall effectiveness of employees (short term) For the five (5) sectors under review, four (4) registered improvements with respect to productivity growth. The most notable expansion was seen in the financial services sector (37.0 percent), followed by the wholesale and retail trade (9.3 percent). One (1) industry, construction recorded a contraction of 3.0 percent. Output per employee, another labour productivity indicator also recorded expansions for all but one (1) industry manufacturing (0.4 percent). The largest increase was also in the financial services sector (15.3 percent) closely followed by wholesale and retail trade (12.1 percent). Unit labour costs across the industries ranged from 27.6 percent in construction to 78.6 percent in manufacturing. Within the sub-sectors, low unit labour costs were calculated in retail jewellery (18.0 percent), apartments (18.6 percent), retail house and hardware supplies (18.8 percent) and commercial banks (19.7 percent). Conversely, high unit labour costs were recorded for retail other (93.9 percent), non-metallic mineral products (80.9 percent), retail food production (75.2 percent), clothing and textiles (71.8 percent), non-metallic mineral products paints and finishes (66.4 percent) and food, beverage and tobacco confectionery snacks (66.7 percent). Absenteeism continues to be a challenge within most sectors, especially in the financial services sector (17.9 percent); while the construction sector registered the lowest absenteeism rate overall for the industries (13.3 percent). 24

30 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS Absenteeism is basically the failure of an employee to report to work or to remain at work as scheduled, regardless of reason. Absenteeism Rate is the ratio of unscheduled hours away from work to the total number of hours that should have been worked. Competitiveness is the degree to which regions or nations can produce goods and services which meet the test of international markets, out-performing others, while their citizens earn a standard of living that is both rising and sustainable over the long-run. Economic Development is the sustained increase in the economic standard of living of a country s population, normally accomplished by increasing its stocks of physical and human capital and improving its technology. Economic Growth is the increase over time in the capacity of an economy to produce goods and services and (ideally) to improve the well-being of its citizens. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is one of the several measures of a country s economy. The GDP of a country is defined as the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time. It is also considered the sum of value added at every stage of production of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time. Labour Cost Competitiveness is the measurement of the industry s efficiency and effectiveness in managing its labour cost and creating more value added in terms of output. The indicators used are: Added Value per Labour Cost measures the competitiveness of enterprises in terms of labour cost. Labour Cost per Employee is the average wage rate per employee paid based on skilled labour and technology. Unit Labour Cost - is the proportion of labour cost which is used to produce one unit of output, influenced by labour scarcity, labour mobility and poor labour mix. Labour Productivity is a performance measurement that reflects how efficiently labour input will be able to generate high output. Output is essentially the goods and services produced by enterprises or industries in terms of value of production. Output per Employee is the amount of wealth created by an enterprise relative to its number of employees. It is essentially the amount of output generated by each employee in the enterprise. Productivity is the ratio of output generated to the inputs consumed. Productivity Growth compares the percentage change of productivity at different points of time, it shows whether the productivity has improved or deteriorated over time. Productivity Performance is a reflection of the relative growth and level of factor inputs and output at national, sectoral and industrial levels. Unit Labour Costs is the proportion of labour cost which is used to produce, a unit of output, influenced by labour scarcity, labour mobility and poor labour mix. (Unit labour cost is the total expenditure on labour per unit of output. A comparison between changes in productivity and unit labour costs in different countries enables economists to make predictions about changes in their competitiveness.) 25

31 APPENDICES 26