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1 Ropes and Rigging

2 appendix D NFPA 1006 Standard Chapter 5, Job Performance Requirements 5.5 Ropes/Rigging Tie knots, bends, and hitches, given ropes and webbing, so that the knots are dressed, recognizable, and backed up as required. (pp D-14 D-35) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Knot efficiency, knot utilization, rope construction, and rope terminology. (pp D-6 D-35) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to tie representative knots, bends, or hitches for the following purposes: (1) End-of-line loop (pp D-15 D35) (2) Midline loop (pp D-15 D35) (3) Securing rope around desired objects (pp D-15 D35) (4) Joining rope or webbing ends together (pp D-15 D35) (5) Gripping rope (pp D-15 D-35) Construct a single-point anchor system, given life safety rope and other auxiliary rope rescue equipment, so that the chosen anchor system fits the incident needs, meets or exceeds the expected load, and does not interfere with rescue operations, an efficient anchor point is chosen, the need for redundant anchor points is assessed and used as required, the anchor system is inspected and loaded prior to being placed into service, and the integrity of the system is maintained throughout the operation. (pp D-35 D-36) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Application of knots, rigging principles, anchor selection criteria, system safety check procedures, rope construction, and rope rescue equipment applications and limitations. (pp D-35 D-36) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to select rope and equipment; tie knots; rig systems; evaluate anchor points for required strength, location, and surface contour; and perform a system safety check. (pp D-35 D-36) Place edge protection, given life safety rope or webbing traversing a sharp or abrasive edge, edge protection, and other auxiliary rope rescue equipment, so that the rope or webbing is protected from abrasion or cutting, the rescuer is safe from falling while placing the edge protection, the edge protection is secure, and the rope or webbing is securely placed on the edge protection. (p D-35) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Materials and devices that can be used to protect ropes or webbing from sharp or abrasive edges, fall protection measures, dangers associated with sharp or abrasive edges, and methods for negotiation of sharp or abrasive edges. (p D-35) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to select protective devices for rope and webbing, provide personnel fall protection while working near edges, secure edge protection, and secure ropes or webbing in a specific location. (p D-35) Construct a simple rope mechanical advantage system, given life safety rope, carabiners, pulleys, rope grab devices, and auxiliary rope rescue equipment, so that the system constructed can accommodate the load, is efficient, and is connected to an anchor system and the load. (pp D-36 D-38) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Principles of mechanical advantage, capabilities and limitations of various simple rope mechanical advantage systems, application of knots, rigging principles, and system safety check procedures. (pp D-36 D-38) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to select rope and equipment, tie knots, choose and rig systems, attach the mechanical advantage system to the anchor system and load, and perform a system safety check. (pp D-36 D-38) Direct a team in the operation of a simple rope mechanical advantage system in a low-angle raising operation, given rescue personnel, a minimum load haul distance of 10 feet (3 meters [m]), an established rope rescue system incorporating a simple rope mechanical advantage system, a load to be moved, and an anchor system, so that the movement is controlled, the load can be held in place when needed, operating methods do not stress the system to the point of failure, commands are used to direct the operation, and potential problems are identified, communicated, and managed. (pp D-36 D-38) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Principles of mechanical advantage, capabilities and limitations of various simple rope mechanical advantage systems and low-angle raising operations, correct operation of simple rope mechanical advantage systems, personnel assignments, and operational commands. (pp D-36 D-38) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to direct personnel effectively, use operational commands, analyze system efficiency, identify safety concerns, and perform a system safety check. (pp D-36 D-38) Direct a team in the operation of a simple rope mechanical advantage system in a high-angle raising operation, given rescue personnel, an established rope rescue system incorporating a simple rope mechanical advantage system, a minimum load haul distance of 10 feet (3 m), a load to be moved, and an anchor system, so that the movement is controlled, the load can be held in place when needed, operating methods do not stress the system to the point of failure, commands are used to direct the operation, and potential problems are identified, communicated, and managed. (pp D-48 D-49) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Principles of mechanical advantage, capabilities and limitations of various simple rope mechanical advantage systems and high-angle raising operations, correct operation of simple rope mechanical advantage systems, personnel assignments, and operational commands. (pp D-48 D-49)

3 D-4 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to direct personnel effectively, use operational commands, analyze system efficiency, identify safety concerns, and perform a system safety check. (pp D-48 D-49) Function as a litter tender in a low-angle lowering or hauling operation, given a rope rescue system, a minimum lower or haul distance of 20 feet (6.1 m), life safety harnesses, litters, bridles, and specialized equipment necessary for the environment, so that risks to victims and rescuers are minimized, the means of attachment to the rope rescue system is secure, and the terrain is negotiated while minimizing risks to equipment or persons. (pp D-43 D-48) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Task-specific selection criteria for life safety harnesses, personal protective equipment selection criteria, variations in litter design and intended purpose, low-angle litter attachment principles, techniques and practices for low-angle environments, and common hazards imposed by the terrain. (pp D-43 D-48) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to select and use rescuer harness and personal protective equipment for common environments, attach the life safety harness to the rope rescue system, maneuver across the terrain, manage the litter while suspended from the rope rescue system, and evaluate surroundings for potential hazards. (pp D-43 D-48) Construct a lowering system, given an anchor system, life safety rope(s), descent control device, and auxiliary rope rescue equipment, so that the system can accommodate the load, is efficient, is capable of controlling the descent, is capable of holding the load in place or lowering with minimal effort over the required distance, and is connected to an anchor system and the load. (pp D-40 D-42) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Capabilities and limitations of various descent control devices, capabilities and limitations of various lowering systems, application of knots, rigging principles, and system safety check procedures. (pp D-40 D-42) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to tie knots; perform rigging; attach to descent control device, anchor system, and load; and perform a system safety check. (pp D-40 D-42) Direct a lowering operation in a low-angle environment, given rescue personnel, an established lowering system, a minimum load travel distance of 10 feet (3 m), and a load to be moved, so that the movement is controlled, the load can be held in place when needed, operating methods do not stress the system to the point of failure, rope commands are used to direct the operation, and potential problems are identified, communicated, and managed. (pp D-40 D-42) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Application and use of descent control devices, capabilities and limitations of various lowering systems in a low-angle environment, operation of lowering systems in a low-angle environment, personnel assignments, and operational commands. (pp D-40 D-42) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to direct personnel, use operational commands, analyze system efficiency, manage movement of the load in a low-angle environment, identify safety concerns in a low-angle environment, and perform a system safety check. (pp D-40 D-42) Direct a lowering operation in a high-angle environment, given rescue personnel, an established lowering system, a minimum load travel distance of 10 feet (3 m), and a load to be moved, so that the movement is controlled, the load can be held in place when needed, operating methods do not stress the system to the point of failure, rope commands are used to direct the operation, and potential problems are identified, communicated, and managed. (pp D-48 D-49) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Application and use of descent control devices, capabilities and limitations of various lowering systems in a high-angle environment, operation of lowering systems in a high-angle environment, personnel assignments, and operational commands. (pp D-48 D-49) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to direct personnel, use operational commands, analyze system efficiency, manage movement of the load in a high-angle environment, identify safety concerns in a high-angle environment, and perform a system safety check. (pp D-48 D-49) Construct a belay system, given life safety rope, anchor systems, personal protective equipment, and rope rescue equipment, so that the system is capable of arresting a fall, a fall will not result in system failure, the system is not loaded unless actuated, actuation of the system will not injure or otherwise incapacitate the belayer, the belayer is not rigged into the equipment components of the system, and the system is suitable to the site and is connected to an anchor system and the load. (pp D-38 D-40) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Principles of belay systems, capabilities and limitations of various belay devices, application of knots, rigging principles, and system safety check procedures. (pp D-38 D-40) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to select a system, tie knots, perform rigging, attach to anchor system and load, don and use task-specific personal protective equipment, and perform a system safety check. (pp D-38 D-40) Operate a belay system during a lowering or raising operation in a high-angle environment, given an operating lowering or hauling system, a minimum load travel distance of 10 feet (3 m), a belay system, and a load, so that the belay line is not loaded during operation of the primary rope rescue system, the belay system is prepared for actuation at all times during the operation, the belayer is attentive at all times during the operation, the load s position is continually monitored, and the belayer moves rope through the belay device as designed. (pp D-38 D-40) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Application and use of belay devices, proper operation of belay systems in conjunction with normal lowering and hauling operations, and operational commands. (pp D-38 D-40) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to tend a belay system as designed, tie approved knots, assess system effectiveness, properly attach a belay line to a belay device, don and use task-specific personal protective equipment, perform a system safety check, and manage and communicate belay system status effectively. (pp D-38 D-40)

4 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D Belay a falling load in a high-angle environment, given a belay system and a dropped load, so that the belay line is not taut until the load is falling, the belay device is actuated when the load falls, the fall is arrested, the belayer utilizes the belay system as designed, and the belayer is not injured or otherwise incapacitated during actuation of the belay system. (pp D-40 D-41) (A) Requisite Knowledge. Application and use of belay devices, effective emergency operation of belay devices to arrest falls, use of personal protective equipment, and operating procedures. (pp D-40 D-41) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to operate a belay system as designed, tie approved knots, use task-specific personal protective equipment, recognize and arrest a falling load, and communicate belay system actuation. (pp D-40 D-41) Conduct a system safety check, given a rope rescue system and rescue personnel, so that a physical/visual check of the system is made to ensure proper rigging, a load test is performed prior to life-loading the system, and verbal confirmation of these actions is announced and acknowledged before life-loading the rope rescue system. (pp D-35 D-49) (A) Requisite Knowledge. System safety check procedures, construction and operation of rope rescue systems and their individual components, use of personal protective equipment, equipment inspection criteria, signs of equipment damage, principles of rigging, and equipment replacement criteria. (pp D-35 D-49) (B) Requisite Skills. The ability to apply and use personal protective equipment, inspect rope rescue system components for damage, assess a rope rescue system for configuration, secure equipment components, inspect all rigging, and perform a system safety check. (pp D-35 D-49) Knowledge Objectives After studying this appendix, you will be able to: Describe the two primary types of rope used in emergency services and their distinct function. (pp D-6 D-7) Describe the two primary types of life safety ropes. (pp D-6 D-7) Describe the different materials used to make rope. (p D-7) Provide examples of rescue hardware and rope rescue software. (pp D-6 D-13) Describe the three primary devices used for lowering a load. (pp D-10 D-11) Describe the difference between dynamic rope and static rope. (pp D-7 D-8) Define mechanical advantage. (pp D-11 D-12) Describe and define the three classifications of life safety harnesses. (pp D-12 D-13) List the nine basic knots that rescuers should know how to tie. (p D-14) Define hitches, knots, and bends. (p D-14) Define a safety knot. (p D-14) Describe common loop knots and hitches. (pp D-15 D-35) Describe how an anchor system would be used. (pp D-35 D-36) Describe ways to practice system safety. (pp D-38 D-42) Describe belay and lowering systems. (pp D-38 D-42) Explain and differentiate between a low-angle rescue and a high-angle rescue. (pp D-43 D-49) Skills Objectives After studying this appendix, you will be able to perform the following skills: Tie a safety knot. (pp D-14 D-15, Skill Drill D-1) Tie a bowline. (pp D-15 D-16, Skill Drill D-2) Tie a figure eight knot. (p D-17, Skill Drill D-3) Tie a figure eight on a bight. (pp D-17 D-18, Skill Drill D-4) Tie a figure eight with a follow-through. (p D-19, Skill Drill D-5) Tie a double-loop figure eight. (pp D-20 D-21, Skill Drill D-6) Tie a figure eight bend. (p D-21, Skill Drill D-7) Tie an in-line 8. (pp D-21 D-22, Skill Drill D-8) Tie an in-line 9. (pp D-22 D-23, Skill Drill D-9) Tie a butterfly knot. (pp D-23 D-24, Skill Drill D-10) Tie a Becket bend or sheet bend knot. (pp D-24 D-25, Skill Drill D-11) Tie a double fisherman s knot. (pp D-26 D-27, Skill Drill D-12) Tie a water knot. (p D-27, Skill Drill D-13) Tie a half hitch. (p D-28, Skill Drill D-14) Tie a clove hitch (open object). (pp D-28 D-30, Skill Drill D-15) Tie a clove hitch (closed object). (p D-30, Skill Drill D-16) Throw a Munter mule hitch. (p D-30 D-31, Skill Drill D-17) Tie a Munter mule hitch. (pp D-30 D-32, Skill Drill D-18) Tie a Prusik hitch. (pp D-31 D-32, Skill Drill D-19) Tie a load-release hitch. (p D-33, Skill Drill D-20) Release a load-release hitch. (p D-34, Skill Drill D-21) Construct a single-point anchor system. (pp D-35 D-36, Skill Drill D-22) Construct a simple (single) rope mechanical advantage system. (pp D-36 D-38, Skill Drill D-23) Construct a belay system. (pp D-38 D-40, Skill Drill D-24) Contrast a manual belay against an automatic belay system. (pp D-40 D-41, Skill Drill D-25) Construct a lowering system in a low-angle environment. (pp D-40 D-42, Skill Drill D-26) Construct a below grade assist. (pp D-43 D-48, Skill Drill D-27)

5 D-6 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice Introduction In emergency services, ropes and rope rescue equipment are widely used to hoist or lower tools, appliances, or people; to permit safe retreat; to pull a person to safety; or to serve as a lifeline or safety line in an emergency. Rope and rigging may be your only means of accessing a trapped victim and bringing the victim to safety. For this reason, learning about ropes and rigging is an important part of your training as a rescuer. Rope is defined as a compact but flexible, torsionally balanced, continuous structure of fibers produced from strands that are twisted, plaited, or braided together Figure D-1. It serves primarily to support a load or transmit a force from the point of origin to the point of application. Rigging is the process of building a system to move or stabilize a load. To become proficient in the use of rope rescue systems, you must first become proficient in the knots used in these systems. Rope Rescue Equipment Rope rescue equipment permits the rescue team to build rope rescue systems. It is categorized as either software or hardware. Rope rescue software encompasses life safety rope, accessory rope, webbing, straps constructed of webbing, and harnesses. Rope hardware includes carabiners, pulleys, descent control devices or control friction devices, edge rollers (or other edge protection devices), and other rope accessories made of steel or aluminum such as swivels or steel rings. Rope There are two primary types of rope used in emergency services, each dedicated to a distinct function: Life safety rope is used solely for supporting people Figure D-2. It is dedicated to life safety. It must be used whenever a rope is needed to support a person, whether during training, firefighting, rescue, or other emergency operations. Utility rope is used in most other cases, when it is not necessary to support the weight of a person, such as when hoisting or lowering tools or equipment. It can be used in mechanical advantage construction so long as it is not directly supporting the victim or tenders. Life safety rope is a critical tool used only for life-saving purposes. It must never be used for utility purposes. Life safety rope must be used in every situation where the rope must support the weight of one or more persons. In these situations, rope failure could result in serious injury or death, and utilizing the wrong rope could increase the likelihood of this occurrence. Because a fire fighter s equipment must be extremely reliable, the criteria for design, construction, and performance of life safety rope and related equipment are specified in NFPA 1983, Standard on Life Safety Rope and Equipment for Emergency Services. Life safety ropes are rated for either one person or two persons. A two-person rope must be used in rescue operations where both the rescued individual and the rescuer require support. NFPA 1983 lists very specific standards for the construction of life safety rope. NFPA 1983 also requires the rope manufacturer to include detailed instructions for the proper use, maintenance, and inspection of the life safety rope, including the conditions for removing the rope from service. In addition, the manufacturer must supply a list of criteria that must be reviewed before a life safety rope that has been used in the field can be used again. If the rope does not meet all of the criteria, it must be retired from service. These ropes must meet the minimum standard of being 1 2 inch (13 millimeter [mm]) A. A. B. Figure D-1 Rope is a continuous structure of fibers. A. Twisted rope. B. Braided rope. B. Figure D-2 Life safety rope. A. One-person life safety rope. B. Twoperson life safety rope.

6 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-7 in diameter and must be of static kernmantle construction. The rope conversions used depend on the manufacturer, material used, and the weave of the rope. The ropes must be manufactured with a tape trailer that runs the length of the rope inside the core of the rope (kern). The tape trailer contains repeating information such as the rope s serial number, make, model, manufacturer, and date of manufacture. Each rope should be stored in its own bag, be properly labeled for length as life safety rope, and have an up-to-date rope history or rope record card. The rope record card should come with the rope, be filled out before the rope is placed into service, and be updated to verify use and inspection before being placed back into service after each use. Information on the rope record card includes make, model, name of the manufacturer, date of manufacture, serial number, length, and color. The rope record card has a grid to record the date of each use, a description of the use, and a record of who completed the inspection following the use that permitted the rope to be placed back into service. The two primary types of life safety ropes included in NFPA 1983 are light-use or light-duty life safety rope and generaluse or general-duty life safety rope. A light-use life safety rope is designed to have a breaking strength of at least 4496 footpounds [lbf] (20 kilonewtons [kn]). A general-use life safety rope is designed to have a breaking strength of at least 8992 lbf (40 kn). Rope Materials Ropes can be made from many different types of materials and in many different weaves. Because ropes have many different uses, different materials and weaves may work better than others in various situations. Since nylon was first manufactured in 1938, synthetic fibers have been used to make ropes. In addition to nylon, several newer synthetic materials such as polyester, polypropylene, and polyethylene are used in rope construction. Synthetic fibers have several advantages over natural fibers Table D-1. For instance, they are generally stronger than natural fibers, so it may be possible to use a smaller-diameter rope without sacrificing strength (the minimum diameter required by the NFPA for rescue is 1 2 inch [13 mm]). Synthetic materials can also produce very long fibers that run the full length of a rope, thereby providing greater strength and added safety. Synthetic ropes are more resistant to rotting and mildew than naturalfiber ropes and do not age or degrade as quickly. Depending on the material, they may also provide more resistance to melting and burning than their natural-fiber counterparts. They also absorb much less water when wet and can be washed and dried. Table D-1 Advantages to Using Synthetic Fiber Ropes 77 Thinner without sacrificing strength 77 Less absorbent than natural-fiber ropes 77 Greater resistance to rotting and mildew 77 Longer-lasting than natural-fiber ropes 77 Greater strength and added safety 77 More fire-retardant than natural-fiber ropes Table D-2 Disadvantages to Using Synthetic Fiber Ropes 77 Can be damaged by prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light 77 Can be damaged by exposure to strong acids or alkalis 77 Susceptible to abrasion Some types of synthetic rope can float on water, which is a major advantage in water rescue situations. Some of these fibers are more flexible than others, permitting ease of knot tying. At the same time, ropes made from synthetic fibers have some drawbacks Table D-25. Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light or exposure to strong acids or alkalis can damage a synthetic rope and decrease its life expectancy. In addition, synthetic materials may be highly susceptible to abrasion or cutting. Rescue Tips Some ropes have the benefit of strength but because of poor flexibility they are difficult to tie. Life safety ropes are always made of synthetic fibers. Before any rope can be used for life safety purposes, it must meet the requirements outlined in the most current version of NFPA These standards specify that life safety rope must be made of continuous filament virgin fiber and woven of block creel construction (without knots or splices in the yarns, ply yarns, strands, or braids of the rope). Rope of any other material or construction may not be used as a life safety rope. The synthetic fiber most commonly used in life safety ropes is nylon. It has a high melting temperature, offers good abrasion resistance, and is both strong and lightweight. Nylon ropes are also resistant to most acids and alkalis. Polyester is the second most commonly used synthetic fiber in life safety ropes. Some life safety ropes are made of a combination of nylon and polyester or other synthetic fibers. Polypropylene is the lightest of the synthetic fibers. Because it floats and does not absorb water, polypropylene rope is often used for water rescue situations. However, polypropylene rope is not as suitable as nylon for fire department life safety uses because it is not as strong as nylon rope, is hard to tie, and has a low melting point. Rope Construction Several different types of rope construction are possible. Because abrasion can damage the rope fibers and may reduce rope strength, rescue rope is made of kernmantle construction. Kernmantle rope consists of two distinct parts: the kern and the mantle Figure D-34. The kern is the center or core of the rope; it provides approximately 70 percent of the strength of the rope. The mantle, or sheath, is a braided covering that protects the core of the rope from dirt and abrasion. Only 30 percent of the strength of the rope comes from the mantle. Both parts of a kernmantle rope are made with synthetic fibers, although different fibers may be used for the kern and the mantle. Each fiber in the kern extends for the entire length of the rope without

7 D-8 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice Figure D-3 Kernmantle rope consists of the kern (core) and the mantle (sheath). knots or splices; this block creel construction is required under NFPA 1983 for all life safety ropes. The continuous filaments produce a core that is stronger than one constructed of shorter fibers that are twisted or braided together. Kernmantle construction produces a very strong and flexible rope, permitting the rope to meet the requirements of NFPA 1983 while remaining relatively lightweight. This construction is well suited for rescue work and is very popular for life safety rope. A rope can be either dynamic or static, depending on how it reacts to an applied load. A dynamic rope is designed to be elastic and will stretch when it is loaded. A static rope will not stretch as much as dynamic rope will under load. The differences between dynamic and static ropes result from both the fibers used in the rope and the construction method. Dynamic rope is usually used in safety lines for mountain climbing because it will stretch and cushion the shock if a climber falls for a long distance. In contrast, a static rope is more suitable for most technical rescue situations, where falls from great heights are not anticipated. When tensioned, there is minimal stretch and virtually instant movement action. Teams that specialize in rope rescue may carry both static and dynamic ropes for use in different situations. However, life safety rope should be certified as meeting the requirements within NFPA 1983, Standard on Life Safety Rope and Equipment for Emergency Services. Kernmantle ropes can be either dynamic or static. A dynamic kernmantle rope is constructed with overlapping or woven fibers in the core. When the rope is loaded, the core fibers are pulled tighter, which gives the rope its elasticity. In the core of a static kernmantle rope, all the fibers lie parallel to one other. This type of rope has very little elasticity and demonstrates limited elongation under an applied load. Fire department life safety ropes are of static kernmantle construction. Such ropes are well suited for lowering a person and can be used with a pulley system for lifting individuals. They can also be used to create a bridge between two structures (highline). Rope Strength Life safety ropes are rated to endure a specific amount of force under the minimum requirements of NFPA 1983 Table D-36. The required minimum breaking strength for a life safety rope is based on an assumed loading of 300 pounds [lb]; (136 kilograms [kg]) per person with a safety factor of 15:1. The safety factor allows for reductions in strength as a result of knots, twists, abrasion, or any other cause. It also takes into account the possibility of shock loading if a weight is applied very suddenly. For example, shock loading occurs when a person or equipment tied to the rope falls, with the fall arrested by abrupt tensioning of the rope. A personal escape rope is also expected to support a force of 3034 lbf (13.5 kn), representing one 300-lb (136-kg) person, with a safety factor of 10:1. The actual breaking strength of a rope depends on the material of the rope, the weave, the diameter of the rope, and the type of rope construction. Flat and Tubular Webbing Webbing is used for a number of applications in rescue, from creating anchors to tying victims into stretchers to creating site-made harnesses. Webbing comes in flat and tubular forms, varying from 1 to 3 inches (25 to 76 mm) in width Figure D-44. Flat webbing can be manufactured using multiple techniques (shuttle loom or needle loom). Among the most popular methods of construction is the shuttle loom method where the selected yarns and fibers (a continuous spiral weave of a continuous strand weaved around horizontal strands) are weaved to specifications. It is typically thicker, heavier, and more abrasion resistant than its tubular counterpart. These properties also make it slightly less flexible and slightly more laborious to tie. Tubular webbing has a hollow core and is slightly thinner, lighter, and more flexible than its flat counterpart. Its versatility and tested reputation for strength have made it very popular in the rescue community. It too is constructed of continuous Table D-3 Required Strength of Life Safety Ropes Classification Rated Load (Persons) Rated Load (Weight) Minimum Breaking Safety Factor Strength Personal escape rope One 300 lb (136 kg) 3000 lbf (13.34 kn) 10:1 Light-use life safety rope One 300 lb (136 kg) 4500 lbf (20 kn) 15:1 General-use life safety rope Two 600 lb (272 kg) 9000 lbf (40 kn) 15:1 Source: NFPA 1983, Standard on Life Safety Rope and Equipment for Emergency Services.

8 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-9 Figure D-5 Carabiners attach pieces of equipment together. Figure D-4 Webbing has a variety of rescue applications. spiral weave fibers (a continuous strand weaved around horizontal strands) combined to specifications on either a shuttle or a needle loom. Typically constructed of nylon, 1-inch (25-mm) tubular webbing has a breaking strength of approximately 4000 lb (1814 kg) and is also highly abrasion resistant. Other Software Other rope rescue equipment typically referred to as rope rescue software includes slings, looped straps (etrier), accessory cord, and specialty straps. Slings are normally used to wrap around an object to create an anchor. Looped straps include the etrier, foot loop, and multiloop strap. Looped straps are normally designed to be used by the individual and should never be incorporated into a system. Specialty straps include pick-off straps, adjustable straps, load-release straps, and anchor straps. Rescue Tips NFPA 1983, Standard on Life Safety Rope and Equipment for Emergency Services, set the standard for life safety rope and equipment for emergency services. Hardware Rope rescue hardware is defined as rigid mechanical auxiliary equipment that can include, but is not limited to, carabiners and other linking devices, mechanical ascent and descent control devices, pulleys, and anchor plates (rigging plates). The use of these devices, in combination with rope and other software, constitutes a rope rescue system. Linking Hardware Commonly encountered linking hardware consists of carabiners, triangular screwlinks (deltas), steel rings, and rigging plates. A carabiner is a steel or aluminum loop with a gate that enables pieces of equipment or elements of software to be connected Figure D-55. Carabiners are designed to take the load upon their long axis and are rated only with the gate closed and secured. Rescue-approved carabiners may be constructed from either steel or aluminum. Steel carabiners are generally stronger than their identical aluminum counterparts; however, they also weigh more and impart more friction and heat to the rope. General-purpose aluminum carabiners are acceptable for use in rescue and impart less friction to the rope, generating less friction and less heat. Two types of carabiners are available: locking (screw gate and autolocking) and non-locking. The locking type should be used in rescue applications. The pin lock type has a lock configuration that prevents the gate side from opening in a highforce situation and loses 10 to 20 percent of its strength when left unlocked. The machined lock type has a gate-matching mechanism that holds the gate in line with the latch for alignment of the gate lock. The specifications for carabiners include a minimum breaking strength: Personal-use device: 6000 lbf (26.7 kn) General-use device: 9000 lbf (40 kn) Screw-gate carabiners should always be locked. This is accomplished by screwing the sleeve less than a half turn (this prevents it from being tightened to the point where it cannot be undone). Once placed into service, locked carabiners are typically oriented with the gate-lock hinge facing the anchor. Triangular screwlinks (deltas) are used where multi-direction loading is expected. These devices are less expensive than carabiners and, like carabiners, must always be locked for use. Steel rings are used when a connection point is required for several elements simultaneously. Steel rings are commonly used to connect the litter to the main hauling line. Here, a multipoint bridle, a jigger, and an etrier can all be connected at the same time without directionally stressing the connector. Rigging plates are primarily used for converting a single anchor point into a multiple anchor point (attaching multiple items to one anchor). Care and maintenance of rope rescue hardware include keeping hardware clean and in good condition. The assigned

9 D-10 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice individual should be properly certified to inspect the hardware for dents/burrs, rust, bending, or distention of the metal; proper gate function; and proper lock function. Hardware should be cleaned by wiping it with a cloth and using a small file or emery cloth for metal burr removal. Do not drop or throw hardware (a drop of more than 5 feet (1.5 meters [m]) requires the hardware to either be retired or to be x-rayed for cracks in the structure (which might alter its competency). It is not recommended that hardware be linked to hard-edged metal anchor points (known as hardlinking), as doing so can dent or burr the hardware. Lowering Devices The three primary devices used for lowering a load in rope rescue are the eared-8 or figure eight plate, the brake bar rack, and the brake bar tube Figure D-64. The eared-8 can be constructed of high-strength plate aluminum, for low overall weight, or of steel. The latter construction is more expensive and heavier, but nearly impossible to wear out. The typical breaking strength for an aluminum plate is equivalent to a force of 12,000 lb or a mass of 5443 kg or a metric equivalent force of 53 kn; for a steel plate, the breaking force is 45,000 lb or a mass of kg or a metric equivalent force of 200 kn. Steel imparts more friction to the rope, which permits slower descent speeds; however, this also generates more heat. Aluminum, while possessing a lower breaking strength, is softer than steel, generates less friction, and permits a smoother belay with less heat. The brake bar tube is based on the windlass concept. The rope is wrapped around a metal cylinder, thereby causing friction. This device also has a brake mechanism that comes into play if a sudden increase in rope speed occurs, such as in a fall. Such a device is typically used on belay (safety) lines. The advantage of the brake bar tube is that its design allows users to pass knots in ropes and knots that join ropes together. All lowering devices are designed to impart friction to the rope that is moving through them. The eared-8 is designed primarily for rappelling short distances, where the load is not expected to exceed one person and the distance is not expected to exceed 100 feet (30.5 m). It is considered to be height limited because it imparts spin to the rope (an effect that is most noticeable at distances exceeding 100 to 200 feet [30.5 to 61 m]). This is why many rescuers will use only general-purpose rescuerated racks when belaying or lowering in rescue situations. A potential disadvantage of using an eared-8 for belay in rescue is that when the device is used as a belay for a rescuer and a victim (as in a pick-off rescue), it should be double-reeved. Unfortunately, the weight that is placed on a properly double-reeved eared-8 can cause the rope to bind on the device, not permitting fluid movement without active feeding. Double-reeving is recommended whenever additional friction is required to slow the rate of descent of a load. This can occur when the person who is rappelling requires or desires a slower rate of descent, when a person who is rappelling is heavy, when an eared-8 is used to belay or lower a heavy load, or when an eared-8 is being used to belay two persons. A brake bar rack can be of aluminum or steel construction. Aluminum bars allow for a slower rappel but wear faster than steel. Brake bar racks work by generating friction on the rope as it passes around the bars placed into service on the device. A. B. Figure D-6 Commonly used lowering hardware. A. The figure eight plate. B. The brake bar rack. The number of bars used and the space between the bars will determine the rate of descent. The types available include fiveor six-bar styles with a straight or twisted frame. The top bar is 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter and has a training groove that guides the rope. The second bar is 3 4 inch (19 mm) in diameter,

10 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-11 with a straight slot that allows the bar to fall out if improperly rigged. The third through sixth bars are 3 4 inch (19 mm) in diameter, with an angled slot that snaps in place. As mentioned earlier, the brake bar rack works by generating friction. The amount of friction generated can be varied over a wide range, which allows the operator to reduce the friction for long rappels or lighter loads with virtually no twisting. The rate of descent can be controlled by the spread of the bars as well as by the amount of rope running through the brake hand of the operator. Exercise caution when reeving (threading) the rope through the angled bars. Even when improperly reeved, they may temporarily hold when tensioned, popping loose after the person on the line is committed over the edge. The training groove on the first bar (or the first and third bars) helps keep the rope in the center of the rack. Keep these devices clean and inspect them regularly for dents, burrs, cracks, sharp edges caused by rope wear, distortion of holes, wear of bars, integrity of the weld eye, tightness of the frame nut, and distortion of the frame. Clean the equipment by wiping it with a cloth. A small file or emery cloth can be used to remove sharp edges or metal burrs. Dirty ropes are subject to accelerated wear, so try to use clean ropes. When a plate is worn by more than one-third the diameter of the original material, it should be discarded. Several newer linking hardware devices have also become available. One such device, discussed earlier, is the brake bar tube. Another device is a pass-through friction device that is controlled by a dead-man handle (PetzelID TM and Petzel Deadman TM ). Should the operator accidentally let go, the device will brake itself and stop. Such a device can be used for rappel or belay purposes or as a lowering device. Change-of-Direction and Mechanical Advantage Hardware Simple machines have the potential to make work easier and faster. With respect to the rescue ground, how much easier and faster a machine makes the work is a function of its ease to set up, its ease of operation, and the mechanical advantage it provides. In the simplest terms, mechanical advantage is the number of times a machine multiplies the forces provided by the efforts of the personnel. Not every rescue requires a mechanical advantage. If the load is light or the haul is short and the personnel are adequate for the efficient sharing of a load, a direct effort will create a faster rescue with fewer complications. However, when personnel are in short supply or are inadequately prepared and/or the haul is long, risky, or heavy, a mechanical advantage becomes an indispensable component of the rescue effort. Mathematically, work is defined as the amount of force exerted over a given distance (Work = Force Distance). The relationship can be described by the equation F = W/D. The equation predicts that when lifting or moving a load over a fixed distance, as the rope is lengthened through the use of moving pulleys, the force needed to complete the haul decreases. That is, as the rope gets longer over the same distance (using pulleys to configure the rope over the same distance), the force needed to move the object becomes less. Pulleys are rope rescue hardware constructed of two plates with a metal sheave (wheel) mounted on an axle that is free spin- ning secondary to bearings or metal bushings in the middle. Their bodies can be constructed of aluminum or steel; the axle is composed of steel. The distance the plates are separated will determine if the pulley is Prusik minding or not. Prusiks are loops traditionally fashioned from 0.31-inch (8-mm) diameter cord that is 55 inches (1397 mm) and 66 inches (1676 mm) before tying with double fisherman s knots. These loops have a variety of uses, such as enabling rescuers to ascend a rope (when used in this way they are often referred to as Purcells), attaching equipment or devices such as a pulley or a load-release hitch to a line, or providing an adjustable lever point on the stokes. However, they are primarily used for creating automatic progress capture belays (automatic belay devices). Prusik-minding pulleys have face plates that are manufactured to prevent the knot of the Prusik (double fisherman s knot) from entering the pulley and jamming the system. The holes designed to accommodate attachments are called Beckets. Pulleys are used for the following applications during rope rescue Figure D-7 : Change direction (directional pulley) Provide a mechanical advantage Reduce friction over an edge Provide rope tension A rescue pulley should have a minimum pulley diameter of four times the rope s diameter. For example, a 1 2-inch (13-mm) rope requires a 2-inch (51-mm) pulley; a 5 8-inch (16-mm) rope requires a 3-inch (76-mm) pulley. The 2-, 3-, and 4-inch (51-, 76-, 102-mm) sizes are available as standard pulley models. A 4-inch (102-mm) pulley is much more efficient than a 2-inch (51-mm) pulley because the rope bends less and experiences less friction. Figure D-7 Rescue pulleys have a variety of applications in rescue scenarios.

11 D-12 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice The minimum breaking strength for pulleys is summarized here: Personal-use device: 1200 lbf (5.3 kn) minimum load test without permanent damage to device or rope; 5000 lbf (22.2 kn) minimum load test without failure General-use device: 5000 lbf (22.2 kn) minimum load test without permanent damage to device or rope; 8000 lbf (35.6 kn) minimum load test without failure Do not drop or throw pulleys. Keep them clean. When inspecting pulleys, ensure that there is proper movement of the face plates and sheave. Any egg-shaped Beckets indicate the pulley has been overstressed. Check the tightness of nuts or bolts holding the pulley together. Wipe the equipment clean with a cloth. Remember to use the proper-diameter rope for the size of the pulley. This is relatively standard within the industry and dependent upon the groove in the sheave. Most rescue pulleys are configured to accept rope that is 1 2 inch (13 mm) in diameter. Whenever mechanical advantages are used, they will be attached to the primary hauling line. Since safety is always the primary concern for the victim and the rescuers, two safety procedures are highly recommended: (1) The two-line system should be employed with a main line (set up to potentially raise or lower the load with a lowering system or mechanical advantage) and a dedicated belay line, and (2) systems should be designed to incorporate automatic progress capture belays (tandem Prusik belay or similar rope device [autoblock or Klemheist] or Gibbs ascender) placed strategically to arrest a fall. This may lead to some redundancy with more than one automatic progress capture belay placed into the system (on the mechanical advantage system and on change-of-direction points). The advantage is having multiple automatic safety systems incorporated into the design; the disadvantage is those systems will have to be minded or kept from locking in the event the load requires lowering. Hand and power winches are also useful in rope rescue. These devices provide a built-in mechanical advantage system, so rescuers do not have to construct rope mechanical advantage systems. However, since these devices can malfunction by jamming or getting stuck in the on or off position and can often not be customized for the proper rescue velocity, as a rule, they are avoided in technical rescues with short spans capable of being managed by man power. Ascent (Grab) Devices Ascent devices are auxiliary equipment systems used as friction or mechanical devices to allow for stopping a falling load or ascending a fixed line Figure D-84. They can withstand a minimum test load of at least 1200 lbf (5.3 kn) without permanent damage to the device or rope. The type of ascent device most commonly used in rope rescue is the cam (Gibbs) ascender. It is available in cast aluminum, forged aluminum, and forged stainless steel and comes in sizes to accommodate 3 8-inch (9-mm) to 3 4-inch (19-mm) rope. This device can be free running or spring loaded. It consists of a sleeve, cam, pin, and spring (for spring-loaded types). The capacity of a cam ascender depends on its construction. The Figure D-8 Ascent device. typical breaking strength for a 1 2-inch (13-mm) size is shown here for each type: Cast aluminum: 2550 lb (mass of 1157 kg) or metric equivalent force of 11 kn Forged aluminum: 5000 lb (mass of 2268 kg) or metric equivalent force of 22 kn Forged stainless 5400 lb (mass of 2449 kg) or metric equivalent force of 24 kn The use of any ascender as a pulling cam or braking cam should be done only in accordance with the manufacturer s recommendations. As a pulling cam, the device pulls a load into motion. As a braking cam, it stops the rope from moving. When installing a cam ascender on the line, remember that the arrow should always point toward the load. This positioning should be double-checked by pulling in the fall direction to ensure the cam catches and the load will stop. Do not drop or throw any ascender. Inspect the cam ascender by looking for worn cam teeth, egg-shaped holes, cracks around any of the holes, and wear of the cord or chain that holds the pin and cam to the sleeve. Keep the cam connected to the sleeve with the pin when storing the unit. Make sure the pin goes through both sides of the sleeve during use. Keep the cam clean by wiping it with a cloth. Such a device can also be used for ascending a fixed line. NFPA 1983 specifications state that a rope grab device must withstand a minimum test load of 2400 lbf (10.7 kn) without causing permanent damage to the device or the rope. Life Safety Harnesses The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a body that convenes experts to provide advice that is intended as a guide to aid manufacturers, consumers, and the general public regarding recommended parameters on manufactured devices.

12 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-13 The existence of an ANSI standard does not preclude any party from manufacturing, marketing, purchasing, or using products, processes, or procedures not conforming to the standard. The ANSI standards do not constitute governing law and are subject to periodic review. Users are cautioned to always reference the latest editions. The ANSI standard for fall arrest can be found under ANSI Z351. Life safety harnesses are used as a quick clip-in point for a belay or emergency rappel, as fall protection, as a work platform, and as a means of transporting victims. It is strongly suggested that only harnesses certified as NFPA 1983 compliant be used for rescue work. In NFPA 1983, harnesses are classified as one of three types: Class I harness: Fastens around the waist and thighs or buttocks. It is designed for emergency escape with a one-person load. Without leg support, the harness is not intended for prolonged support. [NFPA 1983, Section ] Class II harness: Fastens around the waist and thighs or buttocks. It is designed for nontechnical, low-angle rescue where a two-person load may be encountered. Without the shoulder component, inversion (going upside down) leaves the rescuer vulnerable to release from the harness Figure D-9. [NFPA 1983, Section ] Class III harness: Fastens around the waist and thighs or buttocks and over the shoulders. It is designed for high-angle rescue where two-person loads and/or inverting may occur Figure D-104. [NFPA 1983, Section ] While all three harnesses have a purpose and a place in rescue operations, the safest harness, offering the most flexibility for rescue operations, is the class III harness. Companies that specialize in rescue operations should have an appropriate complement of class II and III harnesses on hand or policies requiring participating personnel to maintain their own class II or III harnesses. Given scenarios will dictate which harness is most appropriate. Class III harnesses possess Figure D-9 Class II harness. Figure D-10 Class III harness. the advantage of offering the most flexibility and widest array of options. Companies and personnel should take care to carry harnesses that offer an appropriate fit. The importance of understanding how to correctly don and doff a harness, how to correctly maintain the harness, how to select an appropriate size, how to properly tighten and situate the harness, how to properly secure all straps of a harness to ensure that a rescuer is protected according to the design and intent of the harness, and how to attach the harness to a line must be reviewed and studied. Often, these skills are hastily glossed over, creating complications later or during the operation. Carelessly selecting the harness size or leaving the harness straps slack for comfort can potentially compromise the safety of the device and the system. Carefully inspect rescue harnesses on a routine basis, as well as before and after each use. It is ultimately the responsibility of the user to inspect the harness. The inspector should look for worn or broken stitching and rivets torn out of the holes. The inspector should also inspect the material for damage from abrasion, cuts, or chemicals and inspect the hardware components for missing or damaged parts, dents, cracks, or excessive wear. If it looks damaged or unsafe, do not use it!

13 D-14 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice Knots, Bends, and Hitches Knots, bends, and hitches are prescribed ways of fastening lengths of rope or webbing to objects or to each other. Rescuers should know how to tie at least nine basic knots (the figure eight, the figure eight on a bight, the bowline, the clove hitch, the half hitch, the Becket bend or sheet bend, the water knot or ring bend, the butterfly knot, and the safety knot) and how to apply them. Three additional popular knots include the doubleloop figure eight (rescue 8), the in-line 8, and the in-line 9. Hitches, such as the clove hitch and the Prusik hitch, are used to attach a rope around an object or another rope. A hitch is defined by the rope being tied around an object such that when the object is removed, the knot will come undone. Knots, such as the figure eight or bowline, are organized methods of fastening rope to an object or itself. Bends, such as the figure eight bend and ring bend (sometimes referred to as the water knot), are used to join two ropes and webbing, respectively, together. Safety knots, such as the overhand knot, are used to secure the ends of ropes to prevent them from coming untied. Knots reduce the load-carrying capacity of the rope by a certain percentage by bending the material Table D-46. This reduction can be avoided by tying the proper knot for the prescribed application correctly. Table D-4 Effect of Knots on Rope Strength Group Knot Reduction in Strength Loop knots Figure eight on a bight 20 percent Figure eight with a followthrough 19 percent Bowline 33 percent The following knots, bends, and hitches are covered in this chapter: Safety knot (overhand knot, figure eight bend, single fisherman s knot) Bowline Figure eight Figure eight on a bight Figure eight with a follow-through Double-loop figure eight (rescue 8) Figure eight bend (tracer 8) In-line 8 and in-line 9 Butterfly knot Double or single Becket bend or sheet bend Double fisherman s knot Water knot (ring bend) Half hitch Clove hitch (minding the proper direction of pull) Prusik hitch Munter mule hitch Load-release hitch (mariner s hitch) Rescue Tips Rescuers should know how to tie at least nine basic knots (the figure eight, the figure eight on a bight, the bowline, the clove hitch, the half hitch, the Becket bend or sheet bend, the water knot or ring bend, the butterfly, and the overhand safety knot) and how to apply them. Terminology Specific terminology is used to refer to the parts of a rope in describing how to tie knots Figure D-11. The working end is the part of the rope used for forming the knot. The running end is the part of the rope used for lifting or hoisting a load. The standing part is the rope between the working end and the running end. As the rope is pulled through the system, it is laid down on the ground; this is known as a back stack. A bight is formed by reversing the direction of the rope to form a U-bend with two parallel ends. A loop is formed by making a circle in the rope. A round turn is formed by making a loop and then bringing the two ends of the rope parallel to each other Figure D-124. Safety Knot A safety knot (also referred to as an overhand knot or a keeper knot) is used to secure the leftover working end of the rope or webbing to the standing part. It provides a degree of safety to ensure that the primary knot will not come undone. A safety knot should always be used to finish the other basic knots. A safety knot should be tied so that it rests, tied, 1 inch (25 mm) from the finished primary knot. A safety knot (overhand knot) is placed in the loose end of the rope that exits the finished, primary knot. It secures the loose end and prevents that rope from slipping back through the primary knot and untying it. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-14 to tie a safety knot: 1. Take the loose end of the rope and tie any knot. Beyond the knot, form a loop around the standing part of the rope or webbing. (Step 1) 2. Pass the loose end of the rope or webbing through the loop. (Step 2) working end Figure D-11 Parts of a rope. standing part running end

14 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-15 A. B. C. Figure D-12 A. A bight. B. A loop. C. A round turn. 3. Tighten the safety knot by pulling on both ends at the same time. (Step 3) To test whether you have tied a safety knot correctly, try sliding it on the standing part. A knot that is tied correctly will slide. Loop Knots Loop knots are used to form a circle or ring midrope or in the end of a rope. Depending on the application and how the knot or hitch is tied, these loops may be adjustable (or slipping ) or stable ( non-slipping ). Loop knots can be used for securing a person or tool during a rescue. Examples of non-slipping loop knots include the bowline, the butterfly, the figure eight with a follow-through, the figure eight on a bight, the double-loop or rescue 8, the in-line 8, and the in-line 9. Non-slipping loops add the ability to place directional changes to a load, midrope, parallel to the rope (either left or right). The knots do not compromise or distort when loaded. The butterfly offers the advantage of being a neutral loop that can be loaded from any direction. Examples of slipping loop hitches include the girth hitch, the single fisherman s anchor knot, and the highwayman s hitch. NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-1 Tying a Safety Knot 1 Take the loose end of the rope 2 Pass the loose end of the rope 3 Tighten the safety knot by pulling on both ends at the same and tie any knot. Beyond the or webbing through the loop. knot, form a loop around the time. standing part of the rope or webbing.

15 D-16 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice Bowline A bowline is a knot that allows the rescuer to form a nonslipping loop of any desired size. It can be tied to create a loop that can slip over objects or tied so that it captures an object within its loop. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-26 to tie a bowline: 1. Holding the rope with both hands down (thumbs facing each other), form a small loop by bringing the right hand toward the left. Hold the loop with the left thumb on top. (Step 1) 2. Take the free end of the rope and pass it through the loop. Pull the rope up through the thumb-held loop until the desired loop that is going to be constructed is the desired size. (Step 2) The rabbit goes up through the hole, Place that end under the thumb to secure it so it cannot fall back through the small loop. Pass the working end around the back of the standing rope from the left. (Step 3)... around the tree, Push the working end of rope back through the original small loop and pull the constructed loop and end of the rope to tighten the knot. (Step 4) 5. Tie the safety knot in to the loop. (Step 5)... and back through the hole. 6. Practice making loops of different sizes. NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-2 Tying a Bowline 1 Form a small loop by bringing the right hand toward the left. Hold the loop with the left thumb on top. 2 Take the free end of the 3 Pass the working end rope and pass it through around the back of the the loop. Pull the rope up standing rope from the through the thumb-held left. loop until the desired loop that is going to be constructed is the desired size. 4 Push the working end of rope back through the original small loop and pull the constructed loop and end of the rope to tighten the knot. 5 Tie the safety knot in to the loop.

16 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-17 NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-3 Tying a Figure Eight Knot 1 Form a bight in the rope. 2 Loop the working end 3 Thread the working end 4 Tighten the knot by of the rope completely of the rope through the pulling on both ends around the standing end of the rope. bight. simultaneously. Figure Eight A figure eight is a basic knot used to produce a family of other knots, including the figure eight on a bight and the figure eight with a follow-through. A simple figure eight knot is seldom used alone except when used as a stopper knot at the end of a rope. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-35 to tie a figure eight: 1. Form a bight in the rope. (Step 1) 2. Loop the working end of the rope completely around the standing end of the rope. (Step 2) 3. Thread the working end of the rope through the bight. (Step 3) 4. Tighten the knot by pulling on both ends simultaneously. (Step 4) When you pull the knot tight, it will have the shape of a figure eight. Figure Eight on a Bight The figure eight on a bight knot typically creates a secure nonslipping loop at the working end of a rope. However, if enough rope is present, the knot can be used to create non-slipping loops in the middle of a rope as well. The loop can be used to attach the end of the rope to a fixed object or a piece of equipment, to tie a life safety rope around a person, or to create loops for anchoring systems. The loop may be tied to any size from an inch (25 mm) to several feet (meters) in diameter. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-44 to tie a figure eight on a bight: 1. Form a bight on the working end of the rope approximately 12 inches (305 mm) long. (Step 1) The bight will now become the working end of the rope. 2. Loop the working end of the rope completely around the standing end of the rope. (Step 2) 3. Thread the working end of the rope through the bight created when you doubled the rope in Step 2. (Step 3) 4. Tighten the knot by pulling on both ends simultaneously. (Step 4) When you pull the knot tight, it will have the shape of a figure eight with a loop on the working end. 5. Secure the loose end of the rope with a safety knot. (Step 5)

17 D-18 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-4 Tying a Figure Eight on a Bight 1 Form a bight approximately 12 inches (305 mm) long on the working end of the rope. 2 Loop the working end of the rope completely around the standing end of the rope. 3 Thread the working end of the rope through the bight created when you doubled the rope in Step 2. 4 Tighten the knot by pulling on both ends simultaneously. 5 Secure the loose end of the rope with a safety knot.

18 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-19 NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-5 Tying a Figure Eight with a Follow-Through 1 Tie a figure eight approximately 24 inches (610 through or around the end by tracing the rope pletely through, tighten 2 Thread the working end 3 Secure the working 4 Once threaded com- mm) (or more if needed). Leave this knot loose. object to which you want to attach the rope. through the path of the original figure eight from the opposite end. the knot and place a safety knot on the loose end. Figure Eight with a Follow-Through A figure eight with a follow-through knot creates a secure nonslipping loop at the end of a rope allowing the working end to be wrapped around an object or passed through an opening before the loop is formed. It is very useful for attaching a rope to an anchor such as a fixed ring or a solid object with an eye. A similar knot, known as the tracer 8, can also be used to tie the ends of two ropes with the same diameter together securely. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-55 to tie a figure eight follow-through knot: 1. Tie a figure eight approximately 24 inches (610 mm) (or more if needed). Leave this knot loose. (Step 1) 2. Thread the working end through or around the object to which you want to attach the rope. (Step 2) 3. Secure the working end by tracing the rope through the path of the original figure eight from the opposite end. (Step 3) 4. Once threaded completely through, tighten the knot and place a safety knot on the loose end. (Step 4)

19 D-20 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-6 Tying a Double-Loop Figure Eight 1 Form a bight approximately 18 inches (457 mm) long on the working end of the rope. 2 Loop the working end of the rope completely around the standing end of the rope. 3 Lay the working end of the rope over the bight created when you looped the rope in Step 2. 4 Pass your hand through the bight created in Step 1 and grab the working end of the rope (both pieces) through the loop created in Step 2. 5 Pass the loop over the loop created in Step 4 and on to the top of the knot. 6 Tighten the knot by pulling on both ends simultaneously. 7 When you pull the knot tight, it will have the shape of a figure eight with a double-loop on the working end. Finish with a safety knot. Double-Loop Figure Eight The double-loop figure eight, or rescue 8, is used when there is a desire for greater strength in the loop itself, when constructing a self-equalizing anchor system where loops of two different sizes are needed, or when it is desirable to incorporate a ring directly into the knot (sometimes used for stretcher attachments). Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-65 to tie a double-loop figure eight knot: 1. Form a bight approximately 18 inches (457 mm) long on the working end of the rope. (Step 1) The bight will now become the working end of the rope. 2. Loop the working end of the rope completely around the standing end of the rope. (Step 2) 3. Lay the working end of the rope over the bight created when you looped the rope in Step 2. (Step 3)

20 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D Pass your hand through the bight created in Step 1 and grab the working end of the rope (both pieces) through the loop created in Step 2. (Step 4) 5. Pass the loop over the loop created in Step 4 and on to the top of the knot. (Step 5) 6. Tighten the knot by pulling on both ends simultaneously. (Step 6) 7. When you pull the knot tight, it will have the shape of a figure eight with a double-loop on the working end. (Step 7) If you need loops of different lengths, adjust the loops before tightening. Finish with a safety knot. Figure Eight Bend The figure eight bend, or tracer 8, is used to join two ropes together. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-76 to tie a figure eight bend: 1. Tie a figure eight near the end of one rope. (Step 1) 2. Thread the end of the second rope completely through the knot from the opposite end. (Step 2) 3. Pull the knot tight. (Step 3) 4. Tie a safety knot on the loose end of each rope to the standing part of the other. (Step 4) In-line 8 and In-line 9 The in-line 8 and in-line 9 knots are used to create a nonslipping loop or loops in the middle of a rope. This can be advantageous for creating a second point of connection to the system or for creating a change of direction. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-84 to tie an in-line 8: 1. Hold the rope vertically, with the left hand above the right hand. (Step 1) 2. With the right hand, push the lower portion of the rope upward to create a loop to the right that crosses in front. (Step 2) 3. With the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, firmly hold the rope where it crosses. Hold the loop with the right hand. Move the loop to the left behind the top rope. 4. The top rope should now be crossing the enlarged loop in front. (Step 3) 5. Wrap the top loop over and in front of the top rope. (Step 4) 6. Place the top loop through the bottom loop from behind. (Step 5) 7. Pull the rope tight to finish. (Step 6) NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-7 Tying a Figure Eight Bend 1 Tie a figure eight near the 2 Thread the end of the 3 Pull the knot tight. 4 Tie a safety knot on the end of one rope. second rope completely loose end of each rope to through the knot from the standing part of the the opposite end. other.

21 D-22 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-8 Tying an In-line 8 1 Hold the rope vertically, with the left hand above the right hand. 2 With the right hand, push the lower portion of the rope upward to create a loop to the right that crosses in front. 3 With the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, firmly hold the rope where it crosses. Hold the loop with the right hand. Move the loop to the left behind the top rope. The top rope should now be crossing the enlarged loop in front. 4 Wrap the top loop over and in front of the top rope. 5 Place the top loop through the bottom loop from behind. 6 Pull the rope tight to finish. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-94 to tie an in-line 9: 1. Hold the rope vertically, with the left hand above the right hand. (Step 1) 2. With the right hand, push the lower portion of the rope upward to create a loop to the right that crosses in front. (Step 2) 3. With the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, firmly hold the rope where it crosses. Hold the loop with the right hand. Move the loop to the left behind the top rope. 4. The top rope should now be crossing the enlarged loop in front. (Step 3) 5. Wrap the top loop over and in front of the top rope.

22 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D Make a second wrap by wrapping the loop behind and then in front of the top rope. (Step 4) 7. Place the loop through the bottom loop from behind. (Step 5) 8. Pull tight to finish. (Step 6) Butterfly Knot The butterfly knot is used to create a non-slipping loop or loops in the middle of a rope. This can be advantageous when a second point of connection for additional safety for the rescuer or victim is required. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-104 to tie a butterfly knot: 1. Loop the rope around your hand three times. (Step 1) 2. Pass the rope closest to your fingers over the second loop and place it next to the first loop. (Step 2) NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-9 Tying an In-line 9 1 Hold the rope vertically, with the left hand above the right hand. 2 With the right hand, push the lower portion of the rope upward to create a loop to the right that crosses in front. 3 With the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, firmly hold the rope where it crosses. Hold the loop with the right hand. Move the loop to the left behind the top rope. The top rope should now be crossing the enlarged loop in front. 4 Wrap the top loop over and in front of the top rope. Make a second wrap by wrapping the loop behind and then in front of the top rope. 5 Place the loop through the bottom loop from behind. 6 Pull the rope tight to finish.

23 D-24 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-10 Tying a Butterfly Knot 1 Loop the rope around 2 Pass the rope closest 3 Grasp the loop now closest to your fingers, pass grasp the two ends and 4 To complete the knot, your hand three times. to your fingers over the second loop and place it next to the first loop. it over the other loops toward your wrist, and slide this loop beneath the others along your palm until a loop is created on your fingers. Pull the loop and ends in opposite directions to snug the knot up. snap them by quickly pulling in opposite directions. 3. Grasp the loop now closest to your fingers, pass it over the other loops toward your wrist, and slide this loop beneath the others along your palm until a loop is created on your fingers. Pull the loop and ends in opposite directions to snug the knot up. (Step 3) 4. To complete the knot, grasp the two ends and snap them by quickly pulling in opposite directions. (Step 4) Becket Bend or Sheet Bend Knot The single or double Becket bend, or sheet bend, knot is used to tie ropes of the same or different diameters together. When tying ropes of different diameters together using this system, the bight should always be placed in the rope with the larger diameter. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-114 to tie a Becket bend or sheet bend knot: 1. Form a bight in the working end of a 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle rope. (Step 1) 2. Push the working end of the 3 8-inch (10-mm) static kernmantle rope that is to be combined with the 1 2-inch (13- mm) rope up through the bight in the 1 2-inch (13-mm) rope. (Step 2) 3. Wrap the 3 8-inch (10-mm) rope underneath and around the 1 2-inch (13-mm) rope and bring it up to the level of the other ropes. (Step 3) 4. Push up on the standing end of the 3 8-inch (10-mm) rope so that it forms a small loop above the 1 2-inch (13-mm) rope. (Step 4) 5. Push the 3 8-inch (10-mm) rope through the loop to form a single Becket sheet bend knot. Wrap the rope around and push it through again to make a double Becket sheet bend. The advantage to creating multiple Becket sheet bend knots is added security in the knot s holding power. The disadvantage is that it requires a longer tail and thus more rope, as well as more time to secure. Tie the proper safeties. (Step 5) 6. Practice making single, double, and triple Becket sheet bend knots on ropes of the same and different sizes. For an added challenge, try using the knot to create a loop in a rope.

24 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-25 NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-11 Tying the Becket Bend or Sheet Bend Knot 1 Place a bight in the working end of a 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle rope. 2 Push the working end of the 3 8-inch (10-mm) static kernmantle rope that is to be combined with the 1 2-inch (13-mm) rope up through the bight in the 1 2-inch (13-mm) rope. 3 Wrap the 3 8-inch (10-mm) rope underneath and around the 1 2-inch (13-mm) rope and bring it up to the level of the other ropes. 4 Push up on the standing end of the 3 8-inch (10-mm) rope so that it forms a small loop above the 1 2- inch (13-mm) rope. 5 Push the 3 8-inch (10-mm) rope through the loop to form a single Becket sheet bend knot. Wrap the rope around and push it through again to make a double Becket sheet bend.

25 D-26 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice Double Fisherman s Knot The double fisherman s knot is most commonly used to create a Prusik loop but may also be used to join two ropes of equal or unequal diameter. A single fisherman s knot is also used as a safety knot by some organizations. Because it is an adjustable self-tightening knot, the double fisherman s knot is one of the few that does not require a safety knot. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-126 to tie a double fisherman s knot: 1. Create a loop with the rope or Prusik cord with an approximate 9- to 12-inch (229- to 305-mm) overlap. (Step 1) NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-12 Tying a Double Fisherman s Knot 1 Create a loop with the rope or Prusik cord with an approximate 9- to 12-inch (229- to 305-mm) overlap. 2 Place your hand out, palm down, index finger extended, and lay the overlap on your curled fingers. Grasp the working end by your thumb and wrap it around your index finger from front to back. 3 Again grasp the working end by your thumb and wrap it around your index finger from front to back, but crossing over the first loop in the direction of your hand. 4 Pass the working end through the loops where your index finger has been while removing your index finger. 5 Tighten the knot by grasping each end and pulling simultaneously. Reverse the loop and repeat Steps 1 through 5. 6 The knot is properly tied and dressed if one side has four parallel lines and the opposite side has two X s. There should be approximately 1 inch (25 mm) of rope exposed at each end of the knot.

26 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D Place your hand out, palm down, index finger extended, and lay the overlap on your curled fingers. Grasp the working end by your thumb and wrap it around your index finger from front to back. (Step 2) 3. Again grasp the working end by your thumb and wrap it around your index finger from front to back, but crossing over the first loop in the direction of your hand. (Step 3) 4. Pass the working end through the loops where your index finger has been while removing your index finger. (Step 4) 5. Tighten the knot by grasping each end and pulling simultaneously. 6. Reverse the loop and repeat Steps 1 through 5. (Step 5) 7. The knot is properly tied and dressed if one side has four parallel lines and the opposite side has two X s. There should be approximately 1 inch (25 mm) of rope exposed at each end of the knot. (Step 6) Water Knot The water knot or ring bend is used to join webbing of the same or different sizes together. When a single piece of webbing is used and the opposite ends are tied to each other, a loop, or sling, is created. These loops can be used for a variety of purposes, including the formation of anchors and the construction of load-release hitches. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-136 to tie a water knot: 1. In one end of the webbing, approximately 6 inches (152 mm) from the end, tie an overhand knot. (Step 1) 2. With the other end of the webbing, start retracing from the working end through the knot until approximately 6 inches (152 mm) is left on the other end. (Step 2) 3. Tie an overhand knot on each tail as a safety. (Step 3) NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-13 Tying a Water Knot 1 In one end of the webbing, approximately 6 inches (152 mm) from the start retracing from the working end as a safety. 2 With the other end of the webbing, 3 Tie an overhand knot on each tail end, tie an overhand knot. through the knot until approximately 6 inches (152 mm) is left on the other end.

27 D-28 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice Hitches Hitches are knots that are formed when they wrap around an object. They are used to secure the working end of a rope or webbing to a solid object. Half Hitch The half hitch is a stabilizing knot used to secure tied tools, objects, or tensioned ropes. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-146 to tie a water knot: 1. Holding a rope vertically in the right hand, place the left hand between the rope and yourself, hand open and thumb down. (Step 1) 2. Grasp the rope and rotate the fist so the thumb is pointed away from yourself (270 degrees). This can be better accomplished by simultaneously lowering the arm. 3. Pulling up on the rope in the right hand exposes the half hitch contained in the fist. This loop can be passed over an object or tool to stabilize it. Multiple half hitches can be placed consecutively with appropriate spacing to increase stability. (Step 2) Clove Hitch A clove hitch is a self-tightening hitch used to attach a rope to an object. The object may be an anchor point or a tool or a stretcher. It generally holds equally well if tension is applied to either NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-14 Tying a Half Hitch 1 Holding a rope vertically in the right hand, place the left 2 Grasp the rope and rotate the fist so the thumb is pointed away hand between the rope and yourself, hand open and thumb from yourself (270 degrees). This can be better accomplished down. by simultaneously lowering the arm. Pulling up on the rope in the right hand exposes the half hitch contained in the fist. This loop can be passed over an object or tool to stabilize it. Multiple half hitches can be placed consecutively with appropriate spacing to increase stability.

28 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-29 end of the rope or to both ends simultaneously; however, a preferred direction of pull should be minded. The directional element of the clove hitch can be seen upon closer inspection of the knot. When a clove is tied, if it is pulled one way, the rope crosses over the body of the knot, keeping it tight and secure. If the knot is pulled in the opposite direction, the rope does not cross over the body of the knot and the clove opens, becoming less secure. If the clove hitch is simply attached to an object, this decreased security may be less of a concern than if the knot were being used to hoist or pull an object. In that case, operating against the direction of pull could pull the hitch apart rather than permitting the knot to bind on itself. There are two different methods of tying this knot. A clove hitch tied in the open, or thrown, is used when the knot can be formed and then slipped over the end of an object. If the object is too large or too long to slip the clove hitch over one end, the same knot can be tied around the object. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-156 to throw a clove hitch. 1. Make the first loop with the left hand and have the running part of the rope pass over the working part. (Step 1) NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-15 Throwing a Clove Hitch (Open Object) 1 Make the first loop with the left hand and have the running part of the rope pass over the working part. 2 Make the second loop with the right hand and have the running part of the rope pass under the working part. 3 Place the right-hand loop behind the left-hand loop so that the openings are aligned. 5 Tighten the clove hitch by pulling both ends of the rope simultaneously in opposite directions. Be mindful of the direction of pull. 4 Hold the two loops together and slip them over the object.

29 D-30 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice 2. Make the second loop with the right hand and have the running part of the rope pass under the working part. (Step 2) 3. Place the right-hand loop behind the left-hand loop so that the openings are aligned. (Step 3) 4. Hold the two loops together and slip them over the object. (Step 4) 5. Tighten the clove hitch by pulling both ends of the rope simultaneously in opposite directions. Be mindful of the direction of pull. (Step 5) If the object is too large, is too long, or is closed with no end (a stretcher rail, for example), follow the steps in Skill Drill D-166 to tie a clove hitch around a closed object: 1. Loop the rope completely around the object, with the working end below the running end. (Step 1) 2. Loop the working end around the object a second time to form a second loop, slightly above the first. 3. Pass the working end under the second loop, just above the point where the second loop crosses over the first loop. (Step 2) 4. Secure the knot by pulling on both ends. (Step 3) 5. Tie a safety knot on the working end of the rope. Be mindful of the direction of pull. (Step 4) Munter Mule Hitch The Munter mule hitch is a reversible blocking slip knot used to create an impromptu friction device. While the configuration can be used on any stationary object that the knot can be tied around (e.g., pole, railing, ladder rung), it is typically tied around a carabiner that is attached to an indestructible anchor because those devices are rated and tested. Like a clove hitch, the knot may be tied or thrown. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-174 to throw a Munter mule hitch: 1. Holding the rope horizontally, use the right hand to push one loop (moving the rope toward the left). (Step 1) 2. Repeat that step to make a second loop. The rope coming from the right should form the loops on top. 3. Holding the two loops between the thumb and forefinger, fold them toward each other so they meet face to face. 4. Use the thumb of the right hand to hold both loops stable at the base. Clip the carabiner through the loops. (Step 2) Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-184 to tie a Munter mule hitch: 1. Facing the object around which the knot will be tied, loop the running end of the rope over the work. (Step 1) NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-16 Tying a Clove Hitch (Closed Object) 1 Loop the rope completely 2 Loop the working end Secure the knot by pulling on both ends. working end of the rope. 4 3 Tie a safety knot on the around the object, with around the object a the working end below second time to form a the running end. second loop, slightly above the first. Pass the working end under the second loop, just above the point where the second loop crosses over the first loop.

30 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-31 NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-17 Throwing a Munter Mule Hitch 1 Holding the rope horizontally, use the right hand to push one 2 Repeat the step to form a second loop. The rope coming from loop (moving the rope toward the left). the right should form the loops on top. Holding the two loops between the thumb and forefinger, fold them toward each other so they meet face to face. Use the thumb of the right hand to hold both loops stable at the base. Clip the carabiner through the loops. 2. Continue the knot by passing this rope in front of the working end, looping it under the object that is being tied. (Step 2) 3. The working end of the rope will accept the load. Pulling down on the running end of the rope increases friction on the slipping knot, stopping the load s motion away from the anchor point. Leaving slack in the running end permits the slipping block knot to be loose, permitting the load to move. (Step 3) Prusik Hitch The Prusik hitch is used as a rope grab. It can provide a second point of connection for a rescuer on a rope or be used as a braking system. Dual wraps are used for personal use, whereas triple-wrapped, tandem Prusik hitches are used for safety. A Prusik hitch will slide when loose but grab when loaded. This hitch is also a favorite of many rescue teams because of its low cost and its ability to automatically grab when loaded. A properly constructed Prusik hitch should be dressed (i.e., tightened and all twists, kinks, and slack removed from the device) to create maximum surface contact between the Prusik cord and the rope. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-194 to tie a Prusik hitch: 1. Place the knot over the rope to be attached. (Step 1) 2. Roll the knot around the rope two or three times depending on the intended use. (Step 2) 3. Grab the Prusik cord on one side of the knot and pull so that a loop is created with the knot along the side of the loop. (Step 3) 4. Dress the knot so that there is maximum surface contact between the Prusik cord and the rope. You can tell it is correct when you see parallel lines with no crossover of the Prusik cord. (Step 4) Rescue Tips The Prusik hitch is named after the Austrian mountaineer who invented it, Dr. Karl Prusik.

31 D-32 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-18 Tying a Munter Mule Hitch 1 Facing the object around which 2 Continue the knot by passing 3 Pull down on the running end the knot will be tied, loop the this rope in front of the working of the rope, which increases running end rope over the work. end, looping it under the object that is being tied. friction on the slipping knot, stopping the load s motion away from the anchor point. NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-19 Tying a Prusik Hitch 1 Place the knot over the Roll the knot around rope to be attached. the rope two or three times depending on the intended use. 2 3 Grab the Prusik cord on 4 Dress the knot so that one side of the knot and pull so that a loop is created with the knot along the side of the loop. there is maximum surface contact between the Prusik cord and the rope. You can tell it is correct when you see parallel lines with no crossover of the Prusik cord.

32 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-33 Load-Release Hitch The load-release hitch (LRH, or mariner s hitch) is a knot system designed to permit controlled belay of a load without switching away from the hauling system. There are several types of load-releasing configurations, with two common ones being the British Columbian LRH and the radium LRH. Each of these LRHs relies on the base skill of understanding how to tie and operate a Munter mule hitch. The Munter mule hitch is the rope configuration that loops around the carabiner and enables it to impart friction upon it. This allows the operator to create a controlled belay of the load attached to the LRH. The LRH is constructed by taking an approximately 30-foot (9-m) section of 1-inch (25-mm) tubular webbing or 3 8-inch (10- mm) static kernmantle rope and putting a bight in the middle. A general-purpose carabiner should be connected at this location. A Munter mule hitch should be tied around a second carabiner with the tails of the remaining rope. The rope should be pulled through so that when the two carabiners are tensioned they are separated by only 5 to 8 inches (127 to 203 mm). The remaining slack may then be tied to finish the device as a radium LRH or wrapped around the center cord circumferentially from the bottom up until it can be tied and finished with a daisy chain, creating a British Columbian LRH. LRHs, when placed into the rigging plan, properly permit the benefit of an emergency belay device to the anchor. The hitch can be used when a brake system gets stuck or jammed, it must hold the load, or when it is necessary to switch the load from one line to another. The LRH may be constructed from an anchor strap, webbing loop, or 3 4-inch (10-mm) static kernmantle rope. It is not the preferred load-release device for use in a high-angle environment unless it is used with a shockabsorbing device with the appropriate rating for the anticipated load. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-206 to tie a load-release hitch: 1. Clip one end of the strap or loop into a general-use carabiner and lock the carabiner. (Step 1) 2. Loop the strap through a second locked carabiner, leaving approximately 12 inches (305 mm) between the carabiners. Bring the strap or webbing up through the first carabiner. (Step 2) 3. Wrap the strap or webbing in a spiral fashion around the length of the strap or webbing until you reach the opposite end. (Step 3) 4. Pass the end of the loop through the lengthwise straps or webbing, and secure the loop to the other carabiner. Lock the carabiner. (Step 4) NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-20 Tying a Load-Release Hitch 1 Clip one end of the strap or loop into a generaluse carabiner and lock the carabiner. 2 Loop the strap through a 3 Wrap the strap or webbing in a spiral fashion through the lengthwise 4 Pass the end of the loop second locked carabiner, leaving approximately 12 inches (305 mm) between the carabiners. Bring the strap or webbing up through the first carabiner. around the length of the strap or webbing until you reach the opposite end. straps or webbing, and secure the loop to the other carabiner. Lock the carabiner.

33 D-34 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-216 to release a load-release hitch: 1. Disconnect the carabiner attached to the loop that was passed through the lengthwise strap. (Step 1) 2. Carefully start to loosen the spiral wraps until you feel movement in the strap or webbing. Continue until the load has been released. (Step 2) The Wrap-3-pull-2 Anchor Strap(s) The wrap-3-pull-2 anchor strap(s) is constructed by wrapping an anchor point with a minimum of 1 inch (25 mm) tubular webbing three times and then tying the exiting ends together using a ring bend (water knot). Two of the three straps are then pulled so that the ring bend knot lies tensionless against the anchor facing the load. It can hold up to 12,000 lb (5443 kg). Since the ring bend can be tied anywhere, the length or reach of the anchor can be customized by the rigger. The prefabricated anchor strap is typically made of 2-inch (51-mm) flat webbing with sewn loops at each end accommodating heavy-strength steel D-ring connectors. The advantage of the prefabricated anchor strap is that it can be deployed without tying. This can help when less-skilled members are handling an anchoring assignment. The disadvantage of the prefabricated anchor strap is that it cannot be lengthened. It can be shortened by wrapping it around a small-diameter anchor point. Another potential disadvantage is the D-ring connectors. They should be used in conjunction with a triangular delta screw-gate connector. This ensures that the connection to the carabiner is at a single point without side loading. NFPA 1006, (5.5.1) Skill Drill D-21 Releasing a Load-Release Hitch 1 Disconnect the carabiner attached to the loop that was 2 Carefully start to loosen the spiral wraps until you feel movement in the strap or webbing. Continue until the load has been passed through the lengthwise strap. released.

34 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-35 Dressing Knots A knot should be properly dressed by tightening and removing twists, kinks, and slack from the rope. The finished knot should be firmly fixed in position. The configuration of a properly dressed knot should be evident so that it can be inspected easily. All loose ends should be secured by safety knots to ensure that the primary knot cannot be released accidentally. With practice, you should be able to tie these knots in the dark, while wearing rescue gloves, and behind your back. Knot-tying skills can be lost quickly without practice. There is no regulation that demands knots be tied while wearing gloves. However, gloves must be worn whenever handling a rope or system that is moving. Anchor Systems In the vocabulary of the rescue specialist, an anchor is an object with mass and weight with sufficient stiffness and structure, such that it is capable of resisting force. Ideal anchoring systems, as they pertain to technical rescue, refer to indestructible oppositions to which rescue loads (victim, gear, and rescuers) may be restrained. Anchors provide the foundation for fastening rescue equipment such as ropes and their related systems. Rescue Tips Never begin using any rescue system until a preload test confirms that the anchor point and the system being connected to it, along with the automatic progress capture devices or belays, are competent and functioning. This is called the failsafe or whistle-stop test. Edge Protection Edge protection is an important component of a rescue system. It serves as a means of protecting both the static or moving software components (webbing or rope) within a given rope rescue system from the potentially harmful frictional elements of the environment. Once the rescue system is placed under a load, sharp or abrasive edges along with uneven or rough surfaces that come into contact with the stationary anchor straps or moving rope systems have the potential to cut, fray, or destroy the integrity of those workings. Commercially available leather or canvas edge protection devices can be purchased. They are designed either to be tied into place underneath the software or Velcroed around the software, serving as a buffer between the software and the rough environment. This separation removes the software from contact with the potentially damaging setting. In the event these implements are not available on the rescue grounds, they can be easily improvised by inserting bunker pants or a bunker coat, a canvas salvage cover, or even a segment of large-diameter hose between the rescue software and the dangerous surface or edge. Improvised edge protection must be free of contaminants and debris so that it properly fulfills its role of protecting the rope. Single-Point Anchor System A single-point anchor system is defined as a system configuration that utilizes a single location to provide the primary support for a rescue system. The alternative to a single-point anchor is a multipoint anchor. Here, a rigging plate (steel or aluminum connecting device capable of providing a simultaneous connection from one anchor point to many rescue systems) is used to secure more than one rescue system to a single anchor point. The advantage of this system is speed. One secure anchor point can be used by multiple systems at the same time. The disadvantage of this strategy is increased risk. If the anchor point or rigging plate fails, all of the systems connected to it will fail. On the rescue ground, anchoring points are not always obvious. In urban settings, solid concrete walls and beams, along with secure steel girders make ideal single-point or focalpoint anchors. Standpipes, fire hydrants, telephone poles, live trees with a minimum diameter of 8 inches (203 mm), and apparatus or other large vehicles are other potential anchoring solutions. Keep in mind that, using the apparatus or any other vehicle as an anchor requires two things: The load will not exceed the strength of the anchor that is attached to the vehicle. The vehicle or apparatus must remain committed to its current location from the start of the evolution to the finish. In remote settings, large-diameter trees, large rocks, and other natural formations can serve as a source for anchoring. If an acceptable anchoring point cannot be identified, then one must be manufactured. This can be done in one of two ways: A load-sharing anchor, sometimes known as a selfequalizing or distributive anchor (manufactured by connecting several smaller but capable anchors with a rope, allowing their collective strength to share the load), can be created. A deadman, or picket system, can be constructed capable of holding the entire anticipated load. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-224 to construct a single-point anchor system: 1. Using your skills of observation, locate a suitable indestructible location to place your single-point anchor system. (Step 1) 2. Use either 1-inch (25-mm) tubular webbing and a water knot (ring bend) to construct a wrap-3-pull-2 or a 2-inch (51-mm) flat-webbing anchor strap with certified D-ring connections on both ends. (Step 2) 3. Use a delta carabiner to make the connection to the rescue system. Place the selected tool for connection around the sturdiest area of the anchor point. 4. Connect the rope rescue system to the newly constructed anchor system and test its competence by preloading weight onto the system. Never begin using any rescue system until a preload test confirms that the anchor point and the system being connected to it, along with the automatic progress capture devices or belays, are competent and functioning. This is called the fail-safe or whistle-stop test. (Step 3)

35 D-36 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice NFPA 1006, (5.5.2) Skill Drill D-22 Constructing a Single-Point Anchor System 1 Locate a suitable indestructible location to place your single-point anchor system. 2 Use either 1-inch (25-mm) tubular webbing and a water knot (ring bend) to construct a wrap-3-pull-2 or a 2-inch (51-mm) flat-webbing anchor strap with certified D-ring connections on both ends. 3 Use a delta carabiner to make the connection to the rescue system. Place the selected tool for connection around the sturdiest area of the anchor point. Connect the rope rescue system to the newly constructed anchor system and test its competence. It is essential to place edge protection when a life safety rope, utility rope, or webbing is traversing a sharp or abrasive edge. The edge protection insulates the rope rescue software from abrasion or cutting, thereby making the software and systems it is attached to secure. Mechanical Advantage Simple machines have the potential to make work easier and faster. With respect to the rescue ground, these include ramps, levers, and pulley systems configured with the use of ropes to build mechanical advantage. As mentioned previously, mechanical advantage, in its simplest terms, refers to the number of times a machine multiplies the forces provided by the efforts of the personnel. Not every rescue requires a mechanical advantage. If the load is light or the haul is short and the personnel are adequate, a direct effort will create a faster rescue with fewer complications. However, when personnel are in short supply or are inadequately prepared and/or the haul is long, risky, or

36 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-37 heavy, the ability to construct and use a mechanical advantage is an indispensable component of the rescue effort. Pulley system mechanical advantages have two principal methods of deployment: Simple block and tackle or simple mechanical advantage, where ropes are appropriately anchored and reeved onto pulleys, creating a system of moving ropes and pulleys that can be attached directly or indirectly to a load and then moved by the personnel by tensioning the hauling line of the mechanical advantage. Compound mechanical advantage, where one ropebased mechanical advantage is attached to the hauling line of another rope-based mechanical advantage system, causing the total mechanical advantage to be greater. The simplest example of a compound rope-based mechanical advantage is the Z-rig. Here a 2:1 rope-based mechanical advantage is attached to a hauling line that has passed through a 180-degree direction-change pulley to create a 3:1 total mechanical advantage. Since mechanical advantages used in rescues are a component of a life-safety system, the rope used to build them must be at least a 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle lifeline. A simple rope mechanical advantage system (single rope mechanical advantage system) contains a single rope and one or more moving pulleys (or similar devices), all of which travel at the same speed and in the same direction while attached directly or indirectly to a load mass; they may contain one or more stationary pulleys (or similar devices) to permit a change of direction so that the force on the system is distributed in an even manner among the system s supporting segments and is located in the most optimum place. Life safety rope is defined as that rope dedicated solely to supporting people during a rescue, firefighting, other emergency operations, or training evolutions. If the rope-based mechanical advantage is connected directly to the victim and/ or rescuers, it must be, at a minimum, 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle rope that is designated as lifeline. If the rope-based mechanical advantage is not directly supporting the victim or rescuers, it may be utility rope. However, the utility rope used must be a minimum of 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle rope. Rescue Tips All lifelines shall contain their own rope record card, which identifies, among other things, the date the rope was purchased, its model number or title, its serial number, the manufacturer, the location and address of the manufacturer, its length, its color, a record of uses, and a record indicating who inspected the rope after each use and who placed the rope into service after inspection. Each rope shall be kept with its own rope record card in its specific rope bag and stored in a clean, dry location that is not in the presence of direct sunlight or hydrocarbons. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-234 to construct a simple (single) rope mechanical advantage system: 1. Using your skills for selecting an appropriate single-point anchor, locate a suitable sturdy location to establish an anchor for the mechanical advantage system. 2. Pass a 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle lifeline through a single general-purpose rescue Prusik-minding pulley that meets NFPA requirements for general purposes and rescue. 3. Using a figure eight on a bight knot with an overhand safety, connect the Prusik-minding pulley containing the rope to the rescue load (the handle of a bucket of water or something similar) using a general-purpose screw-locking-gate carabiner via the Becket of the Prusik-minding pulley (the connecting openings at the top of the side plates of the pulley). 4. Using another figure eight on a bight knot with an overhand safety, connect one of the two ends of the single rope via a general-purpose screw-locking-gate carabiner to the anchor point (wrap-3-pull-2 webbing anchor or a premade anchor strap with delta carabiner). To avoid hardlinking the systems, if an anchor strap is being used with the appropriate delta screw-locking carabiner connecting its D-rings, the figure eight on a bight knot can be connected directly to the delta rather than hardlinking the carabiner attached to the figure eight on a bight knot to the delta. 5. Employ appropriate triple-wrapped tandem automatic progress capture devices (Prusiks or Gibbs ascender) to the mainline of the system and incorporate an appropriate safety belay lifeline ( 1 2-inch [13-mm] static kernmantle lifeline) to the load, creating the necessary two-line system customarily required for rescue operations (the belay line must have its own anchor and ideally a separate connection to the load). (Step 1) 6. The remaining free rope on the main line is the haul line. The direction of pull for the haul line should face away from the load (away from danger) and be free from entanglement with any other systems. Preload the system by pulling on the load to ensure that the second line (belay line) and/ or automatic progress capture devices function properly. The mechanical advantage derived from this system is 2:1. If two double pulleys are used and the rope is anchored to the rear or inside Becket of one of them before being reeved, a 4:1 mechanical advantage can be built. Another 2:1 mechanical advantage can be attached to the hauling line of the original system, making it a 4:1 system. Keep in mind, while rope-based mechanical advantages decrease the forces necessary to move the work, as they increase, they require more rope and more pulleys, creating a shorter stroke distance (amount the load rises per distance pulled). (Step 2) 7. Using all of the skills developed, build the Z-rig. Tandem Prusiks are only required for safety. A single triple-wrapped Prusik can be used for connection. 8. Never begin using any system until a preload test confirms that the anchor point and the system being connected to it, along with the automatic progress capture devices or belays, are competent and functioning. This is called the fail-safe or whistle-stop test.

37 D-38 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice NFPA 1006, (5.5.4) Skill Drill D-23 Constructing a Simple (Single) Rope Mechanical Advantage System As the haul is made the belay operator must keep up by pulling the slack through the device. This keeps the belay line taught. As the haul is made the belay operator must keep up by pulling the slack through the device. This keeps the Belay line taught. Rescue 8 or a Brake Rack with a Carabiner Belay line Figure 8 on a Bight attached with a Carabiner Rescue 8 or a Brake Rack with a Carabiner Belay line Figure 8 on a Bight attached with a Carabiner Wrap Three Pull Two, or Anchor Strap Main line Load Wrap Three Pull Two, or Anchor Strap Main line Load Figure 8 on a Bight attached with a Carabiner Tandem Prusik Progress Capture Device Figure 8 on a Bight attached with a Carabiner Haul line Tandem Prusik Progress Capture Device 1 Locate a suitable sturdy location to establish an anchor for 2 The remaining free rope on the main line is the haul line. The the mechanical advantage system. Pass a 1 2-inch (13-mm) direction of pull for the haul line should face away from the static kernmantle lifeline through a single general-purpose load (away from danger) and be free from entanglement with rescue Prusik-minding pulley. Using a figure eight on a bight any other systems. Preload the system by pulling on the load knot with an overhand safety, connect the Prusik-minding to ensure that the second line (belay line) and/or automatic pulley containing the rope to the rescue load using a progress capture devices function properly. general-purpose screw-locking-gate carabiner via the Becket of the Prusik-minding pulley. Using another figure eight on a bight knot with an overhand safety, connect one of the two ends of the single rope via a general-purpose screw-lockinggate carabiner to the anchor point. Employ appropriate triple-wrapped tandem automatic progress capture devices (Prusiks or Gibbs ascender) to the mainline of the system and incorporate an appropriate safety belay lifeline ( 1 2-inch [13-mm] static kernmantle lifeline) to the load. Systems Safety The rescue ground is unforgiving. There are no do-overs or Mulligans. As the carpenter says, it is better to measure twice and cut once than to be full of haste and ruin a good piece of lumber. As such, on the rescue ground, we are all safety officers. Every person on the rescue ground has an absolute obligation to shout STOP! if they perceive a problem of any kind. Each member of the team should be performing a job for which he or she has credentials and certification. No one should accept a job solely because of rank or seniority. Members of the team should be checking their own work and cross-checking each other s work. Ultimately, it is the safety officers who should be able to report to the incident commander that they have inspected every knot and every anchor. They should be able to report that they touched every piece of hardware, ensuring that it is appropriate for the job it is enlisted to perform and that it is properly set up. The final measure before beginning operations (movement of the system) is a whistle-stop test. Here the system is brought to tension so that each facet may be examined for sturdiness and competence. The line should then be released to ensure that the automatic progress capture devices engage. Once all of these components can be verified as ready, the rescue may begin. Belay Systems A belay system is similar to a lowering system in that it uses tools or devices that generate friction on a tensioned rope to control the descent of a load. The difference between a lowering system and a belay system (although frequently the two terms are used interchangeably) is that a belay system connotes that the friction device will be used for the purpose of reducing damage to equipment and/or personnel by regulating or minimizing fall distance.

38 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-39 Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-246 to construct a belay or lowering system: 1. Using your skills for selecting an appropriate single-point anchor, locate a suitable indestructible location to establish an anchor for the belay to be used (a rack, an eared-8, a brake bar, a carabiner). Position an anchor strap or wrap- 3-pull-2 so that the belay can be attached. (Step 1) NFPA 1006, (5.5.11) Skill Drill D-24 Constructing a Belay System 1 Locate a suitable indestructible location to establish an anchor for the belay to be used (a rack, an eared-8, a brake bar, a carabiner). Position an anchor strap or wrap- 3-pull-2 so that the belay can be attached. 2 Picket an A-frame ladder into the ground and place an anchor strap or wrap-3-pull-2 over the top rung so that it hangs below the rung within the span of the A-frame. Use this anchor point to establish a high point. 3 Connect the belay line to the load and place the line through the pulley that will be attached to the high point. Reeve the other end of the rope onto the belay device and remove all slack. 4 Place the load onto one of the high rungs of the ladder. 5 The person handling the load placed on the ladder s rung should announce, On rope! indicating he or she is ready to release the load into the space under the A-frame ladder. The belay operator should respond, On belay! indicating he or she is ready to protect the load from falling. Push the load off of the rung of the ladder into the A-frame space.

39 D-40 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice 2. Picket an A-frame ladder into the ground and place an anchor strap or wrap-3-pull-2 over the top rung so that it hangs below the rung within the span of the A-frame. Use this anchor point to establish a high point. (Step 2) 3. Connect the belay line to the load (bucket of water or something similar) and place the line through the pulley that will be attached to the high point. Reeve the other end of the rope onto the belay device and remove all slack. (Step 3) 4. Place the load onto one of the high rungs of the ladder. (Step 4) 5. The person handling the load placed on the ladder s rung should announce, On rope! indicating he or she is ready to release it into the space under the A-frame ladder. The belay operator should respond, On belay! indicating he or she is ready to protect the load from falling. 6. When the belay team has announced they are on belay, the load can be pushed off of the rung of the ladder into the A-frame space. The load should fall only minimally, if at all, and can be gently lowered to the ground using the belay control friction device. (Step 5) Falling Loads Belaying a falling load is covered in section of NFPA Belay operators must remember two important points: They must keep the belay line taut (without slack) during the entire rescue evolution, either pulling the belay line through the belay device as the haul takes place or allowing the belay line to minimally slacken while the line is lowered through the lowering system. Automatic belay systems such as the tandem Prusik belay or the Gibbs ascender are far more efficient for capturing an emergently falling load. Even if a belay operator is attentive and operating the belay at peak efficiency, it is possible for the load to drop a significant distance before it is caught by the belay operator. This is because it takes great strength to stop a considerable weight under the acceleration of gravity and because there will always be latency between the time the weight begins to drop and the time the belay operator begins to exert enough force on the rope through the control friction belay device to stop it from flight. In cases where the load is as close to the ground as 50 feet (15 m), a 1.5-second delay in response could be the difference between the load hitting the ground or not. The reason belay devices are used is that they are temporary. When a belay device becomes engaged, even though the load has stopped, it can be lowered to the ground because the operator can always apply less force to the rope by easing the application of force through the control friction belay device. Thus, fall averted, the load can be lowered to the ground using the belay device. When progress capture systems engage, they become the sole proprietors of the load by seizing on the main line. They cannot be disengaged without the load being assumed by some other source. The advantage of progress capture systems over manual belay systems is that they will catch without any intervention from an operator in less than a second, almost always abating a catastrophic outcome. These two implements are critical elements of any rope rescue system. Employed together and operated properly, they provide an excellent umbrella of safety. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-254 to contrast a manual belay system against an automatic belay system: 1. Using your skills for selecting an appropriate single-point anchor, locate a suitable indestructible location to establish an anchor for both the manual and the automatic progress capture belay. Position an anchor strap or wrap-3-pull-2 so that the belay can be attached. (Step 1) 2. Picket an A-frame ladder into the ground and place an anchor strap or wrap-3-pull-2 over the top rung so that it hangs below the rung within the span of the A-frame ladder. Use this anchor point to establish a high point. (Step 2) 3. Connect the belay line to the load and place the line through the pulley that will be attached to the high point. Reeve the other end of the rope onto the manual belay device and remove all slack. (Step 3) 4. Place the load onto one of the high rungs of the ladder. (Step 4) 5. The person handling the load placed on the ladder s rung should announce, On rope! indicating he or she is ready to release the load into the space under the A-frame ladder. The belay operator should respond, On belay! indicating he or she is ready to protect the load from falling. 6. When the belay team has announced they are on belay, the load can be pushed off of the rung of the ladder into the A-frame space. The load should fall only minimally, if at all, and can be gently lowered to the ground using the control friction belay device. (Step 5) 7. Replace the control friction belay device with a tandem Prusik belay or Gibbs ascender by attaching one or the other to the belay line and then attaching it to the anchor with a carabiner. 8. Complete the exercise by repeating Steps 5 and 6. Notice the speed at which the capture automatically takes place. (Step 6) 9. Notice that once the automatic devices capture the load, they cannot be disengaged without someone releasing the load by holding up the load. Lowering Systems A rope rescue lowering system is a single tool or combination of tools used to control a load s position and rate of descent. A lowering system must be attached to an anchor. The lowering device, such as a rack, eared-8, brake bar, carabiner, or even a secure round pole, imparts the friction to the rope that permits the operator to have adjustable control of the load s retreat. The simplest lowering system is the round turn belay, where the load-carrying rope is placed around a sturdy, smooth circular object, such as a pole or railing, one or more times. The load lowering or speed of descent is controlled as a function of the rope s tightness around the pole. The operator has the ability to adjust the tightness, thereby adjusting the friction on the rope

40 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-41 NFPA 1006, (5.5.13) Skill Drill D-25 Contrasting a Manual Belay System Against an Automatic Belay System 1 Locate a suitable indestructible location to establish an anchor for both the manual and the automatic progress capture belay. Position an anchor strap or wrap-3-pull-2 so that the belay can be attached. 2 Picket an A-frame ladder into the ground and place an anchor strap or wrap-3-pull-2 over the top rung so that it hangs below the rung within the span of the A-frame ladder. Use this anchor point to establish a high point. 3 Connect the belay line to the load and place the line through the pulley that will be attached to the high point. Reeve the other end of the rope onto the manual belay device and remove all slack. 4 Place the load onto one of the high rungs of the ladder. 5 The person handling the load placed on the ladder s rung should announce, On rope! indicating he or she is ready to release the load into the space under the A-frame ladder. The belay operator should respond, On belay! indicating he or she is ready to protect the load from falling. Push the load off of the rung of the ladder into the A-frame space. 6 Replace the control friction belay device with a tandem Prusik belay or Gibbs ascender by attaching one or the other to the belay line and then attaching it to the anchor with a carabiner. Complete the exercise by repeating Steps 5 and 6.

41 D-42 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice as it moves around the pole. The Munter mule hitch is a belaying knot that can be tied around an appropriately anchored general-purpose carabiner. Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-266 to construct a lowering system in a low-angle environment: 1. Using your skills for selecting an appropriate single-point anchor, locate a suitable indestructible location to establish an anchor for the lowering system to be used (a rack, an eared-8, a brake bar, a carabiner). Position an anchor strap or wrap-3-pull-2 so that the lowering system can be attached. If a round turn belay will be attempted, the pole or railing being used must be considered indestructible. (Step 1) 2. Reeve the rope that will connect the load to be controlled onto the lowering system device. For round turn belays, at least two wraps should be considered. (Step 2) 3. Attach the other end of the rope to a rescuer standing on a level surface equipped with a class III harness using a figure eight on a bight knot. (Step 3) 4. As the rescuer uses his or her leg strength to tension the rope, control the rate of the rescuer s backward motion by permitting a slow but steady movement of the rope (belay line) through the lowering system. Experiment with more than one device. (Step 4) NFPA 1006, (5.5.8) Skill Drill D-26 Constructing a Lowering System in a Low-Angle Environment Change of Direction Anchor Wrap Three Pull Two Anchor or Anchor Strap Change of Direction Anchor Belay line Rescue 8 or Brake Bar Wrap Three Pull Two Anchor or Anchor Strap 1 Locate a suitable indestructible location to establish an anchor for the lowering system to be used (a rack, an eared- 8, a brake bar, a carabiner). Position an anchor strap or wrap-3-pull-2 so that the lowering system can be attached. If a round turn belay will be attempted, the pole or railing being used must be considered indestructible. 2 Reeve the rope that will connect the load to be controlled onto the lowering system device. For round turn belays, at least two wraps should be considered. Change of Direction Anchor Rescue 8 or Brake Bar Wrap Three Pull Two Anchor or Anchor Strap Change of Direction Anchor Belay line Rescue 8 or Brake Bar Wrap Three Pull Two Anchor or Anchor Strap Belay line 3 Attach the other end of the rope to a rescuer standing on a level surface equipped with a class III harness using a figure eight on a bight knot. 4 As the rescuer uses his or her leg strength to tension the rope, control the rate of the rescuer s backward motion by permitting a slow but steady movement of the rope (belay line) through the lowering system.

42 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-43 Technical and Nontechnical Rescue A nontechnical rescue is considered to be a rescue where the grade is less than 40 degrees. Working on a grade that exceeds 40 degrees is considered a technical rescue. A grade that exceeds 60 degrees constitutes a high-angle technical rescue. The operations officer on a technical rescue assignment will appoint an expert who is a recognized, credentialed person with technical rescue knowledge. This individual is referred to as the master rigger. The master rigger is responsible for selecting, guiding, and supervising the rigging crews and ensuring the safe, proper assembly of all systems approved by the operations officer. The master rigger examines every rope, every strap, every anchor, every pulley, and every knot, ensuring that all carabiners are locked before use and all systems are safe before activation. The master rigger may in turn appoint rigging-sector leaders to complete tasks such as building mechanical advantages, securing anchoring points, operating belays, and minding Prusik cables. The five critical steps to lowering or raising a load, whether in a high-angle scenario or a low-angle scenario, are: 1. Establish appropriate anchors for the hauling and belay high points (points above the load from which the load will be lifted or lowered). 2. Establish a belay line with an appropriate control friction device (rack or eared-8) visible to the raising or lowering area. 3. Establish a change-of-direction pulley (for the purpose of sending a single line to the Stokes basket). 4. Construct a mechanical advantage. 5. Appropriately position tandem automatic progress capture belays (Prusik or Gibbs ascender). Low-Angle Rescue The term low-angle rescue refers to an environment in which the rescue load is predominantly supported by itself and not the rope rescue system (e.g., flat land or a mildly sloping surface, generally less than 60 degrees). Follow the steps in Skill Drill D-274 to construct a below grade assist: 1. Using your skills for selecting appropriate single-point anchors, locate three suitable indestructible locations to establish anchors for the mechanical advantage system, belay line, and change-of-direction pulley. Position the anchor straps or wrap-3-pull-2s so that the mechanical advantage system, belay line, and change-of-direction pulley can be attached. (Step 1) 2. Using two double pulleys and a single 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle lifeline that is long enough when divided by 4 to make the pull, construct a 4:1 mechanical advantage and attach it to the anchor in the system designed to hold the mechanical advantage. (Step 2) 3. Run a single 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle lifeline through a Prusik-minding change-of-direction pulley and attach the pulley to the wrap-3-pull-2 or anchor strap in the system designed to hold it. This will become the main haul line. (Step 3) 4. Reeve the loose or running end of the main haul line (main line) after it passes through the change-of-direction pulley through an eared-8 or rack (control friction device), and lock it off by looping it around the device twice, then looping it through the large hole in the center and tying it to the rope above. Connect the main line to the mechanical advantage by connecting the control friction device to which it is reeved to the Becket of the leading double pulley of the mechanical advantage. (Step 4) 5. Attach a matched pair or set of triple-wrapped tandem Prusiks ( 3 8-inch [10-mm] static kernmantle rope whose pre-tied lengths are 55 inches [1397 mm] and 66 inches [1676 mm] tied into loops using double fisherman s knots) or a Gibbs ascender to the main haul line after it passes through the change-of-direction pulley on the load side. (Step 5) 6. Reeve another 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle lifeline onto a rack and attach it to the anchor in the system designed to hold the belay line. (Step 6) 7. Connect both the belay line and the main haul line to the Stokes basket (which should be loaded with all of the materials required to stabilize and package the patient). Two anchor straps should be used to wrap around the front rails of the Stokes basket to create anchor points capable of receiving the carabiners of both the main haul line and the belay line. (Step 7) 8. Never begin using any system until a preload test confirms that the anchor points, mechanical advantage systems, belay systems, and automatic progress capture belays are working. This is called the whistle-stop test. 9. The litter tenders (two or three individuals cross-trained in EMS and rescue one on each side of the Stokes basket and possibly one at the back) should be clad in class III harnesses and should attach themselves to the main line using Prusiks that are girth hitched together and then attached to the main line via a double-wrapped Prusik. The rear tender can attach himself or herself directly to the Stokes basket using a Prusik. 10. To belay the Stokes basket and the litter tenders down to the patient, the belay rack on the belay line and the eared-8 or belay rack on the main haul line can be opened and operated. The key to this step is the minding of the Prusiks (holding them back with a gloved hand so they do not engage) on the main haul line at the change-of-direction pulley. Once members of the litter tender team are connected and ready, they should announce, On rope! When members of the belay team are ready, they respond, On belay! Once the thumbs-up signal is given by the litter tender team, the command can be given to belay the load down to the scene. To increase the speed of the descent, the litter team leader can issue the command, Slack! Anyone wishing to stop the load, should give the command, Stop! To lock the load emergently, the Prusiks on the main line can be thrust forward. They will lock automatically and immediately. Anytime the Prusiks have been loaded and the load stopped, the completed process should be acknowledged by the Prusik operator by announcing,

43 D-44 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice NFPA 1006, (5.5.9) Skill Drill D-27 Constructing a Below Grade Assist Wrap three pull two or anchor strap Belay anchor Change of direction anchor/ Main line anchor Note: All belay anchors should be inline with the change of direction/main line anchor. The main line anchor is shown to the side of the belay anchor for clarity. This applies to steps 1 through 8. Mechanical advantage anchor 1 Locate three suitable indestructible locations to establish anchors for the mechanical advantage system, belay line, and change-ofdirection pulley. Position the anchor straps or wrap-3-pull-2s so that the mechanical advantage system, belay line, and change-of-direction pulley can be attached. Wrap three pull two or anchor strap Belay anchor Change of direction anchor Double pulleys with Beckets 4:1 Mechanical advantage Mechanical advantage anchor 2 Using two double pulleys and a single 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle lifeline that is long enough when divided by 4 to make the pull, construct a 4:1 mechanical advantage and attach it to the anchor in the system designed to hold the mechanical advantage.

44 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-45 NFPA 1006, (5.5.9) Skill Drill D-27 Constructing a Below Grade Assist (Continued) Wrap three pull two or anchor strap Belay anchor Change of direction anchor Double pulleys with Beckets Main line/haul line 4:1 Mechanical advantage Mechanical advantage anchor 3 Run a single 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle lifeline through a Prusik-minding change-of-direction pulley and attach the pulley to the wrap-3-pull-2 or anchor strap in the system designed to hold it. This will become the main haul line. Wrap three pull two or anchor strap Belay anchor Change of direction anchor Prusik minding pulley Double pulleys with Beckets Rescue 8 locked off 4:1 Mechanical advantage Mechanical advantage anchor 4 Reeve the loose or running end of the main haul line (main line) after it passes through the change-of-direction pulley through an eared-8 or rack (control friction device), and lock it off by looping it around the device twice, then looping it through the large hole in the center and tying it to the rope above. Connect the main line to the mechanical advantage by connecting the control friction device to which it is reeved to the Becket of the leading double pulley of the mechanical advantage.

45 D-46 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice NFPA 1006, (5.5.9) Skill Drill D-27 Constructing a Below Grade Assist (Continued) Wrap three pull two or anchor strap Belay anchor Change of direction anchor Prusik minding pulley Double pulleys with Beckets Rescue 8 locked off 4:1 Mechanical advantage Mechanical advantage anchor 5 Attach a matched pair or set of triple-wrapped tandem Prusiks or a Gibbs ascender to the main haul line after it passes through the change-of-direction pulley on the load side. Wrap three pull two or anchor strap Belay anchor Change of direction anchor Prusik minding pulley Gibbs ascender Double pulleys with Beckets Rescue 8 locked off 4:1 Mechanical advantage Mechanical advantage anchor 6 Reeve another 1 2-inch (13-mm) static kernmantle lifeline onto a rack and attach it to the anchor in the system designed to hold the belay line.

46 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-47 NFPA 1006, (5.5.9) Skill Drill D-27 Constructing a Below Grade Assist (Continued) Wrap three pull two or anchor strap Belay anchor Change of direction anchor Prusik minding pulley Double pulleys with Beckets Rescue 8 locked off 4:1 Mechanical advantage Mechanical advantage anchor 7 Connect both the belay line and the main haul line to the Stokes basket. Two anchor straps should be used to wrap around the front rails of the Stokes basket to create anchor points capable of receiving the carabiners of both the main haul line and the belay line. Wrap three pull two or anchor strap Belay anchor Change of direction anchor Prusik minding pulley Double pulleys with Beckets Rescue 8 locked off 4:1 Mechanical advantage Mechanical advantage anchor Rescuers are girth hitched to litter by prusiks 8 Perform a whistle-stop test. Litter tenders should be clad in Class III harnesses and positioned on each side of the Stokes basket, possibly with one at the back. The litter tenders should attach themselves to the main line using Prusiks that are girth hitched together and then to the main line via a double-wrapped Prusik. The rear tender can attach himself or herself directly to the Stokes basket using a Prusik. If the rescuers tie into the litter (rather than tying into the main line) with Prusiks, they can help support the load (patient) with their harnesses.

47 D-48 Vehicle Extrication Levels I & II: Principles and Practice Set! Once the Prusiks are loaded, they cannot be loosened without taking a small haul to release the pressure. Once the pressure is released, the Prusiks can be pulled back and then minded to continue the descent. 11. To retrieve the load, the belay device on the main haul line must be tied into the locked position. Just as before, even though the load will be moving up, the litter tenders must announce, On rope! and the belay operator must respond, to indicate attentiveness, On belay! Once the litter tenders give the thumbs up, the mechanical advantage can be tensioned by the command Haul! As the mechanical advantage pulls on the main line connected to the Stokes basket, the litter tenders should lean back to take full advantage of the topside machine and personnel. During the ascent, the belay line operator should continuously pull the slack out of the belay line by pulling it through the belay rack. The Prusik cords will want to follow the retreating hauling line, but the Prusik-minding change-of-direction pulley will keep them from jamming the system. The system can quickly be converted from raising to lowering by setting the Prusiks and either (1) marrying the mechanical advantage lines and opening the main line control friction device, taking a small haul to release the Prusiks and then completing the belay from the mainline control friction device while minding the Prusiks, or (2) stopping the ascent, minding the Prusiks and permitting the belay line to control the descent while either the mechanical advantage is allowed to expand or it is married and the main line control friction device is opened. (Step 8) High-Angle Rescue The term high-angle rescue refers to an environment in which the rescue load is predominantly supported by the rope rescue system (e.g., highly sloped inclines or vertical scenarios, as a rule sloping greater than 60 degrees). High-angle rescue scenarios require the incorporation of the other skills and techniques illustrated in the previous sections. They require the establishment of incident command; scene size-up; an environmental check; establishment of staging; establishment of cold, warm, and hot zones; establishment of anchors; establishment of a high point; establishment of mechanical advantage; establishment of belay; construction of incorporated rigging for belay and raising; placement of progress-capture devices (Prusik or Gibbs); appropriate placement of change-of-direction rigging; setup for possible rappelling; setup for a pick-off; setup for patient packaging, including the rigging of a mid-face litter scoop; and knowledge for setting up and operating a Yosemite bridle and jigger. In rescue scenerios that are classified as high angle, all rescuers must be tied off to safety line before ever approaching the edge or hazard area. There are two critical steps in high-angle rescue: Reaching the victim Harnessing, picking off, or packaging the victim A Yosemite bridle is a commercially available device that is adjustable and designed to connect to the appropriate area of the Stokes basket to enable the litter s horizontal position to be adjusted. Stokes baskets traveling horizontally should always be oriented head high. When a Stokes basket is connected to the main line via an adjustable Stokes harness that has four points of contact (two on opposite rails at the upper body and two on opposite rails at the lower extremity), as tension is applied and the Stokes basket raises off of the ground, it may demonstrate an unbalanced posture with the head too low. The bridle device, with its adjustable straps, permits quick adjustments to orient the head high. The bridle device is typically only used during vertical rescues where a vertical patient must be packaged while remaining vertical (e.g., a window washer trapped on the side of a building). While the Stokes basket may be oriented vertically to accomplish getting the victim into the litter, ultimately most extrications are completed horizontally. The device that permits the conversion from vertical to horizontal is called a jigger. A jigger is a 3:1 Z-rig mechanical advantage that attaches to the main line steel ring, (the same place where the Stokes basket s bridle connects to the main line) and the foot of the Stokes basket. As the jigger is tensioned by the litter tender, the main line serves as an anchor permitting the foot of the Stokes basket to rise. When the desired posture is achieved, the lower bridle is set to maintain that orientation during the remainder of the haul. Rescue Tips When considering the construction of systems to reach the patient (belay systems or raising systems), only what is needed should be built. If an aerial device can make the reach and permit the execution of a pick-off or can supply the high point, in the absence of a strategic reason, more complicated options should be avoided. Since the rope rescue portion of this text is being presented with respect to the mission of vehicle rescue, highangle operations will be defined as those on a sloped incline (as if a vehicle has gone off a roadway and come to rest either below or above the roadway, down or up an embankment). While it is conceivable that a vehicle could leave the roadway and become entangled vertically in adjacent trees or could plummet off a cliff, requiring the reaching of the auto and the transport of patients to be done by vertical means, since stabilizing the car along with the nature of the fall represent the worst-case scenario, it is suggested that these types of operations be referred to competent cross-trained high-angle rescue specialists. An example of a high-angle auto rescue scenario would be when a patient is entangled in a vehicle that has left the roadway, becoming nested on an inclined slope above or below the roadway. Here, the first thing that must be considered is patient assessment followed by hazard assessment. Patient disentanglement, patient packaging, and ultimately patient rescue are secondary operations. Size-up and inspection of the scene are accomplished through the technique known as gaining access. In high-angle cases this can be accomplished in two ways: Lower the rescuers to the victim (on a belay operated by the team), or have them self-lower through the technique of rappelling.

48 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-49 Raise the rescuer up to the victim or have the rescuer self-ascend (using the technique of ascending rope). It is far easier to construct and manipulate systems from the top or bottom side than it is to have responders rappel or ascend rope. When the rescue team controls the rate of descent or elevation, a rescuer s energy can be conserved for the mission at hand rather than wasted on the effort of the trip. Low-angle rescue uses the same techniques as high-angle rescue. While low-angle rescue scenarios are defined as being less than 60 degrees in slope, the rope and related systems along with the techniques used to operate them are identical. Whether the rescue is high or low angle, as command personnel or the rescue teams arrive on location, they must attempt to communicate with the victim. They should attempt to calm the individual and explain the plan. No response from the victim is important, potentially providing a clue regarding the seriousness of injuries or the status of consciousness. However, when communication is established, it serves as a method of preventing complications from panic or fear as the team prepares for interception. The conscious victim can be given information regarding what he or she should expect to happen and instructions that will ensure the rescuers having the safest approach. A below grade assist is when the victim is below the rescue team and must be approached from above. Here, the litter tenders must be lowered into the scene to begin the first steps of gaining access. An above grade assist occurs when the rescue starts with the victim above the final destination, requiring the victim and tenders to be lowered into the final destination. In both instances, because of obstructions and obstacles, systems should be built with the capability of moving personnel in both directions. This makes constructing a mechanical advantage to move the load up and a belay to control the descent the suggested option in both cases. While it is easier and faster to simply belay a load down the hill (even belays require a second safety line with automatic progress capture), it is difficult to build a mechanical advantage and connect the system on the fly in the event of an unforeseen obstruction or development.

49 Ready for Review In emergency services, ropes and rope rescue equipment are widely used to hoist or lower tools, appliances, or people; to pull a person to safety; or to serve as a lifeline in an emergency. Rope rescue equipment consists of hardware and software, which are combined to make a system for raising or lowering rescuers and victims. There are two primary types of rope used in emergency services, each dedicated to a distinct function: life safety rope and utility rope. Ropes can be made from many different types of materials, including natural fibers and synthetic materials. Rescue rope is made of kernmantle construction. Kernmantle ropes can be either dynamic or static. Most fire department life safety ropes are static kernmantle in construction. The actual breaking strength of a rope depends on the material of the rope, the diameter of the rope, and the type of rope construction. Knots, bends, and hitches are prescribed ways of fastening lengths of rope or webbing to objects or to each other. Knot-tying skills can be lost quickly without practice. Hot Terms Above grade assist A rescue in which the victim is above the final destination, requiring the victim and tenders to be lowered into the final destination. Anchor An object with mass and weight with sufficient stiffness and structure, such that it is capable of resisting force. Ascent devices Auxiliary equipment systems used as friction or mechanical devices to allow for stopping a falling load or ascending a fixed line. Belay system A system similar to a lowering system in that it uses tools or devices that generate friction on a tensioned rope to control the descent of a load. The difference between a lowering system and a belay system (although frequently the two terms are used interchangeably) is that a belay system connotes that the friction device will be used for the purpose of reducing damage to equipment and/or personnel by regulating or minimizing fall distance, whereas a lowering system s primary function is to control the rate of descent. Below grade assist A rescue in which the victim is below the rescue team and must be approached from above. Bend A knot that joins two ropes or webbing pieces together. Bight A loop formed in a rope by reversing the direction of the rope to form a U-bend with two parallel ends. Block creel construction A type of rope without knots or splices in the yarns, ply yarns, strands, or braids. Carabiner A piece of steel or aluminum hardware with a gate that enables pieces of equipment or elements of software to be connected. It is generally an oval-shaped device with a spring-loaded clip. Class I harness A harness that fastens around the waist and thighs or buttocks. It is designed for emergency escape with a one-person load. Without leg support, the harness is not intended for prolonged support. Class II harness A harness that fastens around the waist and thighs or buttocks. It is designed for nontechnical, low-angle rescue where a two-person load may be encountered. Without the shoulder component, inversion (going upside down) leaves the rescuer vulnerable to release from the harness. Class III harness A harness that fastens around the waist and thighs or buttocks and over the shoulders. It is designed for rescue where two-person loads and/or inverting may occur. Dynamic rope Rope that is designed to be elastic and will stretch when it is loaded. Edge protection A means of protecting both the static or moving software components (webbing or rope) from sharp or abrasive edges along with uneven or rough surfaces that come into contact with the stationary anchor straps or moving rope systems. High-angle rescue An environment in which the rescue load is predominantly supported by the rope rescue system (e.g., highly sloped inclines or vertical scenarios, as a rule sloping greater than 60 degrees). Hitch A knot that attaches to or wraps around an object so that when the object is removed, the knot will fall apart. Jigger A mechanical advantage device that permits the conversion from vertical to horizontal. Kern The center or core of a rope; it provides approximately 70 percent of the strength of the rope. Knot A method of fastening rope to an object or itself.

50 Appendix D Ropes and Rigging D-51 Life safety harness Used as a quick clip-in point for a belay or emergency rappel, as fall protection, as a work platform, and as a means of transporting victims. Life safety rope Rope dedicated solely for the purpose of supporting people during rescue. Litter tenders Individuals cross-trained in EMS and rescue. Loop A piece of rope formed into a circle. Low-angle rescue An environment in which the rescue load is predominantly supported by itself and not the rope rescue system (e.g., flat land or a mildly sloping surface, generally less than 60 degrees). Lowering system A single tool or combination of tools used to control a load s position and rate of descent. Mantle Also referred to as the sheath, a braided covering that protects the core of the rope from dirt and abrasion. Only 30 percent of the strength of the rope comes from the mantle. Master rigger The person responsible for selecting, guiding, and supervising the rigging crews and ensuring the safe, proper assembly of all systems approved by the operations officer. Mechanical advantage The number of times a machine multiplies the forces provided by the efforts of the personnel. Pulleys Rope rescue hardware constructed of two plates with a metal sheave (wheel) mounted on an axle that is free spinning secondary to bearings or metal bushings in the middle. Rigging The process of building a system to move or stabilize a load. Rigging plate A device primarily used for converting a single anchor point into a multiple anchor point (attaching multiple items to one anchor). Rope A compact but flexible, torsionally balanced, continuous structure of fibers produced from strands that are twisted, plaited, or braided together. It serves primarily to support a load or transmit a force from the point of origin to the point of application. Rope record card A card that comes with the rope that includes the make, model, name of manufacturer, date of manufacture, serial number, length, and color of the rope. The card is to be filled out before the rope is placed into service, and updated to verify use and inspection before being placed back into service after each use. Rope rescue hardware Rigid mechanical auxiliary equipment that can include, but is not limited to, anchor plates, carabiners, pulleys, and mechanical ascent and descent control devices. Rope rescue software A flexible fabric component of rope rescue equipment that can include, but is not limited to, slings, looped straps, and specialty straps. Rope rescue system A system consisting of rope rescue equipment and an appropriate anchor system intended for use in the rescue of a victim. Round turn A type of loop formed by making a loop and then bringing the two ends of the rope parallel to each other. Round turn belay The simplest lowering system where the load-carrying rope is placed around a sturdy, smooth circular object one or more times. The load lowering or speed of descent is controlled as a function of the rope s tightness around the pole. Running end The part of a rope used for lifting or hoisting a load. Safety knot A type of knot used to secure the ends of ropes to prevent them from coming untied. Simple rope mechanical advantage system (single rope mechanical advantage system) A system that contains a single rope and one or more moving pulleys (or similar devices), all of which travel at the same speed and in the same direction while attached directly or indirectly to a load mass. Single-point anchor system A configuration that utilizes a single location to provide the primary support for a rescue system. Standing part The part of a rope between the working end and the running end when tying a knot. Static rope Rope with relatively little stretch. Tape trailer Identifying information that runs the length of a rope inside the core of the rope (kern) and repeats the rope s serial number, make, model, manufacturer, and date of manufacture. Utility rope Rope used for securing objects, for hoisting equipment, or for securing a scene to prevent bystanders from being injured. Utility rope is not used for life safety purposes or to support a person s weight in any way. Working end The part of the rope used for forming a knot. Yosemite bridle An adjustable device that can be commercially purchased and that is designed to connect to the appropriate area of the Stokes basket to enable the litter s horizontal position to be adjusted.

51 Photo Credits D-1A Jupiterimages/Getty Images/Thinkstock; D-1B istockphoto/thinkstock; D-4 Courtesy of Skedco, Inc.; D-6A Courtesy of SMC-Seattle Manufacturing Corporation; D-6B Courtesy of SMC-Seattle Manufacturing Corporation; D-7 Courtesy of SMC-Seattle Manufacturing Corporation; D-8 Courtesy of Gibbs Products, Inc.; D-9 Courtesy of Donald M. Colarusso, AllHandsFire.com. Unless otherwise indicated, all photographs and illustrations are under copyright of Jones & Bartlett Learning, or have been provided by the author(s). Some images in this book feature models. These models do not necessarily endorse, represent, or participate in the activities represented in the images.