Restoring Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in northern New York. Michael Godwin Kelan Koncewicz

Transcription

1 Restoring Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in northern New York Michael Godwin Kelan Koncewicz Biology Department St. Lawrence University 23 Romoda Drive Canton, NY

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...3 PROBLEM DEFINITION 5 LOSS OF NATIVE SPECIES..5 SALMONIDS AND ATLANTIC SALMON...6 Life Cycle of Anadromous Salmon...6 Life Cyle of Landlocked Salmon.8 HISTORY OF ATLANTIC SLAMON IN NORTHERN NEW YORK...9 Reasons for Decline.10 CURRENT RESTORATION EFFORTS...11 METHODS...13 INTERVIEWS...15 Subjects.15 IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS...17 ENVIRONMENT...17 GOVERNMENT 18 Federal Hatcheries...18 State Hatcheries...20 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS..20 CONSERVATIONISTS AND RESEARCHERS..21 ANGLERS..22 BUSINESSES.23 PUBLIC..24 GOVERNMENT ISSUES...25 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT.25 Federal Powers Act..25 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.26 Issues...27 STATE GOVERNMENT...27 New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC)...27 Issues...28 DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM 30 PARAMETERIZING SOLUTIONS..30 IDENTIFICATION AND EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS...30 IDENTIFICATION OF FEASIBLE SOLUTIONS...32 IDENTIFICATION OF BEST SOLUTIONS...33 EASE OF IMPLEMENTATION...35 EDUCATION.35 RESEARCH AND MONITORING...35 WILLINGNESS FOR CHANGE...36 IMPLEMENTATION PLAN...37 EDUCATE ANGLERS/PUBLIC...37 RESEARCH AND MONITORING...37 HABITAT PROVISIONING AND MANAGEMENT..38 CONTINUE STOCKING PROGRAMS 38 CONCLUSIONS...40 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...41 LITERATURE CITED...42 APPENDICIES

3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY We investigated the status of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in northern New York, and directed our research towards Lake Ontario, and its major tributaries such as the St. Lawrence and Salmon Rivers. Native species were once humanities only resource; however migration of different groups of people and cultures created an increased prevalence of non-native species. Some people have goals of restoring native biodiversity, but often times the benefits and usevalue of non-native species is too great for a realistic change to occur. Before the eighteen hundreds, Atlantic salmon inhabited Lake Ontario and northern New York waterways in tremendous numbers, comprising one of the greatest salmon fisheries in the world. However, post-colonization events pushed for a decline in both landlocked and sea-run Atlantic salmon. We addressed the decline in Atlantic salmon abundance, gathering information from interviews with different stakeholders, government and state organizations and their web sites, as well as primary and secondary textual publications. Our research suggests that dam building, destruction of habitat (deforestation and agriculture), pollution, and overfishing all contributed to the near extirpation of Atlantic salmon in northern New York. Pacific salmon were soon introduced as a means of controlling the alewife population as well as replacing the diminishing native landlocked salmon fishery. Our problem assessed the reintroduction and restoration of a native fish species, and its effect on both the local environment and the stakeholders involved with the issue. We found that conservation efforts to enhance Atlantic salmon stocks have been occurring for years, however the lack of natural reproduction requires annual stocking by state organizations and hatcheries. Restoration of Atlantic salmon is challenging, where the wellestablished Pacific salmon fishery greatly benefits local economy throughout the state of New 3

4 York. Convincing the public (including anglers) to sacrifice for the benefit of a native species is a difficult task. Our solutions include first to increase education and awareness of Atlantic salmon, and the history of their decline in northern New York and Lake Ontario. More information is required from the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation regarding salmon identification to assist anglers in differentiating between Pacific and Atlantic salmon. Additionally, we propose an increase in research and annual monitoring of Atlantic salmon stocks, to establish more concrete data on the relationships between stocking and the most successful conservation efforts. Research is also required to assess the relationships between Pacific and Atlantic stocks to determine areas where two species can coexist, if at all. We also propose habitat provisioning and management of spawning streams, as they are essential in providing for future salmon generations. Finally, we suggest promoting the importance of Atlantic salmon by increasing public interest of native species. An increase in public awareness could eventually result in a more gradual shift in fisheries; however the goal is a long term one. Our hopes are to provide future incentives for Atlantic salmon research and awareness, and to further enhance the argument of the importance of restoring native biodiversity to northern New York. 4

5 PROBLEM DEFINITION Loss of Native Species Native species were once the only means of natural resources used for human livelihood. However, since the period of colonization and Westward expansion, the utilization of native species has diminished due to the fact that migrant groups brought non-native species with them intending to preserve their own culture (Speziale et al. 2014). Trigger et. al. (2008) argue that "cultural traditions tend to embrace newly introduced organisms progressively, by attributing to them the values originally associated with native species, which further decreases the importance of native species and natural systems. Michael Soulé, one of the leaders in conservation biology, questioned the ethics behind convert[ing] the shrinking remnants of wild nature into farms and gardens beautified with non-native species, and argued that conservation should seek to enhance natural systems that benefitted wider human populations (Soulé 2013). While the value of native species has been challenged by the increased usage of non-native species, the interest in native species conservation is still present. Soulé s movement of new conservation is structured to promote humans to have more affection towards nature, and to conserve biodiversity and natural systems for means of increased human condition (Soulé 2013). The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) created a list of all species in New York that are listed as endangered, threatened, or of special concern by the Fish and Wildlife Department (NYSDEC 2015). The list contains no native species that have gone extinct completely, however there are thirteen species listed that were extirpated from the state of New York (NYSDEC 2015). Other sources have indicated two bird species native to New York that have gone extinct: the Labrador Duck (Camptrohynchus labradorius) and the 5

6 Passenger Pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) (NYS Ornithological Association 2015). There are five known fish species that have gone extinct completely and originated in the Great Lakes, however only two of those species occurred in Lake Ontario; they are the Blue Pike (Stizostedion vitreum glacum) and the Shortnose cisco (Coregonus reighardi) (Auer et al. 2015). Salmonids and Atlantic salmon One native fish species of New York that has greatly declined in abundance is the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). The Salmonidea family, or Salmonids, currently includes sixtysix species of salmon and trout, and is highly diverse. All species within the Salmonidae family are either anadromous (inhabit marine and freshwater systems) or strictly freshwater species, and occur in the Northern Hemisphere. However, many species of the Salmonidae family have been introduced in other areas of the world for reasons of aquaculture and fishing interest (Animal Diversity Web 2015). Atlantic salmon are one example of such fish that were introduced to the western coast of South America in Chile. Some Salmonidae species have been classified as either endangered or have gone extinct due to overfishing and spawning stream destruction. Life Cycle of Anadromous Salmon Anadromous salmonid species have eight stages within their life cycle, beginning as eggs in freshwater streams, followed by migration and life in the ocean, concluding with a return to similar or identical streams for the spawning period and death (Figure 1). Females build nests, or redds, laying up to 5,000 eggs in freshwater streams where the embryos develop over the next few months of winter. During the spring, eggs hatch as alevins and remain close to redds where they feed on and fully consume the yolk sac and grow. Alevins then develop into Fry at 3-6 weeks after hatching. Fry slowly leave redds, rising to the surface to fill their swim bladders with 6

7 oxygen. They begin to feed within the natal streams on macroinvertebrates, however adequate stream shelter is essential in protecting fry from predators. Generally, fry spend about one year feeding in natal streams until they develop into smolts, however some fry migrate into lakes where they spend from one to two years before their seaward migration. Smolts proceed to migrate downstream out to the ocean while continuing to grow and develop. Estuaries, or areas where streams meet ocean tidal areas are essential for smolts to feed and adapt to oceanic conditions. Adult salmon spend one to seven years in ocean habitats, often moving around to different abundant feeding areas. Migration back into freshwater streams towards natal spawning areas occurs as a result of environmental and chemical signals. Salmon cease feeding, and derive energy from fat storage and muscles to move upstream. Salmon that are not consumed by terrestrial predators during upstream migration eventually reach spawning streams where females begin to build redds (females fan with their tails to move small pebbles). Males compete for females and the most dominant males spawn with females, a process where sperm and eggs are released simultaneously and fertilize. Lastly, salmon die following the spawn, and provide essential nutrients to natal streams and respective terrestrial ecosystems, thereby increasing the chances of survival for the next generation of salmon (National Park Service 2015). 7

8 The Salmon Life Cyc e Figure 1. Anadromous salmon life cycle. Life Cycle of Landlocked Atlantic salmon Landlocked Atlantic salmon are slightly different from anadromous salmon motioned above. Instead of migrating to the ocean, landlocked Atlantic salmon remain in lakes and their native stream tributaries for the duration of their lifetime. They often occupy shores of lakes and streams during spring months due to warm temperatures and food availability. As temperatures continue to rise, landlocked Atlantic salmon begin to move into deeper lake waters (roughly 60 degrees Fahrenheit), and feed on rainbow smelt, alewives, cicso, and yellow perch. Upon 8

9 reaching sexual maturity, landlocked Atlantic salmon move back into natal streams where they were originally stocked (most landlocked Atlantic salmon are stocked), and remain until death (NYSDEC 2015). History of Atlantic salmon in northern New York Before the nineteenth century, Atlantic salmon were extremely abundant in Lake Ontario and Lake Champlain, as well as the St. Lawrence and Salmon Rivers and their tributaries (NYSDEC 2015). The Atlantic salmon fishery in Lake Ontario was considered one of the greatest of all fisheries in the world. Atlantic salmon historically ranged throughout the North Atlantic Ocean, abundance in portions of northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada (Figure 2). Commercial fishing records from the early eighteen hundreds included catches of four hundred to three thousand in one night (Chanatry 2012). However, colonization and increases in social and cultural demand removed Atlantic salmon from New York waters to almost nothing by the mid-to-late eighteen hundreds (Miller and Ringler 1996). Rivers were dammed, water was polluted from factory runoff, and deforestation decreased available spawning habitat by filling in streams with suspended sediment. Atlantic salmon were nearly extinct in New York by 1900 (NYSDEC 2015). Trophic release of a top fish predator caused the alewife population to skyrocket by the nineteen sixties, and stocks of Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), Coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch), and Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) salmons were introduced as a means of population control. Pacific salmon soon created a tremendous angling industry by 1989, an industry which now produces thirty million dollars annually from the Salmon River alone (Chanatry 2012). 9

10 GREENLAND (DEN.) Hvdson Bay Labrador Sea,... i i i OHTARIO NAD -A_, st. John's A 0 c e a n I a n t i c Figure 2. Original range of Atlantic salmon in the United States and Canada. Reasons for Decline Damming of rivers combined with habitat loss and pollution of water systems in the nineteenth century contributed to the decline of Atlantic salmon in Lake Ontario and its major river tributaries. Reports from 1815 suggested that early signs of habitat loss were resulting from excess agricultural practices such as ploughing of land, and deforestation, which decreased stream availability and nutrient levels (Webster 1982). In 1817, a dam was built across the Genesee River in Rochester, and thousands of salmon were harvested in areas below the dam. Another dam was installed in Plattsburgh across the Saranac River in the late eighteen hundreds that greatly reduced salmon runs (Webster 1982). By the year 1869, eighteen dams were built across the Salmon and Oswego Rivers, and thirty-four across the Big and Little Sandy Creeks (Webster 1982). The U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries reported in the late eighteen 10

11 hundreds that available spawning areas for Atlantic salmon were lacking and proposed restoration efforts. Additionally, in 1891 the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries reported to the New York state senate that damming of the St. Lawrence River was one of the main reasons for Atlantic salmon decline (Webster 1982). Similarly, the lower Black River in Jefferson County (a major tributary of Lake Ontario) once held an abundant Atlantic salmon population. However, dams were built across the river inhibiting salmon migration, and water pollution provided for an unsuitable habitat, which led to their extirpation from Black River by the twentieth century (NYSDEC 2015). Current Restoration Efforts Although Atlantic salmon were nearly extirpated from the state of New York by the nineteen hundreds, human interest in the fish species was not lost. Restoration efforts have been in occurrence for about fifty years. The NYSDEC stocks major river systems of Lake Ontario with 200,000 one-year-old Atlantic salmon each year (Miller and Ringler 1996). Salmon hatcheries such as the Tunison Lab of Aquatics in Cortland conduct salmon reintroduction research and control stocking programs that stock thousands of juvenile Atlantic salmon annually (Chanatry 2012). Other organizations such as the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (started in 1987) work to stock New York waters with Atlantic salmon. In addition to research and stocking programs, restoration programs provide education and awareness of Atlantic salmon in northern New York through public support and daily catch data from anglers (Bring Back the Salmon 2015). Challenges in restoring Atlantic salmon arise due to the fact that their migratory patterns include both upstream and downstream areas of freshwater systems. An example of the 11

12 challenges of restoring Atlantic salmon occurred in the lower Black River, when pollution decreased around 1960 (NYSDEC 2015). Pacific salmon were introduced and flourished by 1981 in Black River, however a hydroelectric dam located at Dexter prevented the upstream movement of fish and crowded fish and fisherman into a short one-mile section of the river, which allowed for an increase in salmon harvest but did not provide for opportunistic Atlantic salmon restoration (NYSDEC 2015). As a result, the Federal Regulatory Commission gave permission for the DEC to install two fish ladders in dams to allow for a more successful salmon run. The fish ladders were successful in increasing salmon runs by 1989, which then promoted future investigation into Atlantic salmon reintroduction in Lake Ontario (NYSDEC 2015). 12

13 METHODS In order to conduct our case study, we directed our research towards Lake Ontario, St. Lawrence River, the tributaries surrounding each larger water body (Salmon River, Black River, St. Regis River), and the communities and people surrounding the eastern edges of Lake Ontario and southern portions of the St. Lawrence River (Figure 3). To gather information, we looked at primary scientific journal articles, and secondary sources including newspapers articles and radio pieces/podcasts/interviews. We also conducted a series of phone interviews, and searched for Internet sources from government websites, international organizations, local fishing businesses, statewide and federal fish hatcheries, and public opinion. 13

14 Legend -- North County Rivers r--, Adirondack Park Boundary. L J ~ North Country Large Waterbod1es - Importa nt Rivers Created B y.. Kelan Koncewicz 4/26/ 15 w *N s. I E 1 Figure 3: Study site of northern New York. 14

15 Interviews We gathered a large portion of our information from phone interviews with different people, provided in Appendix A. Subjects were selected based on their experience with Atlantic salmon in northern New York, whether it is through research, angling, or through conservation. All but one of our subjects was interviewed over the phone, and some were contacted initially through . Some subjects were asked different questions based on their experiences and prerequisites, but most interviews were conducted using the following questions: what has been your experience with Atlantic salmon in northern New York? What are some of the most effective salmon restoration efforts in the area? Is it possible for Pacific and Atlantic salmon to coexist in northern New York, and if so to what extent? What is the greatest challenge in restoring Atlantic salmon in northern New York? Can a native Atlantic salmon fishery effectively replace the well-established Pacific salmon fishery, and would the public (primarily anglers) be open to this type of change? Where do you see the status of Atlantic salmon being in the next years? Subjects First, we met with Brad Baldwin, a professor at St. Lawrence University in the Conservation Biology Department, a specialist in both limnology and marine biology. We chose to speak with Brad initially because we felt he would provide use with direction in our research as well as other individuals we could potentially interview. Brad facilitated our research by listing a number of salmon hatcheries in northern New York and individuals either associated with those hatcheries or connected to Atlantic salmon in other ways. Our first phone interview was with Brett Canary, a local game warden working for the NYSDEC in St. Lawrence Country. The interview was conducted on March 25, Brett 15

16 provided us with information regarding dams across St. Lawrence River tributaries, and the effects of those dams on salmon migration. Additionally, Bret provided us with his perspective on Atlantic salmon restoration and its importance in providing for local towns in the North Country. As both a local nature enthusiast and a conservation officer for the DEC, Brett enhanced our knowledge on more than one stakeholder level. We then interviewed Dick MacDonald, the Head of the Region 6 Fisheries Department in Watertown, New York. Dick is also an employee of the DEC, and was chosen as our second interviewee after a recommendation from Brett Canary. We interviewed Dick over the phone on March 27, Dick conducted his master s work on a population model for Atlantic salmon introduced near the Oswego Drainage of Lake Ontario, and provided us with useful information regarding his research and his hopes for Atlantic salmon stocks in the future. Additionally, Dick allowed us to better understand structurally the legislative powers associated with fisheries and hatcheries in New York, and gave us more direction in our research on government issues. Lastly, Dick informed us of the history of Pacific salmon in northern New York and reasons for their introduction following Atlantic salmon decline in the eighteen hundreds. Our last interviewee was Dave Rocky Rockwell, a fishing guide on the Salmon River and a representative of the Douglaston Salmon Run (DSR). The interview was conducted over the phone on May 5, Dave was a very informative subject in that he was not only knowledgeable of Atlantic salmon restoration projects in effect, but also provided inside on anglers on the Salmon River, their intentions and hopes, and their willingness to help restore a native fishery. Dave was most effective in helping us to determine feasible solutions to our problem and identifying solutions that were either impossible or unrealistic. 16

17 IDENTIFICATION OF STAKEHOLDERS A stakeholder can be defined as anyone who might be impacted by a project and might be involved in the decision making process, depending on the scope of the issue. In regards to our own case study, we chose to look specifically into stakeholders related to the restoration of Atlantic salmon in northern New York. Based on the past range of Atlantic salmon and current nation range, we also thought it would be important to consider the stakeholder in a broader sense, including northeastern United States. We also more briefly considered the international realm of Atlantic salmon and considered organizations in countries of northern Europe as well as Canada. Environment Perhaps the most important stakeholder of all is the environment. Ecosystem services that the environment preforms plays a central role in our everyday lives, and altering these processes by affecting species existence in an area can be detrimental. The removal of an entire species can have significant impacts on the environment. Ever since the beginning of heavy settlement in northern New York, white men have been hunting and contributing towards the extinction of Atlantic salmon from Lake Ontario and its tributaries. By the end of the 17th century, Atlantic salmon had been completely extirpated from Lake Ontario. With the removal of a top predator from the lake, forage fish including alewives began to skyrocket, impacting aquatic as well as terrestrial communities. Alewives specifically contain an enzyme that breaks down the thiamin protein, resulting in a high mortality amount fry of trout and salmon that dine on it (Figura 2012). Although some forms of introduction occurred earlier, it wasn t until 1963 that Pacific salmon, an invasive species were formally introduced into Lake Ontario and its tributaries to once again alter communities and the ecosystem. 17

18 Anthropogenic influences play a substantial role in Atlantic salmon livelihood. In addition, multiple companies in northern New York and broader have contributed to pollution and acidification of waters that provide Atlantic salmon habitat. ALCOA Inc. and Reynolds Metals Company contributed polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) among other chemicals to the St. Regis River affecting Atlantic salmon habitat, as well as and affecting Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe along the Akwesasne and the cultural significance of salmon (Benedict et al. 2013). Water acidification has also been an issue of concern from factories in the Midwest. Other factors such as deforestation promoting soil erosion and suspended sediment in streams, and fertilizers runoff of fertilizers from agricultural fields heavily impact the livelihood of species, including Atlantic salmon. The salmon life cycle can be heavily impacted by small changes in its environment and it is essential to consider the environment as a stakeholder in regard to restoration of Atlantic salmon. Government Federal hatcheries As of 2000, Atlantic salmon have been listed as an endangered species in the United States. As a result, federally funded fish hatcheries and government organization have led the way in efforts to restock Atlantic salmon throughout tributaries within northeastern United States. In New York State, the only laboratory that specializes in the restoration of Atlantic salmon is the Tunison Lab of Aquatic Science in Cortland, NY. It was established in 1930 under the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries and has been part of the United States Geologic Survey (USGS) since 1997 (Tunison Lab of Aquatics 2013). Among other goals, the Tunison Lab is committed to: (1) examining the feasibility of restoring Atlantic Salmon, deep water ciscos, and lake sturgeon in Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River; (2) Examining the cause, effect, and 18

19 possible remediation of thiamine deficiency that causes high fry mortality in salmonids; (3) determining the ecological health of Great Lakes tributaries, near shore areas, and embayment as it relates to fishery management, native species restoration, and exotic species restoration; and (4) assessing the status and conservation needs of threatened, endangered, and species of special concern in the St. Lawrence River Basin; all of which relate to the restoration of Atlantic salmon in northern New York (Tunison Lab of Aquatics 2013). Dr. Jim Johnson is one of the main scientists at Tunison Lab who specializes on Atlantic salmon. The purpose of the lab is for scientific research for the restoration, enhanced management, and protection of fish species and their habitat in the Great Lakes and its tributaries (Figura 2012). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, an agency of the U.S. Department of Interior, is another federal service that is taking initiative to restore Atlantic salmon in Maine. The Craig Brook National fish hatchery in East Orland, ME is the oldest public salmon hatchery in the country, created in 1889 and currently supporting 7 different river in Maine with Atlantic salmon populations (Craig Brook 2014). The Green Lake National Fish Hatchery located in Ellsworth, ME is part of the Marine Fisheries Complex that is directly related Craig Brook and is also part of the efforts to restore Atlantic salmon to the area. Of the approximate 3 million eggs gathered from Atlantic salmon the Penobscot River, 1 million of them are raise in Green Lake for smoltz production while the other 2 million are raised at Craig Brook and released as fry (Craig Brook 2014). Although restoration efforts in Maine may not directly affect northern New York, Maine hatcheries are the last known location in the U.S. where native Atlantic salmon still spawn, and techniques used their back be applied to northern New York. 19

20 State hatcheries The New York State Department of Conservation (NYS DEC) currently operates 12 fish hatcheries throughout the state, varying in species of fish and amount produced. Each of these factors is important if restoration of Atlantic salmon is to be considered. Dependent on funding, the DEC decides what fish to raise and stock in tributaries and how many. If Atlantic salmon restoration is to be taken seriously, alteration in other fish species may have to be made for the benefit of the Atlantic salmon. Two specific hatcheries that are directly related to Atlantic salmon restoration are the Salmon River Fish Hatchery in Pulaski, NY and the Adirondack Hatchery in Saranac Lake, NY, whose annual fish production averages about 120,000 and 30,000 respectively (A Look at DEC Hatcheries 2015). The Salmon River Hatchery focuses mainly on raising Pacific Salmon, including steelhead, chinook, and coho, but also raises brown trout and landlocked Atlantic salmon. The Adirondack Hatchery focuses specifically on landlocked Atlantic salmon, of which is distributed statewide to other hatcheries, including the Salmon River Hatchery. International Organizations Numerous organizations have Atlantic salmon in their best interest. Because of its range, many of these organizations that care for the health of Atlantic salmon tend to be international, in countries such as Canada and the United Kingdom. Bring back the Salmon is a five-year phases initiative along Lake Ontario tributaries in Canada focused on four main goals: fish production and stocking, water quality and habitat enhancement, outreach and education, and research and monitoring (Bring Atlantic Salmon 2013). After the completion of phase 1 in 2011, studies already began to show natural spawning of Atlantic Salmon, which is a huge success for not only Atlantic salmon but for the potential of restoring a population within Lake Ontario. As efforts in 20

21 both the U.S. and Canada are be slowly underway, the duel effort would seem to only enhance the chance of a successful salmon restoration. The Atlantic Salmon Trust (AST) is a U.K. based charity that was founded in 1967, whose mission is to reduce threats to survival and maximize abundance of wild salmon. As a result of the AST, the North American Salmon Conservation Organization (NASCO) was established in 1984 at an intergovernmental organization in order to conserve, restore, enhance, and rationally manage wild Atlantic salmon (Burke 2013). With the help and funds from the Atlantic Salmon Federation, North Atlantic Salmon Trust, and National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, NASCO was able to negotiate with Greenland fishermen Atlantic salmon catch down from an unlimited catch to 213 tons in 1993, and then down to a subsistence level of 20 tons a decade later (Burke, 2013). Although some negotiations and unrest is still ongoing, the power of international cooperation and funding can achieve great conservation goals. If similar efforts could be initiated on a smaller scale in northern New York the greater protection can be given to the reintroducing Atlantic salmon. Conservationists and Researchers Conducted studies and information learned by conservationists and researchers is pertinent if the restoration of Atlantic salmon is to persist. Currently, New York s only stream tributary focused on restoring Atlantic salmon population is the Salmon River. Dr. Johnson is the branch chief and manager of the Tunison Lab of Aquatic Science and is heavily involved in efforts around the Salmon River. In an article he stated that reintroducing Atlantic salmon to the river is not a full blown restoration project, but rather an effort to see what works to with bringing Atlantic salmon back into the picture (Figura 2012). Johnson has also been publishing many academic articles concerning salmon. One article suggests the interspecific habitat shared 21

22 by the Chinook salmon and Atlantic salmon can provide useful management restoration and habitat protection (Johnson and Chalupnicki 2014). In regards to Atlantic salmon abundance internationally, the International Council of the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) believes their abundance to be so low that Atlantic Salmon should not be fished at all in the north Atlantic (Burke, 2013). Not enough research is done on Atlantic salmon being restored to the Salmon River. Although current spawning occurs from June-July, Atlantic salmon are opportunistic and their spawn may vary annually. Additionally, the presence of Atlantic salmon is extremely episodic, where Atlantic salmon spawn would be seen one year but be absent another (Rock). Anglers The importance of anglers as stakeholder is of the utmost importance to our case study. Anglers are the people who actually go out and catch the fish, whether it is in streams, rivers, or lakes. Their activity could range from solely recreation and enjoyment, to full-blown guide and making a living off of what you catch or the customers you service. Regardless, the restoration of Atlantic salmon would have a direct impact on every angler, and it is essential that the restoration plan that is evidently put forth consider the people who catch the fish. The Douglaston Salmon Run (DLS) is a private subsidiary of the first 2.5 miles upstream from the mouth of the Salmon River. The fishery restricts the number of anglers allowed per day and is also a no kill zone for Atlantic salmon. On the online website, DLS lists 19 different fishing guides of various age who all are considered experts. Another angler guide service is the Salmon River Guides, consisting of Shane and Jackie Thomas who make it their livelihood to offer fishing service on the Salmon River and Lake Ontario. All of these anglers mentioned need 22

23 to be at the pinnacle of the decision making process because it is their career that involved in regards to restoration of Atlantic salmon. However if it is carried out efficiently, restoration project could accommodate for many of the stakeholders. Businesses Similar to anglers, associated businesses rely on a fishery to bring in profit. The towns of Altmar and Pulaski, NY are relying on the salmon and trout fishing industry to function and stay up and running. Whether it s the hotels that house visitors, stores that sell the fishing equipment, boat marinas, or restaurants, the entire towns are supported by the fishing industry. The scope of the impact can range, from the family owned Salmon River Sports Shop in Pulaski, NY, to the larger Fat Nancy s Tackle Shop in Altmar, NY, to even Dick s Sporting Good or Walmart stores that sells more generalized merchandise, all are impacted with the alteration of a fishing industry with the restoration of Atlantic Salmon. Job security at risk with a changing fishery, whether it be the owner or employee of a store, if not enough goods sell then cuts are going to have to be made. Restoring a species that could impact an industry is a sizable task, and considering peoples livelihoods is essential. During initial efforts of restoration of Pacific salmon, business supported regulations and taxation from the government on the fishing industry in order to protect the resource they profit from. Now, with a stable and economical fishery of Pacific salmon within the Salmon River, businesses want little to no enforcement in order to catch the most fish, make the most sales, and earn the most money possible (Rock). Private business of aquaculture can also play a role in the restoration process. In 2011, Aqua-Arbor Fish Hatchery of Chateaugay, NY formally opposed the upgrade to the Essex County Fish Hatchery that would allow them to self-raise fish in order to bring in revenue 23

24 (McKinstry 2011). Despite being almost 100 miles apart, Aqua-Arbor, who raises landlocked Atlantic salmon fears that sales from Essex County would affect their overall sales. Considering all realms, many entities are impacted by decision making of fisheries and decisions made about Atlantic salmon would be no different. Public The final stakeholders considered for restoration of Atlantic salmon are the public, specifically community members in northern New York who do not fish. Those people who do eat fish, particularly salmon might be concerned about numerous factors such as the fishes size, health, least cost, or if it is farmed, wild, native, or even how people value fish as a species in relation to a food item. There are also people who do not eat fish, who may care about the preservation of a species or could care less. Salmon are aquatic, very different from human beings and not necessarily readily seen every day in its natural habitat by human in comparison to a bird or land mammal. The public may not be concerned about the issue of restoration of Atlantic salmon, and it is information that is noteworthy. 24

25 GOVERNMENT ISSUES Federal Government There are three branches of the United States federal government that provide for creating and implementing laws and policies that are then carried out by state governments. The legislative branch is responsible for making laws and is controlled by Congress, the executive branch is controlled by the President, Vice President, and the Cabinet, and implements laws created by Congress. Finally, the judicial branch is controlled by the Supreme Court, and is responsible for evaluating laws after they are created and implemented (USA.gov 2015). Federal Powers Act On June 10th of 1920, the federal government created the Federal Powers Act, which facilitates communication between the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission and other Federal agencies regarding the provisioning and installing of various power projects (i.e. dams) (Federal Powers Act 2015). Five commissioners maintain and manage projects under the Act and are appointed by the President (the President also issues field work operations within the Department of Agriculture and Interior) (Federal Powers Act 2015). Additionally, within the Federal Powers Act is what is referred to as navigable waters, which are streams and bodies of water controlled by the Commission and Congress in provisioning and regulating within and among states. Similarly, reservations and national parks are protected under the Federal Powers Act to the extent that applications and licenses for power projects are not accepted unless approved by Congress. The Commission itself is responsible for maintaining equal consideration for both power and energy projects as well as protecting and enhancing aquatic habitats including spawning areas (Federal Powers Act 2015). Amendments were added to the Federal Powers Act in 1986 (Electric Consumers Protection Act), and legislates the protection and 25

26 conservation of specific fish and wildlife areas affected by various power projects, and works with state governments to efficiently manage or enhance such areas. Lastly, the Commission of the Federal Powers Act is responsible for controlling and managing fish passage facilities such as fish ladders (Federal Powers Act 2015). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Under the federal government are the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which works to conserve, protect and enhance fish, wildlife and plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people (USFWS 2015). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is a bureau of the Department of the Interior, and with regard to fisheries and fish conservation, the Fish and Wildlife Service works to restore nationally significant fisheries as well as conserve and restore wildlife habitat (USFWS 2015). Moreover, a national program within the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is the Fish and Aquatic Conservation Program created to control, manage, and enhance the National Hatchery Program, as well as fish species and habitat conservation, invasive species, and education and recreation (Fish and Aquatic Conservation 2015). Another program under legislation of the Fish and Wildlife Service is the Dingell- Johnson Sport Fish Restoration Act (created in 1950) and is designed to control sport fish populations throughout the country (Sport Fish Restoration Program 2007). The program also control the benefits derived from sport fisheries, and the public access to those fisheries (boating, public waterways). Research and management mandated by the program areas such as habitat enhancement, hatchery and lake construction, and education (Sport Fish Restoration Program 2007). States receive funding and grants from the Sport Fish Restoration Program to provide for public education and public access to sport fisheries (USFWS 2015). 26

27 Issues Issues regarding federal policy and regulation arise when thinking about the solution to our problem of dams inhibiting migratory access to spawning streams. If dams were to be deconstructed, or fish ladders implemented in selected rivers and streams, the application would have to be accepted by the Federal Powers Act Commissioners and Congress. The possibility of implementing fish passage facilities is there if the effects do not negate the efficiency of the dam as a power source and do not cause any other environmental harm. Additionally, if there is to be any chance or shift in hatchery production, the same application process would have to be accepted, and could pose a challenge due to the high level of economic benefits of the Pacific salmon fishery in New York. State Government New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation was created in 1970 and facilitated for cooperation between state programs associated with environmental conservation. The mission of the NYSDEC is to conserve, improve and protect New York's natural resources and environment and to prevent, abate and control water, land and air pollution, in order to enhance the health, safety and welfare of the people of the state and their overall economic and social well-being (NYSDEC 2015). Legislative powers within the NYSDEC include a single Commissioner and their executive managers, followed by 24 divisions that are broken down into bureaus. Various laws and regulations are also place on the Pacific and Atlantic salmon fisheries within the Salmon River and Lake Ontario (Table 1, Table 2). Within the NYSDEC is the Division of Fish, Wildlife, and Marine Resources, which is made up of five bureaus (fisheries, habitat, marine resources, wildlife, and fish and wildlife 27

28 services). Funding for the division is compiled from three distinct areas. The Conservation Fund receives money from hunting, fishing, and trapping licenses and fees, as well as donations from volunteers. Secondly, federal aid is provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and is collected from federal taxes on firearms, ammunition, archery, fishing equipment, and motor boat fuel (NYSDEC 2015). Lastly, a General Fund supports the Division of Fish, Wildlife, and Marine Resources, and includes funding from New York State tax (NYSDEC 2015). Issues Issues in implementing a solution could arise at state level government due to a lack of funding. State budget has a large impact on fisheries, hatcheries, and fish restoration because if the budget is low, then the first funding to be cut will be to those areas (Dave Rockwell 2015). A lack of funding could also result from a lack of licenses and equipment purchased and fees issued in a given year or a lack of volunteer donations. 28

29 Table 1: Data from statewide angling regulations. Species Open Season Minimum length Daily Limit Landlocked Atlantic Salmon* April 1 Oct *It is illegal to take Atlantic Salmon from Waters of the marine and coastal district Kokanee April 1 Oct. 15 Any size 10 Coho, Chinook, See Great Lakes Regulations Pink Salmon Table 2: A simplified version of the Lake Onterio, St. Lawrence River and Tributaries Angling Regulations. Species Open Season Minimum length Daily Limit Coho and Chinook All year 15 3 Salmon Atlantic Salmon All year

30 DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM Parameterizing Solutions The problem of restoring landlocked and anadromous Atlantic salmon in northern New York would be considered solved if the following parameters were met. First, a stable and naturally occurring landlocked Atlantic salmon population would have to be present in Lake Ontario. The success of sea-run Atlantic salmon would depend on the accessibility from oceans to spawning streams. Next, suitable stream habitat is required for a successful spawning period, therefore management and enhancement of Lake Ontario s tributaries must occur. In addition to stream quality, stream size plays a role in determining the success of Atlantic salmon. The presence of Pacific salmon in New York waterways limits available habitat for Atlantic salmon, and if the two cannot coexist, then population control of Pacific salmon would need to occur to allow the reintroduction of Atlantic salmon. Finally, since the Pacific salmon fishery is such a well-supported and popular industry, public interest in native Atlantic salmon must be at a level that supports the restoration and reintroduction of Atlantic salmon. Identification and Evaluation of Potential Solutions In addressing the issue of the Pacific salmon fishery in New York, a potential solution would be to shift all hatchery production in New York State from Pacific to Atlantic salmon. The shift would cause a decline in Pacific salmon numbers and would provide greater opportunity for Atlantic salmon to re-naturalize in Lake Ontario and its tributaries. However, as beneficial as such a shift may be to the Atlantic salmon population, the stakeholders impacted by a loss of the Pacific salmon fishery would be far too great. Additionally, the state government will not fund or support the loss of such an economically beneficial Pacific salmon fishery. 30

31 The major issue for anadromous Atlantic salmon is finding a migratory route to spawning streams, most of which are inhibited by dams. Removal of all dams that contributed to Atlantic salmon decline would provide complete access from the ocean to spawning streams. Dam removal requires labor, time, and funding, and the number of dams across Lake Ontario tributaries is too high to be considered a feasible solution. Hydroelectric dams provide energy for small towns, and removing such a high number of dams would create a tremendous lack of energy for local families and businesses. Another potential solution regarding dams is to install fish passage facilities such as fish ladders, which would provide salmon with access to spawning streams without sacrificing hydroelectric power. Although it is more feasible that deconstructing all dams, installing fish ladders in each dam is also costly and requires maintenance. Controlling or completely extirpating the Pacific salmon population in the Salmon River and other major tributaries of Lake Ontario would allow for Atlantic salmon to reestablish without competitive pressures. Increased Atlantic salmon stocking combined with Pacific salmon control could yield positive results for Atlantic salmon numbers. Similar to a shift in hatchery production, controlling Pacific salmon to such a drastic extent is not only economically inefficient, but could also cause serious environmental harm in the trophic cascade. Although, simply increasing annual Atlantic salmon stocking on its own could eventually result in a higher Atlantic salmon return. Stocking of cisco in similar river systems might also provide Atlantic salmon with an alternative food source to alewives which are greatly consumed by Pacific salmon. Consequently, research and monitoring would need to increase to assess the effectiveness of increased stocking. Finally, increasing education and awareness of Atlantic salmon restoration would potentially increase public interest in the native fish species. Anglers who fish the Salmon River 31

32 and other rivers but cannot identify differences in salmon species would benefit from educational services, which would decrease the amount of Atlantic salmon harvested by fishermen. Identification of Feasible Solutions While considering all potential solution to the problem, only a handful of solutions are actually doable or feasible. Creating and/or improving fish ladders of current dams along the St. Lawrence River or Lake Ontario and their tributaries. Improvement of fish ladders could include widening or lengthening based on other affective models that are currently implemented, potentially those along tributaries on the Gulf of Maine. This would allow for increased migratory ability for Atlantic salmon during their seaward migration and then back into freshwater streams to spawn. This could potentially decrease mortality rate of Atlantic salmon in relation to dams while increasing births through successful spawning, enhancing the restoration process. Shifting fish hatchery production is a necessary change needed if restoration of Atlantic salmon is to occur in northern New York. Currently, the Tunison Lab for Aquatic Research is the only effort in the state focusing on raising and stocking Atlantic salmon. If Atlantic salmon are to make a comeback and be restored in northern New York, other fish hatcheries such as the Salmon River Fish Hatchery must shift some focus away from Pacific salmon and towards Atlantic salmon. This way the stock of Atlantic salmon will begin to rise, also suggesting a rise of native Atlantic salmon spawning in the Salmon River and other tributaries. With declining Pacific salmon stocking and increasing Atlantic salmon, competition of food, spawning habitat, and space between Pacific salmon and Atlantic salmon would begin to favor Atlantic salmon as their population size increases. As Atlantic salmon stock increases, more tributaries would be 32

33 able to be stocked besides the Salmon River, further progressing restoration efforts. The increase of Atlantic salmon stock at the Tunison lab would also be beneficial to restoration, as the more Atlantic salmon being released the better. Education and promotion for the conservation of Atlantic salmon is essential if the restoration of Atlantic salmon in northern New York is to succeed. In relation to other solutions, it is low cost, short time scale, and extremely impactful if done correctly. Public forums, brochures, classes, signs, etc. If the restoration of Atlantic salmon is to persist, it will be important to provide them with a prey species or forage fish to eat. In relation to a project at Tunison Lab for Aquatic Research, Dr. Jim Johnson is stocking native Ciscos in Lake Ontario, a native bait fish of the salmonoids that acts as the perfect forage fish for Atlantic salmon (Rock). If ciscos are able to reestablish themselves in Lake Ontario, then it is likely that Atlantic salmon would have a much greater chance of establishing themselves in Lake Ontario as well. The continue stocking of Ciscos in addition to other forage fish for Atlantic salmon to feed on. Identification of Best Solutions The solutions that are most necessary are those that are low cost and will be most effective in restoring Atlantic salmon to northern New York. The first best solution may have to address Atlantic salmon preservation before restoration is the focus. As many Pacific salmon look very similar to Atlantic salmon, one of the biggest struggles for Atlantic salmon is anglers taking and killing them mistakenly for Pacific salmon (rock). If Atlantic salmon are not preserved and valued but the people who fish them, then restoration may not be as effective. This 33