Science of rugby league football: A review

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1 Journal of Sports Sciences, September 2005; 23(9): Science of rugby league football: A review TIM J. GABBETT Queensland Academy of Sport, Sunnybank, QLD, Australia (Accepted 30 October 2004) Abstract The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the science of rugby league football at all levels of competition (i.e. junior, amateur, semi-professional, professional), with special reference to all discipline-specific scientific research performed in rugby league (i.e. physiological, psychological, injury epidemiology, strength and conditioning, performance analysis). Rugby league football is played at junior and senior levels in several countries worldwide. A rugby league team consists of 13 players (6 forwards and 7 backs). The game is played over two min halves (depending on the standard of competition) separated by a 10 min rest interval. Several studies have documented the physiological capacities and injury rates of rugby league players. More recently, studies have investigated the physiological demands of competition. Interestingly, the physiological capacities of players, the incidence of injury and the physiological demands of competition all increase as the playing standard is increased. Mean blood lactate concentrations of 5.2, 7.2 and 9.1 mmol l 71 have been reported during competition for amateur, semi-professional and professional rugby league players respectively. Mean heart rates of 152 beats min 71 (78% of maximal heart rate), 166 beats min 71 (84% of maximal heart rate) and 172 beats min 71 (93% of maximal heart rate) have been recorded for amateur, semi-professional and junior elite rugby league players respectively. Skill-based conditioning games have been used to develop the skill and fitness of rugby league players, with mean heart rate and blood lactate responses during these activities almost identical to those obtained during competition. In addition, recent studies have shown that most training injuries are sustained in traditional conditioning activities that involve no skill component (i.e. running without the ball), whereas the incidence of injuries while participating in skill-based conditioning games is low. Collaborative research among the various sport science disciplines is required to identify strategies to reduce the incidence of injury and enhance the performance of rugby league players. An understanding of the movement patterns and physiological demands of different positions at all standards of competition would allow the development of strength and conditioning programmes to meet the precise requirements of these positions. Finally, studies investigating the impact of improvements in physiological capacities (including the effect of different strength and conditioning programmes) on rugby league playing performance are warranted. Keywords: Injury epidemiology, performance analysis, physiology, skill acquisition, strength and conditioning Introduction Rugby league football originated in the north of England in the 1890s and is played at junior and senior levels in several countries worldwide, including Australia, New Zealand, France, Russia, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Samoa and South Africa (Brewer & Davis, 1995; Meir, Newton, Curtis, Fardell, & Butler, 2001b). The game is played over two halves of min duration (depending on the standard of competition), separated by a 10 min rest interval. Players compete in a challenging contest involving frequent bouts of high-intensity activity (e.g. running and passing, sprinting, tackling), separated by short bouts of low-intensity activity (e.g. standing, walking, jogging). The physiological demands of rugby league are complex, requiring players to have highly developed speed, agility, muscular strength and power, and maximal aerobic power (Douge, 1987; Meir, 1994). A rugby league team consists of 13 players, with junior and amateur rugby league matches typically (but not always) played under an unlimited interchange rule, whereas professional rugby league teams are permitted a maximum of 12 interchange movements during the course of a match. Each team is allowed six tackles with the ball. The objective is to advance the ball down the field into the opposition s territory and score a try (touch down) (Gibbs, 1993; Gissane, Jennings, Kerr, & White, 2002). The ball must be passed backwards, but can be carried or Correspondence: T. J. Gabbett, Queensland Academy of Sport, PO Box 956, Sunnybank, QLD 4109, Australia. tim.gabbett@qld.gov.au ISSN print/issn X online ª 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd DOI: /

2 962 T. J. Gabbett kicked into the opposition s territory (Gissane et al., 2002). At the completion of each set of six tackles, the ball is immediately given to the opposition team to commence its set of six tackles (Gibbs, 1993). Therefore, the same players are involved both in attack and defence. The two major playing groups within a rugby league team are the forwards and backs. Team positions can also be classified according to the specific individual position played (i.e. prop, hooker, second row, lock, half-back, five-eighth, centre, wing and full-back), or according to four subgroups reflecting similar positional roles (i.e. props, hookers and halves, backrowers, and outside backs) (Clark, 2002; Meir et al., 2001b; O Connor, 1996). The demands placed on players vary according to the specific position played (Clark, 2002; Meir et al., 2001b; O Connor, 1996). Forwards are predominantly involved in large numbers of physical collisions and tackles, while backs spend more time in free running. Because of the high intensity of the game and the large number of physical collisions and tackles, musculoskeletal injuries are common (Gabbett, 2004a). Rationale for the review A review article addressing the applied physiology of rugby league has previously been published (Brewer & Davis, 1995). However, there was a paucity of scientific literature when this review appeared, and most scientific research was conducted on elite players. In addition, since Brewer and Davis s (1995) review was published, a change in defensive rules, requiring defensive players to retreat 10 m (rather than 5 m) following each tackle (Meir, Colla, & Milligan, 2001a), and the introduction of the limited interchange replacement rule, have resulted in increased physiological demands on rugby league players (Gabbett, 2005b; Orchard, Street, & Walker, 2003). Finally, no attempt has been made to review all scientific literature on rugby league, including physiological, psychological, injury epidemiology, strength and conditioning, and performance analysis research. With this in mind, the aim of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the science of rugby league football at all standards of competition (i.e. junior, amateur, semi-professional, professional). Directions for future research are also provided. Physiological and anthropometric characteristics Body composition Body mass and excess body fat have been shown to have a negative effect on sporting performance (e.g. power to body mass ratio, thermoregulation, aerobic capacity) (Meir et al., 2001b). Rugby league players have been shown to have higher body mass and percentage body fat than other team sport players, such as soccer and Australian footballers (O Connor, 1996). Mean body mass measurements of senior rugby league players have been reported to be in the range of kg (Gabbett, 2000c, 2002b; O Connor, 1995) with no significant differences among amateur, semi-professional and professional players (Gabbett, 2002b). Most (Brewer, Davis, & Kear, 1994; Gabbett, 2000c, 2002b; Meir, 1993b; Meir et al., 2001b) but not all (Gabbett, 2002c) studies have shown a higher body mass in forwards than backs. Body mass is the only physical characteristic that successfully predicts selection into a first grade rugby league team (Gabbett, 2002b), or as a forward or back (Gabbett, 2002c). Amateur rugby league players have 31% higher percentage body fat than professional players; however, percentage body fat is reported to be similar for forwards and backs (Gabbett, 2000c). The percentage body fat of professional rugby league players is reported to be significantly higher in forwards (15.2%) than backs (12.6%) (Brewer et al., 1994). Props and backrowers are predominantly responsible for the higher percentage body fat of forwards (O Connor, 1996). Meir (1993a) reported that elite forwards had significantly greater skinfold thicknesses than elite backs throughout the competitive season. Forwards spend significantly more playing time involved in tackles (Meir, Arthur, & Forrest, 1993) and physical collisions (Larder, 1992; Stephenson, Gissane, & Jennings, 1996) than backs, so it is likely that the larger body mass of forwards assists in the development of greater impact forces associated with these events. It has also been suggested that higher percentage body fat in forwards may act as means of protection from impact injuries (Meir, 1993a); however, to date, no scientific evidence exists to support this claim. Maximal aerobic power Several studies have documented the physiological characteristics of rugby league players, with the fitness of players increasing as the playing standard improves (Brewer et al., 1994; Gabbett, 2000c, 2002b,c; Gabbett & Herzig, 2004; Meir et al., 2001b; O Connor, 1996). Professional rugby league players train 5 6 days per week (Hodgson-Phillips, Standen, & Batt, 1998; Stephenson et al., 1996), often performing multiple training sessions each day (Gabbett, 2002b). As a result, the physiological characteristics of professional rugby league players are well developed. Larder (1992) reported a mean maximal aerobic power (V O 2max ) of

3 Science of rugby league ml kg 71 min 71 in an international squad before an overseas tour. Allen (1989) reported a mean V O 2max of 55.8 ml kg 71 min 71 in regional (and national) representative rugby league players at the end of a competitive rugby league season. Other studies of the physiological characteristics of professional rugby league players have reported mean estimated V O 2max values in the range of ml kg 71 min 71 (Brewer et al., 1994; O Connor, 1995, 1996). In contrast, the maximal aerobic power of amateur rugby league players is poorly developed, with a recent study reporting that estimated V O 2max was 20 42% lower than in professional rugby league players (Gabbett, 2000c). The poor aerobic fitness of amateur rugby league players, compared with that of professional rugby league players, was attributed to a low playing intensity, infrequent matches of short duration, and an inappropriate training stimulus (Gabbett, 2000c), although the higher percentage body fat may also contribute to the lower estimated V O 2max in these players. The mean estimated V O 2max of semiprofessional rugby league players at the beginning of a competitive season was reported to be ml kg 71 min 71 (Gabbett, 2002b) and 50.0 ml kg 71 min 71 during the competitive phase of the season after players had obtained match fitness (Gabbett, 2002c). Estimated V O 2max values of junior sub-elite rugby league players are in the range of ml kg 71 min 71 and improve progressively as playing standard improves (Gabbett, 2002c). However, Gabbett and Herzig (2004) reported higher estimated V O 2max ( ml kg 71 min 71 ) in junior elite rugby league players. Despite having contrasting match-play activities, the physiological characteristics of rugby league forwards and backs are remarkably similar, suggesting that fitness training for rugby league is similar for all positions (O Connor, 1995). Brewer et al. (1994) reported mean V O 2max values of 56.4 and 55.4 ml kg 71 min 71 in professional rugby league forwards and backs respectively. In a series of experiments, Gabbett (2000c, 2002b) also found similar V O 2max values between amateur rugby league forwards (38.1 ml kg 71 min 71 ) and backs (40.0 ml kg 71 min 71 ), and semi-professional rugby league forwards (45.8 ml kg 71 min 71 ) and backs (48.0 ml kg 71 min 71 ). The finding of similar physiological characteristics between amateur rugby league forwards and backs most likely reflects the similar training patterns of players, with a recent study reporting no differences between forwards and backs in the training time devoted to the development of muscular power, speed and aerobic fitness (Gabbett, 2000c). Although most studies have reported no differences in the physiological characteristics of rugby league forwards and backs, in a study of 260 professional rugby league players, O Connor (1996) reported differences among positional playing groups for V O 2max. Props (48.6 ml kg 71 min 71 ) and back-rowers (51.1 ml kg 71 min 71 ) had lower V O 2max than outside backs (52.8 ml kg 71 min 71 ), hookers (55.2 ml kg 71 min 71 ) and halves (52.0 ml kg 71 min 71 ). Using distance achieved during a 5 min run as an estimate of endurance, Meir et al. (2001b) found no differences between forwards and backs for distance achieved. However, distributors (hookers and half-backs) covered greater distances when running (1353m) than all other positions ( m). Finally, the V O 2max of under-16 backs (49.5 ml kg 71 min 71 ) was reported to be significantly higher than that of forwards (42.9 ml kg 71 min 71 ), suggesting that the volume and intensity of training might differ between forwards and backs in this age group (Gabbett, 2002c). Speed Rugby league players need to move quickly to position themselves in attack and defence (Meir et al., 2001b). However, professional rugby league studies have shown that players are rarely required to sprint distances greater than 40 m in a single bout of intense activity (Meir et al., 1993). This is particularly true for forwards, who are rarely required to sprint further than 10 m in a single bout of intense activity (Meir et al., 1993). Although no differences have been observed between forwards and backs for 10 m speed, backs are reported to be quicker over 40 m than forwards (Brewer et al., 1994; Clark, 2002; Gabbett, 2000c, 2002b; Gabbett & Herzig, 2004; Meir et al., 2001b; O Connor, 1996). No differences were reported between junior sub-elite rugby league forwards and backs for 10, 20 or 40 m speed (Gabbett, 2002c). However, junior elite backs are reported to be faster than junior elite forwards (Gabbett & Herzig, 2004). A progressive increase in speed has been reported as the playing standard improves (Gabbett, 2002b,c; Gabbett & Herzig, 2004). Measurements of 10 and 40 m speed of 2.58 and 6.63 s respectively have been reported for amateur rugby league players (Gabbett, 2000c). Semi-professional rugby league players are faster than amateur players, with times over 10 and 40 m of 2.17 and 6.04 s respectively (Gabbett, 2002b). The speed of professional rugby league players over 10 and 40 m has been reported as and s respectively (Baker & Nance, 1999; Brewer et al., 1994; Meir et al., 2001b; O Connor, 1996). Outside backs typically display the fastest speed over m (Clark, 2002; O Connor,

4 964 T. J. Gabbett 1996). Clark (2002) reported that outside backs were faster than props, hookers and halves, and backrowers during 10 and 40 m sprints. O Connor (1996) also reported that outside backs and halves were significantly faster than back-rowers, props and hookers. Repeated sprint ability Given the highly intense, intermittent nature of rugby league, repeated sprint ability is important. For example, a player who makes the effort to move quickly off the defensive line, make a cover-defending tackle and then chase from first marker requires the ability to generate high power, and then recover quickly to produce further high-intensity efforts. Few studies have examined the repeated-sprint ability of rugby league players (Clark, 2002; O Connor, 1996). Clark (2002) and O Connor (1996) used a m sprint and an m sprint (each sprint performed every 30 s), respectively, to assess repeated sprint ability. The objective of the repeated sprint ability test was to run each repetition as close as possible to the players maximum sprint time (O Connor, 1996). O Connor (1996) reported no differences between playing positions for repeated sprint ability in professional rugby league players. A subsequent study demonstrated differences between playing positions, with hookers and halves demonstrating the lowest speed decrement (5.1%), followed by back-rowers (6.2%), outside backs (6.2%) and props (7.1%) (Clark, 2002). Furthermore, a smaller speed decrement in elite (3.0%) versus non-elite (6.8%) players was also reported. To date, no study has investigated the repeated sprint ability of junior, amateur or semi-professional rugby league players. Agility Rugby league players require the ability to accelerate, decelerate and change direction rapidly (Meir, 1993a). Several different tests have been used to assess agility in rugby league players, making comparisons between studies difficult. Using the L- run to assess agility in professional rugby league players, Meir (1993a) reported mean agility times of 5.46 and 5.37 s for forwards and backs respectively. Gabbett (2002b) reported mean Illinois agility times of 17.1 s in semi-professional rugby league players. No differences in agility were found between firstgrade (16.9 s) and second-grade (17.4 s) players; however, backs (16.6 s) were more agile than forwards (17.2 s) (Gabbett, 2002b). Illinois agility scores for junior (under-13 to under-19) sub-elite rugby league players are in the range of s, with agility improving as playing standard improves (Gabbett, 2002c). However, no differences were detected between junior forwards and backs for agility. O Connor (1996) evaluated the agility of professional rugby league players using the glycolytic agility test (O Connor, 1992). No differences were observed between outside backs, halves, back-rowers and hookers, although, as anticipated, props were less agile than outside backs. Muscular strength and power The ability to generate high muscular force rapidly is an important attribute of rugby league players. Players are required to have high muscular strength to perform effectively the tackling, lifting, pushing and pulling tasks that occur during a match (Meir et al., 2001b). In addition, high muscular strength and power are required to provide fast play-the-ball speed and leg drive in tackles. Several studies have examined the strength characteristics of rugby league players (Atkins, 2004; Baker, 2001ab, 2002, 2003; Baker and Nance, 1999; Baker, Nance, & Moore, 2001ab; Meir, 1993a; O Connor, 1996; Warman, Humphries, & Coutts, 2000). Meir (1993a) reported differences in one-repetition maximum (1-RM) squat (188 vs. 168 kg) and bench press (119 vs. 113 kg) strength in forwards and backs. These findings were confirmed by O Connor (1996), who reported greater 3-RM squat, bench press and power clean values in props and back-rowers than hookers, halves and outside backs. Baker and colleagues (Baker & Nance, 1999; Baker et al., 2001a,b) reported 3-RM squat and power clean values of 158 and 102 kg respectively, and 1-RM bench press and squat values of 130 and 165 kg respectively, in professional rugby league players. Differences in strength have been reported between younger ( 5 24 years) and older ( 4 28 years) professional rugby league players, with younger players having higher 1- RM squat (183 vs. 153 kg) and bench press (143 vs. 127 kg) scores than older players (Baker, 2003). However, professional rugby league players were reported to have greater upper body strength and power than college-aged and junior high school-aged rugby league players (Baker, 2001a, 2002). The greater strength and power in professional rugby league players was attributed, in part, to neural adaptations (e.g. increased effectiveness of neural patterning of the skill of strength exercises, diminished antagonist co-contraction, synchronous firing of motor units, and reduced inhibitory feedback from force receptors) that occurred with long-term periodized strength and power training (Baker, 2002). Muscle tissue adaptations (e.g. changes in the muscle fibre or myosin heavy chain) were also suggested as possible explanations for the greater strength and power of professional rugby league players (Baker, 2002). Warman et al. (2000) reported

5 Science of rugby league RM squat and bench press strength of 158 and 112 kg respectively in semi-professional rugby league players. No study has investigated the muscular strength of amateur rugby league players. Most rugby league studies have assessed leg muscular power using the vertical jump test (Gabbett, 2000c, 2002b,c; O Connor, 1996). A progressive improvement in muscular power as playing standard increased was reported in junior elite (Gabbett & Herzig, 2004) and sub-elite (Gabbett, 2002b,c) rugby league players. Vertical jump performance for junior (under-13 to under-19) sub-elite rugby league players ranged from 28.2 to 37.9 cm, with no differences between forwards and backs (Gabbett, 2002c). Junior elite rugby league players have been reported by Gabbett and Herzig (2004) to have better vertical jump performance ( cm) than junior sub-elite (Gabbett, 2002c) and junior regional development (Coutts, Murphy, & Dascombe, 2004) rugby league players. A progressive improvement in muscular power was also observed among amateur, semi-professional and professional rugby league players (Gabbett, 2002b). Studies of amateur rugby league have reported vertical jump performance of 38.1 cm, a value 30% lower than that of professional rugby league players (Gabbett, 2000c). The high percentage body fat of amateur rugby league players most likely contributes to the inferior speed and muscular power of these athletes by reducing both the power to body mass ratio and performance in match-specific tasks (McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 1996). The muscular power of amateur rugby league forwards (37.1 cm) and backs (39.3 cm) has been reported to be similar (Gabbett, 2000c). No differences were observed between first-grade and second-grade semi-professional rugby league players for muscular power, although forwards had significantly lower muscular power than backs (40.7 vs cm) (Gabbett, 2002b). Furthermore, no positional differences were observed among professional rugby league players for muscular power, with vertical jump scores ranging from 52.2 to 56.1 cm (O Connor, 1996). Finally, Baker (2003) reported differences between younger and older professional rugby league players for upper body and lower body muscular power, as measured from a bench press throw and jump squat test respectively. Changes in physiological and anthropometric characteristics over a competitive season While several studies have documented the physiological and anthropometric characteristics of rugby league players, few researchers have examined changes in the fitness of rugby league players over a competitive season (Coutts, Reaburn, Murphy, Watsford, & Spurrs, 2003b; Gabbett, 2005a; Pyne, Duthie, & Johnson, 2003). The physiological and anthropometric characteristics of amateur, semiprofessional and junior elite rugby league players have been shown to change over the course of the season, with the most marked improvement in the early stages of the season (Coutts et al., 2003b; Gabbett, 2005a; Pyne et al., 2003). There is also evidence to suggest that fitness may deteriorate as the season progresses (Gabbett, 2005a; Pyne et al., 2003). The improvements in fitness in the early stages of the season have been attributed to the high training loads experienced (Coutts et al., 2003b; Gabbett, 2005a), while reductions in fitness as the season progresses could be due to increased playing commitments (Gabbett, 2005a; Pyne et al., 2003). Indeed, Gabbett (2005a) reported increases in V O 2max and muscular power, and reductions in skinfold thicknesses, in amateur rugby league players during the early phases of the season when training loads were highest. However, reductions in muscular power and V O 2max, and increases in skinfold thicknesses, occurred towards the end of the rugby league season, when training loads were lowest and match loads and injury rates were at their highest. These findings were attributed to a high overall playing intensity in end-season matches, more injuries in the latter half of the season, and residual fatigue associated with limited recovery time between successive matches (Gabbett, 2005a). Performance analysis Time motion analysis Time motion studies have been used to determine the movement patterns of rugby league players (Meir et al., 1993, 2001a). Meir and colleagues (1993, 2001a) performed a time motion analysis of professional rugby league players before and after the introduction of the 10 m defensive rule. Time motion studies conducted under both the 5 m and 10 m defensive rules have revealed that the majority of match-play is spent in low-intensity activities such as standing, walking and jogging. However, while most match-play is spent in low-intensity activities, high-intensity activities such as sprinting, physical collisions and tackles place considerable demands on the anaerobic energy systems (Meir et al., 1993). The respective mean running distance of forwards and backs increased from 6647 and 7336 m during matches played under the 5 m defensive rule to 9929 and 8458 m respectively during matches played under the 10 m defensive rule (Meir et al., 1993, 2001a). Forwards spent a greater percentage of time in high-intensity activities (e.g. jogging backwards and sprinting) during matches played under the

6 966 T. J. Gabbett 10 m defensive rule (3.3%) than during matches played under the 5 m defensive rule (0.8%) (Table I). However, the exercise-to-rest ratio of forwards and backs increased from 1:6 and 1:8 during matches played under the 5 m defensive rule to 1:10 and 1:7 for hookers and props respectively, and 1:12 and 1:28 for half-backs and wingers respectively (Meir et al., 2001a). Collectively, these findings suggest that the aerobic energy demands on professional rugby league players have increased with the introduction of the 10 m defensive rule. Others (Meir et al., 2001a), however, have suggested that the increased exercise-to-rest ratios could reflect the increased intensity of exercise performed when actively involved in play, resulting in the need for longer periods of recovery between high-intensity efforts. No study has performed a time motion analysis of amateur and semi-professional rugby league players. It is possible that because of differences in fitness and skill (e.g. poor ball control), the time spent in low-intensity activities might be greater in amateur than professional rugby league players. It has been suggested that the greater running distances required during match-play under the 10 m defensive rule provide an additional challenge to defending amateur rugby league players, thereby reducing the likelihood of effective tackles and increasing the risk of injury (Gabbett, 2003b). Studies of the impact of the 10 m defensive rule change on the physiological demands of amateur rugby league players are warranted. Physiological demands of competition The physiological demands of competition have been investigated in amateur (Gabbett, 2003a), semiprofessional (Coutts, Reaburn, & Abt, 2003a) and junior elite (Estell, Lord, Barnsley, Shenstone, & Kannangara, 1996) rugby league players. As anticipated, the intensity of matches increased as the playing standard increased (Table II). In one amateur rugby league match, Gabbett (2003a) reported a mean heart rate of 152 beats min 71, which equated to 78% of maximal heart rate. The mean heart rate of semi-professional and junior elite rugby league players during competition was 166 beats min 71 (Coutts et al., 2003a) and 172 beats min 71 (Estell et al., 1996) respectively. These values corresponded to an exercise intensity of 84% and 93% of maximal heart rate respectively. Moreover, players were shown to spend a considerable percentage (30 44%) of total match-play in high-intensity ( 4 85% maximal heart rate) activities (Coutts et al., 2003a; Estell et al., 1996), with the mean intensity of semi-professional matches reported to be 81.1% V O 2max (Coutts et al., 2003a). Mean blood lactate concentrations of 5.2 and 7.2 mmol l 71 have been reported during competition for amateur (Gabbett, 2003a) and semi-professional (Coutts et al., 2003a) rugby league players respectively, with blood lactate concentration being higher in the first half of matches (8.4 vs. 5.9 mmol l 71 ) (Coutts et al., 2003a). The blood lactate concentration during competition is higher in forwards (8.5 mmol l 71 ) than backs (6.5 mmol l 71 ) (Coutts et al., 2003a). Collectively, these findings demonstrate that competitive rugby league places considerable physiological demands on both the aerobic and anaerobic glycolytic energy systems. To date, most (Coutts et al., 2003a; Estell et al., 1996; Meir et al., 1993, 2001a) but not all (Gabbett, 2003a) studies of the movement patterns and physiological demands of rugby league competition have examined matches played under an unlimited interchange rule (i.e. unlimited number of interchanges during a match). In 2001, the National Rugby League introduced the limited interchange rule, with teams permitted a maximum of 12 Table I. Comparison of selected match-play activities during matches played under the 5 m and 10 m defensive rules 5 m defensive rule 10 m defensive rule Forwards Backs Forwards Backs Low intensity Walking (%) Cruising (%) Jogging forwards (%) High intensity Jogging backwards (%) Sprinting (%) Distance covered (m) Reproduced with permission from Meir (2001). Table II. Mean heart rate and blood lactate concentration of amateur, semi-professional and junior elite rugby league players during competition Heart rate (beats min 71 ) Heart rate (%HR max ) Peak heart rate (beats min 71 ) Blood lactate concentration (mmol l 71 ) Amateur Semiprofessional Junior elite Not reported Not measured Source: amateur (Gabbett, 2003a); semi-professional (Coutts et al., 2003a); junior elite (Estell et al., 1996). Reproduced with permission from Gabbett (2003a).

7 Science of rugby league 967 interchange replacements over the course of a match. This rule change, which has also recently been adopted by sub-elite rugby league competitions, is likely to increase the physiological demands on players, forcing them to compete in a fatigued state (Orchard et al., 2003). Further studies are required to determine the movement patterns and physiological demands of matches played under the limited interchange rule. Thermoregulatory responses during training and competition Several investigators have studied the thermoregulatory responses during rugby league training (Meir & Murphy, 1998) and competition (Jennings, Robertson, Jennings, White, & Gissane, 1998; Meir, Brooks, & Shield, 2003; Meir, Davie, & Ohmsen, 1990; Meir, Lowdon, & Davie, 1994; Meir & Murphy, 1998). Strategies to prevent thermoregulatory stress are imperative, as even a small amount of dehydration (attributable to a 1% or greater reduction in body mass) can impair performance and may be medically dangerous (American College of Sports Medicine, 1996). Meir et al. (1990) investigated the thermoregulatory responses of 22 Australian professional rugby league players during matches. Body mass and estimated core (tympanic) temperature were measured before the match, at half-time and immediately after the match. The mean temperature and relative humidity for the matches were 248C and 67 73% respectively. Mean tympanic temperature for the forwards increased from 37.78C pre match to 38.28C at half-time and to 38.88C post match. Mean tympanic temperature for the backs increased from 37.98C pre match to 38.38C at half-time and to 38.58C post match. Body mass decreased by 2.2 kg (2.4%) and 1.2 kg (1.5%) in forwards and backs respectively. Jennings et al. (1998) examined body mass changes during 16 matches in professional rugby league players competing in the English Super League. The mean temperature and relative humidity were 22.98C and 73%, respectively. The mean reduction in body mass was 1.1 kg (1.2%), with the reduction being greater in forwards (1.5 kg, 1.5%) than in backs (0.9 kg, 1.1%). Over the course of the study, 13% of players experienced a 2 3% reduction in body mass, with 71.4% of players experiencing reductions of 2 3% in body mass when the temperature exceeded 298C. The mean reduction in body mass following training for rugby league is reported to be kg (Meir & Murphy, 1998). Meir et al. (1994) investigated the effect of three different types of jersey on thermoregulatory responses during warm, humid conditions. The participants were required to perform four 50 min treadmill efforts at 50% V O 2max in an environmental chamber with mean temperature and relative humidity of 27.68C and 65% respectively. The four trials were conducted with the participants wearing: (1) a traditional rugby league jersey with plastic patching, (2) a traditional rugby league jersey without plastic patching, (3) a lightweight alternative rugby league jersey without plastic patching, and (4) no upper-body garment. The reduction in body mass was greater with the traditional rugby league jersey with plastic patching (1.05 kg) than with the traditional rugby league jersey without plastic patching (0.99 kg) and lightweight alternative rugby league jersey without plastic patching (0.96 kg). In addition, the mean skin temperature throughout the entire exercise bout was significantly lower with the lightweight alternative rugby league jersey without plastic patching than with the traditional rugby league jerseys. The authors concluded that the traditional rugby league jersey worn by professional rugby league players could have a negative effect on heat dissipation mechanisms in warm, humid conditions. Collectively, these results suggest that rugby league training and competition may pose considerable thermoregulatory demands on players. Strategies to reduce the impact of thermoregulatory stress on rugby league players could include weighing players pre and post training and matches, educating players about the role of fluid intake and its relevance to performance and recovery, and implementing appropriate fluid intake and acclimatization protocols (Meir & Murphy, 1998). Injury epidemiology Incidence of match injuries Several studies have documented the incidence of match injuries in rugby league (Alexander, Kennedy, & Kennedy, 1979, 1980; Estell, Shenstone, & Barnsley, 1995; Gabbett, 2000b, 2001c, 2002a, 2003b, 2004a,b,c, 2005a,b; Gabbett & Domrow, 2005; Gibbs, 1993; Gissane, Jennings, Cumine, Stephenson, & White, 1997a; Gissane, Jennings, Jennings, White, & Kerr, 2001a; Gissane, Jennings, Kerr, & White, 2002, 2003a; Gissane, Jennings, & Standing, 1993; Gissane, Jennings, White, & Cumine, 1998; Gissane, Phillips, Jennings, White, & Cumine, 1997b; Gissane, White, Kerr, & Jennings, 2001b; Gissane, White, Kerr, Jennings, & Jennings, 2003b; Hodgson-Phillips et al., 1998; Lythe & Norton, 1992; Norton & Wilson, 1995; Orchard, 2004; Orchard et al., 2003; Raftery, Parker, Stacey, Peat, & Wang, 1999; Seward, Orchard, Hazard, & Collinson, 1993; Stephenson et al., 1996; Walker, 1985), with injury rates typically increasing as

8 968 T. J. Gabbett playing standard increases. There is evidence to show that injury rates are higher in rugby league than most other collision sports (Gabbett, 2003b, 2004a; Gibbs, 1993; Gissane et al., 2002, 2003b; Seward et al., 1993). A 3 year prospective study of all injuries sustained by amateur rugby league players reported an overall incidence of injury of per 1000 player-position game hours (Gabbett, 2000b). The incidence of injury in professional rugby league players has been reported to be as high as 214 (Estell et al., 1995), 278 (Alexander et al., 1979) and 346 (Hodgson-Phillips et al., 1998) injuries per 1000 player-position game hours. The fold higher injury rates in professional rugby league players have been attributed to a higher playing intensity at the elite level (Gibbs, 1993; Gissane et al., 1993; Stephenson et al., 1996). Despite the higher playing intensity in professional rugby league, the incidence of injury in semi-professional rugby league players has been reported to be as high as per 1000 player-position game hours (Gabbett, 2003b). Progressive increases in the incidence of injury have been reported over consecutive seasons in amateur (Gabbett, 2000b), semi-professional (Gabbett, 2003b) and professional (Hodgson-Phillips et al., 1998) rugby league players. Hodgson-Phillips et al. (1998) also reported a further increase in match injury rates when players were given an insufficient off-season to recover from injuries. These findings suggest that pre-existing injury and player fatigue may contribute to match injuries in rugby league players. The incidence of junior rugby league injuries resulting in missed matches is per 1000 player-position game hours (Estell et al., 1995; Raftery et al., 1999). Moreover, the injury rates of pre-pubertal, peri-pubertal and post-pubertal rugby league players have been shown to increase progressively as the playing standard improves (Raftery et al., 1999). The increased injury rate with increasing age has been associated with an increase in speed and body mass (Gabbett, 2002c), and greater impact forces between players (Raftery et al., 1999). The incidence of amateur rugby league injuries resulting in missed matches is 26.8 per 1000 player-position game hours (Gabbett, 2001c). Professional rugby league is associated with a higher incidence of injury, resulting in injuries per 1000 player-position game hours (Estell et al., 1995; Gibbs, 1993; Gissane et al., 1993, 2002; Hodgson-Phillips et al., 1998; Orchard, 2004; Seward et al., 1993). The incidence of semiprofessional rugby league injuries resulting in missed matches is reported to be as high as 67.7 per 1000 player-position game hours (Gabbett, 2003b). The greater access to specialized medical staff and the greater pressure to return to sport after injury could explain the lower incidence of injury in professional than in semi-professional players (Gabbett, 2003b). Approximately % of rugby league injuries are major, resulting in five or more missed matches (Gabbett, 2001c, 2003b; Gibbs, 1993; Hodgson-Phillips et al., 1998). These results demonstrate that the incidence of match injuries in rugby league players is alarmingly high and that a considerable number of injuries are severe, resulting in a significant loss of playing time. Rugby league injuries are also associated with significant longterm job limitations, medical costs and loss of income (Gabbett, 2001c; Meir, McDonald, & Russell, 1997, Weatherby, Meir, Gilmore, & Lanfear, 1999). Gabbett (2001c) reported that the respective median direct (e.g. medical expenses) and indirect (e.g. wages lost) costs associated with amateur rugby league injuries were and per playing injury, with 55 80% of players reporting medical costs, job limitations or loss of income as a result of the injury. Meir et al. (1997) reported that 4 6% of retired professional rugby league players experienced long-term job limitations, medical costs and loss of income as a result of injuries sustained while playing. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that rugby league injuries are associated with marked immediate and long-term consequences and economic costs. Site, type and cause of injury. Although an early rugby league study identified the knee as the major site of injury (Gibbs, 1993), most recent studies have reported that head and neck injuries are most commonly sustained by rugby league players (Alexander et al., 1980; Gabbett, 2000b; Gissane et al., 1993, 1997; Seward et al., 1993; Stephenson et al., 1996). Gabbett (2000b) reported that injuries to the head and neck accounted for 25.3% of all amateur rugby league injuries. Facial (13.3%), abdomen and thorax (13.3%), and knee injuries (11.1%) were less common among amateur rugby league players. Alexander et al. (1980) and Stephenson et al. (1996) found that 28.8% and 33.3% respectively of all professional rugby league injuries were to the head and neck. The thigh and calf (17.9%), knee (10.2%), and thorax and abdomen (9.2%) are less common sites of injury for professional rugby league players (Stephenson et al., 1996). Although most injuries sustained in rugby league are head and neck injuries, the thigh and calf are the most common sites of injury in semi-professional players, with only 10% of injuries reported to be to the head and neck (Gabbett, 2003b). Raftery et al. (1999) also reported that the majority of junior rugby league injuries were to the lower limb (knee, 13.9%; ankle, 13.1%), while head and neck injuries were less common (10.7%). Variations in playing styles, defensive strategies or

9 Science of rugby league 969 coaching philosophies could explain the different sites of injury at the different standards of competition. Raftery et al. (1999) reported that fractures were the most common type of injury sustained by junior rugby league players aged 6 17 years. However, the majority of studies of senior rugby league have shown that the most common types of injury sustained during rugby league matches are haematomas and strains (Alexander et al., 1979; Gabbett, 2000b, 2003b; Gissane et al., 1993, 1997a; Hodgson-Phillips et al., 1998; Norton & Wilson, 1995; Stephenson et al., 1996; Walker, 1985). In a 3 year study of amateur rugby league injuries, it was shown that 28.5% of all injuries were muscular (haematomas and strains). Haematomas and strains accounted for 32.9% and 32.3% of semi-professional (Gabbett, 2003b) and professional (Gissane et al., 1993) rugby league injuries respectively. Contusions (Alexander et al., 1980; Seward et al., 1993), lacerations (Seward et al., 1993) and joint injuries (Gabbett, 2001c; Gissane et al., 1998; Norton & Wilson, 1995; Raftery et al., 1999; Walker, 1985) are also commonly sustained by rugby league players, with severe joint injuries most commonly responsible for players missing matches (Gabbett, 2001c; Gibbs, 1993; Gissane et al., 1998; Norton & Wilson, 1995). Most injury surveillance studies have identified the tackle as the most common cause of rugby league injuries (Gabbett, 2001c, 2003c; Gissane et al., 1993, 1997a; Raftery et al., 1999; Stephenson et al., 1996). Indeed, % of injuries have been shown to be sustained in tackles (Gabbett, 2001c, 2003c; Gissane et al., 1997a; Raftery et al., 1999; Stephenson et al., 1996). These findings are understandable given that players are involved in a mean of 41 physical collisions per match (Gissane et al., 2001b). In a 9 year prospective study of one professional rugby league club, it was shown that 51.4% of injuries were sustained by the tackled player, 22.1% of injuries were sustained by the tackling player and 26.5% of injuries occurred in other undefined activities (Gissane et al., 2003a). Studies of injuries in amateur rugby league have also identified the tackle as the major cause of injury; however, unlike professional rugby league, injuries in the amateur game are most commonly sustained by the tackling player (35.7%), with injuries to the tackled player being less common (25.0%) (Gabbett, 2001b). High rates of injuries being sustained in tackles have also been reported in semi-professional rugby league (Gabbett, 2003b). Gabbett (2003b) demonstrated that 46.3% of injuries occurred in tackles, with 19.5% sustained by the tackling player and 26.8% sustained by the tackled player. In addition, injuries were also identified to have occurred through overexertion (7.8%), overuse (1.8%), collisions with opposing players and/or fixed objects (15.5%), falling and stumbling (5.5%), and slipping and tripping (0.3%). Raftery et al. (1999) reported that 51% of junior rugby league injuries were sustained by the tackled player, while 40% were sustained by the tackling player. Forwards versus backs. Injuries sustained in tackles are more common among forwards than backs, both when being tackled and while tackling (Gabbett, 2003b; Gissane et al., 1993, 1997a), which could reflect their greater involvement in tackles and physical collisions (Gissane et al., 2001b; Larder, 1992; Meir et al., 1993; Robinson, 1996; Stephenson et al., 1996). Indeed, most (Gabbett, 2000b, 2003b; Gissane et al., 1993, 1997a; Stephenson et al., 1996) but not all (Gissane et al., 1998, 2002) studies have shown higher match injury rates in forwards than backs. In a 4 year study of professional rugby league players, Gissane et al. (1997a) reported that forwards sustained 56.3% and backs 43.7% of all match injuries. Similar findings have been reported for amateur (forwards vs. backs: 52.4% vs. 47.6%) and semi-professional (forwards vs. backs: 58.0% vs. 42.0%) rugby league players (Gabbett, 2000a, 2003b). These findings reflect amateur rugby league forwards and backs means of 32 and 19 physical confrontations (tackles and being tackled) per match respectively (Robinson, 1996). A similar distribution of physical confrontations has been reported for professional rugby league forwards (36 55 per match) and backs (19 29 per match) (Gissane et al., 2001b; Larder, 1992). Studies reporting higher injury rates in backs have attributed this phenomenon to a greater match involvement by backs and a reduction in the amount of physical contact by the forwards (Gissane et al., 1998). In addition to having overall higher injury rates, amateur forwards have higher rates of head and neck, facial, and knee injuries than backs (Gabbett, 2000b). These findings have been confirmed in studies of professional rugby league, which have shown higher injury rates in forwards than backs for all injury sites except the ankle and other categories (Gissane et al., 1997a). To date, no study has compared the injury rates of junior rugby league forwards and backs. Time of injury. Over 70% of amateur rugby league injuries occur in the second half of matches, suggesting that fatigue or a fatigue-induced reduction in skill contributes to injuries in amateur rugby league players (Gabbett, 2000b). Conversely, comparatively fewer (38.5%) injuries are sustained by semi-professional players in the second half of matches (Gabbett, 2003b). These findings probably reflect the poor aerobic fitness of amateur players

10 970 T. J. Gabbett compared with semi-professional players (Gabbett, 2000c, 2002b). The lower rates of injury among semi-professional players in the second half of matches highlight the importance of aerobic fitness in preventing fatigue-related injuries in rugby league. Studies of injuries in professional rugby league have found that second half injuries are as prevalent as (Seward et al., 1993), or only slightly more prevalent than (Norton & Wilson, 1995), first half injuries. No study has reported injury occurrence in relation to the time of play (i.e. first half or second half) in junior rugby league players. Seasonal variations. Most injuries in amateur rugby league matches occur in the latter half of the season (Gabbett, 2000b). In addition, a progressive increase in match injuries occurs from the beginning to the end of the season. These findings have been attributed to accumulative microtrauma and/ or residual fatigue associated with limited recovery between matches (Gabbett, 2000b, 2005a). Studies of injuries in semi-professional rugby league have also demonstrated a progressive increase in injury rates during the course of a season, with injury rates peaking in the latter half of the season (Gabbett, 2003b). The finding of high match injury rates towards the end of the competitive season in semi-professional rugby league players has been attributed to increases in playing intensity as the finals series approaches (Gabbett, 2003b). These findings have been supported by Gabbett (2004c), who reported a significant correlation (r = 0.74) between match injury rates and match intensity in semi-professional rugby league players. Hodgson-Phillips et al. (1998) and Alexander et al. (1980) reported that more injuries occurred towards the end of the competitive season in professional rugby league players, while Seward et al. (1993) and Gissane et al. (1993) reported more injuries in the early stages of the season in professional rugby league players. No study has documented the seasonal variations in injury rates of junior rugby league players. Influence of the limited interchange rule on injury rates. Despite the suggestion that the physiological demands on players are increased under the limited interchange rule, a recent study reported that fewer professional rugby league players left the field through injury during matches played under the limited interchange rule than the unlimited interchange rule (Orchard et al., 2003). Gabbett (2005b) reported that the relative risk of injury decreased by 30% in sub-elite rugby league players following the introduction of the limited interchange rule. The risk of sustaining thigh and calf injuries, muscular strains and high-intensity running injuries was reduced following the introduction of the limited interchange rule. It was hypothesized that the limited interchange rule increased the physiological demands on players, thereby reducing match speed and minimizing the impact forces associated with physical collisions and tackles (Gabbett, 2005b). Risk factors for injury. The implementation and evaluation of effective injury prevention strategies is dependent on the identification of injury risk factors (van Mechelen, Hlobil, & Kemper, 1992). To date, only one study has investigated risk factors for injury in rugby league players (Gabbett & Domrow, 2005). In a 4 year prospective study of sub-elite rugby league players, Gabbett and Domrow (2005) reported a higher risk of injury in players who were slower over 10 and 40 m. Players with a low estimated V O 2max had a greater risk of sustaining a contact injury. In addition, players that completed less than 18 weeks of training before sustaining their initial injury were at greater risk of sustaining a subsequent injury. These findings provide some explanation for the high incidence of fatigue-related injuries in rugby league players (Gabbett, 2000b). Furthermore, these findings highlight the importance of speed and endurance training to reduce the incidence of injuries in sub-elite rugby league players. Further studies investigating the relationship between injury and other potential risk factors (e.g. players physique, skill, attitudes towards violence and foul play, and environmental and ground conditions) are warranted. Incidence of training injuries Although several studies have documented the incidence of match injuries in rugby league, few have reported the incidence of rugby league training injuries (Gabbett, 2002d, 2003b, 2004c,d, 2005a; Gissane et al., 1993; Hodgson-Phillips et al., 1998). Of the studies that have been published, training injury rates have been shown to be considerably lower than match injury rates (Gabbett, 2003b; Hodgson-Phillips et al., 1998). When all injuries are considered, the incidence of training injuries in semi-professional rugby league players is per 1000 training hours (Gabbett, 2002d, 2003b). Training injury rates have been shown to be lower in professional rugby league players (12.2 per 1000 training hours), perhaps reflecting greater access to specialized medical support staff (Hodgson-Phillips et al., 1998). Training injuries resulting in missed matches are uncommon. Over a period of 2 years, the incidence of semi-professional training injuries resulting in a subsequent missed match was reported to be one injury per 1000 training hours (Gabbett, 2003b).

11 Science of rugby league 971 Professional rugby league training injuries resulting in missed matches has also been shown to be low (1.4 injuries per 1000 training hours) (Hodgson- Phillips et al., 1998). No study has documented the incidence and severity of training injuries in junior or amateur rugby league players. Site, type and cause of injury. Of the few studies that have documented the incidence of training injuries, the thigh and calf have been the most common sites of injury (Gabbett, 2002d, 2003b). Indeed, the majority (72.1%) of training injuries are sustained in the lower limb (thigh and calf, knee, and ankle and foot) (Gabbett, 2002d). Muscular strains are the most common type of training injury, whereas joint injuries and contusions are less common (Gabbett, 2002d, 2003b). Overuse and over-exertion are the major causes of injury (Gabbett, 2003b). Rugby league players require the ability to accelerate, decelerate and change direction (Meir, 1993a). The higher training injury rates for joint injuries and muscular strains, coupled with the high incidence of over-exertion injuries, may therefore reflect an increased emphasis on game-specific speed, power and agility conditioning drills. Forwards versus backs. In a 2 year study of semiprofessional rugby league injuries, it was shown that forwards had a higher incidence of training injuries than backs (52.7 vs per 1000 training hours) (Gabbett, 2003b). Forwards had higher rates of head and neck, shoulder, thigh and calf, knee, and ankle and foot injuries than backs, and more commonly sustained muscular strains and overuse injuries (Gabbett, 2002d, 2003b). The higher incidence of training injuries in forwards could reflect a progression towards increased training specificity to maximize training adaptations and cater for the specific skills and physiological demands of different playing positions. Time of injury. The majority (55.3%) of training injuries occur in the latter stages of training sessions (Gabbett, 2003b). Rugby league teams often integrate skills and conditioning sessions to facilitate the development of skills under fatigued conditions (Gabbett, 2002b). The finding of higher injury rates in the latter stages of training sessions suggests that fatigue may contribute to rugby league training injuries (Gabbett, 2003b). Seasonal variations. Recent evidence from semiprofessional players has shown that the majority of rugby league training injuries occur in the early stages of the season (Gabbett, 2003b, 2004c, 2005a). The early season incidence of injury of per 1000 training hours is 2.6-fold higher than the seasonal mean injury rate (45.3 per 1000) (Gabbett, 2003b). However, while training injury rates are highest in the early stages of the season for semiprofessional rugby league players, similar injury patterns have not been observed in professional rugby league players (Gissane et al., 1993; Hodgson- Phillips et al., 1998). Strength and conditioning The greatest training benefits occur when the training stimulus simulates the specific movement patterns and physiological demands of the sport (Rushall & Pyke, 1990). Based on observations from time motion studies, several recommendations for training have been made (Meir et al., 1993, 2001a). Because of the high number of physical confrontations in a match (e.g. tackling, being tackled, playing the ball after being tackled to the ground), it is necessary to develop the strength and power of players (Meir et al., 2001a). In addition, Meir et al. (2001a) suggested that in professional rugby league, every 4 s of high-intensity activity is followed by approximately s of low-intensity activity, with no single high-intensity effort exceeding 10 s. Consequently, it has been suggested that the aerobic and anaerobic alactic (ATP-CP) energy systems are the major energy pathways stressed during professional rugby league, and that strength and conditioning programmes for professional rugby league should attempt to train these specific energy systems (Meir et al., 2001a). However, investigations of the physiological demands of competition suggest that considerable demands are placed on the anaerobic glycolytic energy system during amateur and semiprofessional rugby league matches (Coutts et al., 2003a; Gabbett, 2003a; O Connor, 2004). Collectively, these findings suggest the need for specific training of the anaerobic alactic (ATP-CP), anaerobic glycolytic and aerobic energy systems in rugby league players. Interval training using distances and activities specifically related to competition, such as moving up and back over 10 m for periods of s, repeat tackling efforts on a bag for 5 10 repetitions, and sprint efforts over distances ranging from 5 to 60 m with varying exercise-to-rest ratios, has been recommended for rugby league players (Meir et al., 2001a). More recently, skill-based conditioning games have been used to develop the skill and fitness of rugby league players (Gabbett, 2001a). The advantage of skill-based conditioning games over traditional interval training is that skill-based conditioning games also provide the opportunity to develop decision-making and problem-solving skills (Gabbett, 2001a). Gabbett (2002d) examined the incidence of training injuries in semi-professional

12 972 T. J. Gabbett rugby league players and identified the training activities that were most likely to result in injury. Most training injuries (90.9 per 1000 training hours, 37.5%) were sustained in traditional conditioning activities that involved no skill component (i.e. running without the ball). In contrast, the incidence of injuries sustained while participating in skill-based conditioning games (26.0 per 1000 training hours, 10.7%) was low. In a subsequent study, the specificity of skill-based conditioning games as a training stimulus was investigated (Gabbett, 2003a). Using skill-based conditioning games designed to develop scrambling defence and support play, playthe-ball speed, defensive line speed, ball control and patience, it was shown that the heart rate and blood lactate responses during skill-based conditioning games were almost identical to those seen in competition (Table III). Collectively, these findings demonstrate that skill-based conditioning games offer a safe, effective and specific method of conditioning for rugby league players. Several studies have examined the adaptative responses of rugby league players to training (Coutts, Reaburn, Piva, & Rowsell, 2002a,b; Coutts et al., 2004; Gabbett, 2004d; O Connor, 1998; Warman et al., 2000). Warman et al. (2000) reported a % increase in 3-RM squat and bench press strength, chin-ups to failure and V O 2max in response to a 6 month pre-season strength and conditioning programme in semi-professional rugby league players. Baker (2001b) reported an improvement in 1-RM bench press strength and unchanged upperand lower-body muscular power over a 19 week inseason strength programme in semi-professional rugby league players. A 29 week in-season strength programme failed to elicit changes in 1-RM bench press strength, and upper- and lower-body muscular power, in professional rugby league players (Baker, 2001b). O Connor (1998) conducted a 10 week inseason anaerobic training programme in professional rugby league players and reported an improvement in the anaerobic capacity of the players, as evidenced by greater lactate tolerance and total work outputs during a 60 s maximal effort test. Coutts et al. (2002a,b) investigated the training responses of Table III. Mean heart rate and blood lactate concentration of rugby league players during competition and training consisting entirely of skill-based conditioning games Training Match Heart rate (beats min 71 ) Heart rate (%HR max ) Peak heart rate (beats min 71 ) Blood lactate concentration (mmol l 71 ) Reproduced with permission from Gabbett (2003a). semi-professional rugby league players in response to over-reaching. Players were either well-trained or deliberately over-reached for 6 weeks. Maximal oxygen uptake was reduced in the over-reaching group throughout the training period. However, following a 7 day taper, V O 2max increased to a greater extent in the over-reaching group. Training loads have been shown to be greatest during the early stages of the season (Gabbett, 2004c). In addition, training injury rates are strongly correlated (r = 0.86) with increases in training loads, suggesting that the harder rugby league players train, the more injuries they will sustain (Gabbett, 2004c). Based on this evidence, the influence of reductions in pre-season training loads on the incidence of training injuries and improvements in fitness was investigated in 220 semi-professional rugby league players over three consecutive pre-season periods (Gabbett, 2004d). After the initial pre-season period, training loads were reduced by % through reductions in training duration and training intensity. The reductions in training loads were associated with a % reduction in training injury rates. Furthermore, the increases in V O 2max progressively improved across the three seasons. Using the minimum clinically important difference to determine practical significance, there was a 62 88% probability that the pre-season improvements in V O 2max in the latter seasons were of greater physiological significance than the improvements in V O 2max in the initial season. These results demonstrate that reductions in pre-season training loads can reduce training injury rates and result in greater improvements in V O 2max in rugby league players (Gabbett, 2004d). Psychology Few studies have investigated the psychological and behavioural factors associated with performance in rugby league. Further research into factors contributing to playing performance is warranted. Early research into the psychology of rugby league investigated attitudes towards violence and foul play (Mellor & Murphy, 1987). It was suggested that a large percentage (50 64%) of British amateur rugby league players injure an opponent through illegal play (Mellor & Murphy, 1987). In addition, it was reported that 58 64% of British amateur rugby league players start a fight or knock a dangerous opponent out of the game in an attempt to win a match (Mellor & Murphy, 1987). These findings may provide some explanation for the high incidence of head and neck injuries in amateur rugby league players (Gabbett, 2000b). However, minimal evidence supporting violent and illegal play was found in Australian amateur rugby league players (Gabbett,

13 Science of rugby league a). Indeed, 71% of players reported that they would not commit a foul tackle (i.e. high tackle or trip) on an opponent who was in an obvious scoring position. Sixty-seven percent of players stated that they would not knock a dangerous opponent out of the game, while less than 35% of players would start a fight if they thought it would help them win the game. Furthermore, the majority ( 4 58%) would not injure an opponent, or start a fight with an opponent, if instructed to do so by the coach (Gabbett, 2000a). More recently, research has focused on psychological factors that may contribute to the enhancement of rugby league performance (Golby, Sheard, & Lavallee, 2003). Given that factors other than skill and fitness could influence successful performance, Golby et al. (2003) examined mental toughness in four international rugby league teams (Wales, France, Ireland, England) competing in the 2000 Rugby League World Cup. Using a questionnaire to assess players self-confidence, negative energy, attention control, visualization and imagery control, motivation, positive energy, and attitude control, the authors found that superior mental toughness was related to improved rugby league performance. These findings lend support to the use of mental skills training in rugby league. Conclusions and directions for future research Collaborative research among the various sport science disciplines is required to identify strategies to reduce the incidence of injury and enhance the performance of rugby league players. For example, injury surveillance studies have shown that the majority of amateur rugby league injuries occur in the second half of matches, suggesting that fatigue, or a fatigue-induced reduction in skill, contributes to injuries (Gabbett, 2000b). The poor aerobic capacity of amateur rugby league players could explain, at least in part, the high incidence of fatigue-related injuries (Gabbett, 2000c). However, it is also possible that poor decision-making ability under fatigued conditions may contribute to injuries. Therefore, a collaborative approach between physiologists, injury epidemiologists and psychologists (skill acquisition specialists) to train decision-making ability under fatigued conditions may assist to improve performance, reduce injuries and maintain intensity in competition. Although the movement patterns in professional rugby league matches have been studied (Meir et al., 1993, 2001a), time motion analyses of junior, amateur and semi-professional rugby league matches have not been performed. It is possible that because of differences in fitness and skill, the movement patterns of sub-elite rugby league players could differ from those of professional rugby league players. Indeed, match heart rates and blood lactate concentrations have been shown to differ between amateur (Gabbett, 2003a), semi-professional (Coutts et al., 2003a) and junior elite (Estell et al., 1996) rugby league players, suggesting greater physiological demands as playing standard improves. It has been suggested that the greater running distances required during match-play under the 10 m defensive rule provide an additional physiological challenge to amateur rugby league players (Gabbett, 2003b). Therefore, time motion studies of amateur rugby league players are warranted. In addition, the movement patterns and physiological demands of specific individual positions have not been investigated. An understanding of the demands placed on individual positions would allow the development of strength and conditioning programmes to meet the specific requirements of these positions. With the advent of global positioning satellite system technology, specific information on the movement speed of players is now available that was previously unavailable to earlier time motion researchers (Meir et al., 1993, 2001a). Finally, while the physiological capacities of professional rugby league players are well developed (Baker, 2003; Baker & Nance, 1999; Brewer et al., 1994; Meir, 1993a; Meir et al., 2001b; O Connor, 1995, 1996), it is common to observe similar speed, agility, muscular power and V O 2max between firstgrade and second-grade players (Gabbett, 2002b). However, there is clearly a difference in performance between first-grade and second-grade players (Gabbett, 2001b). While improved fitness could lead to improved performance, no study has investigated if a causal relationship exists between fitness and performance. In addition, it is unclear if increases in physiological capabilities influence the intensity of exercise performed by rugby league players. Studies investigating the impact of improvements in physiological capabilities (including the effect of different strength and conditioning programmes) on rugby league playing performance are warranted. References Alexander, D., Kennedy, M., & Kennedy, J. (1979). Injuries in rugby league football. Medical Journal of Australia, 2, Alexander, D., Kennedy, M., & Kennedy, J. (1980). Rugby league football injuries over two competition seasons. Medical Journal of Australia, 2, Allen, G. D. (1989). Physiological and metabolic changes with six weeks detraining. Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 21, 4 9. American College of Sports Medicine (1996). Position stand on exercise and fluid replacement. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 28, i vii.

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15 Science of rugby league 975 Gissane, C., Jennings, D., Jennings, S., White, J., & Kerr, K. (2001a). Physical collisions and injury rates in professional super league rugby. Cleveland Medical Journal, 4, Gissane, C., Jennings, D., Kerr, K., & White, J. A. (2002). A pooled data analysis of injury incidence in rugby league football. Sports Medicine, 32, Gissane, C., Jennings, D., Kerr, K., & White, J. (2003a). Injury rates in rugby league football: Impact of change in playing season. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 31, Gissane, C., Jennings, D. C., & Standing, P. (1993). Incidence of injury in rugby league football. Physiotherapy, 79, Gissane, C., Jennings, D., White, J., & Cumine, A. (1998). Injury in summer rugby league football: The experiences of one club. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 32, Gissane, C., Phillips, L. H., Jennings, D., White, J., & Cumine, A. (1997b). Injury in rugby league football: The new super league. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 31, 85. 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Body weight and tympanic temperature change in professional rugby league players during night and day games: A study in the field. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17, Meir, R., Colla, P., & Milligan, C. (2001a). Impact of the 10- meter rule change on professional rugby league: Implications for training. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 23, Meir, R. A., Davie, A. J., & Ohmsen, P. (1990). Thermoregulatory responses of rugby league footballers playing in warm humid conditions. Sport Health, 8, Meir, R. A., Lowdon, B. J., & Davie, A. J. (1994). The effect of jersey type on thermoregulatory responses during exercise in a warm humid environment. Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 26, Meir, R. A., McDonald, K. N., & Russell, R. (1997). Injury consequences from participation in professional rugby league: A preliminary investigation. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 31, Meir, R., & Murphy, A. (1998). 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16 976 T. J. Gabbett Warman, G., Humphries, B., & Coutts, A. (2000). The effect of a six-month pre-season conditioning program on muscular strength and aerobic endurance in semi-professional rugby league players. In Proceedings of the Pre-Olympic Congress: International Congress on Sport Science, Sports Medicine, and Physical Education (p. 527). Brisbane: Sports Medicine Australia. Weatherby, R. P., Meir, R. A., Gilmour, D., & Lanfear, P. (1999). Long term injury consequences of a collision sport: The reported impact on players in Australia and England. In Proceedings of the Fifth International Olympic Committee World Congress on Sports Sciences (p. 245). Sydney: International Olympic Committee Medical Commission.

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