Gestão da Água. Caso de Estudo Águas costeiras e estuarinas

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1 Gestão da Água Caso de Estudo Águas costeiras e estuarinas J. Gomes Ferreira Universidade Nova de Lisboa 12 de Dezembro 2017

2 Nutrient loading to the coastal zone global budgets Performance of pond culture in Thailand Eutrophication the consequence of nutrient loading Nutrient inputs to the coastal zone, source apportionment Shellfish and top-down control Application of models to calculate farm-scale budgets Scaling to country-scale Water quality and economic indicators Final comments

3 Eutrophication in European seas Diaz, R.J. and R. Rosenberg Spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems. Science 321: Coastal eutrophication is a widespread phenomenon in Europe.

4 Eutrophication in the Yellow Sea Ulva prolifera in Jiaozhou Bay, NE China, 2013 Chlorophyll a (mg m -3 ) These macroalgal blooms have occurred annually for the last few years

5 Eutrophication in the Yellow Sea Ulva prolifera in Rizhao, NE China, 2015 Chlorophyll a (mg m -3 ) These macroalgal blooms have occurred annually for the last few years

6 Eutrophication in the Yellow Sea Ulva prolifera in Jiazhou Bay, NE China, 2017 Chlorophyll a (mg m -3 ) These macroalgal blooms have occurred annually for the last few years

7 Nutrient sources and coastal loading in Europe Region and source Nitrogen 10 3 t y -1 (% total) Phosphorus 10 3 t y -1 Norwegian and Barents Sea Direct sources 33.8 (36.6) 1.8 Finfish aquaculture 58.6 (63.4) 15.2 Sub-total Arctic waters Baltic Sea Point and diffuse sources 243 (29%) 592 (70.7) Sub-total Baltic Sea North Sea, Celtic Sea, Biscay Point and diffuse sources 368 (30.5%) 837 (69.4) Sub-total North Sea, Celtic Sea, Biscay Mediterranean Sea (including N. Africa) Nutrient hotspots and diffuse sources (12.9) (87.1) Finfish aquaculture (gilthead bream) 4.3 (0.2) 1.1 Finfish aquaculture (European seabass) 3.1 (0.2) 0.8 Sub-total Mediterranean Sea Total Europe (inc. N. Africa to Med.) Four million tonnes N, i.e X 10 6 PEQ, total population: 726 million.

8 Nutrient sources and coastal loading in the USA Region and source Nitrogen 10 3 t y -1 (% total) Phosphorus 10 3 t y -1 NE coast Rivers and estuaries (40.3) 17.6 Atmospheric (31.3) 13.7 SE coast Rivers and estuaries (19.4) 8.5 Atmospheric 60.0 (9.0) 3.9 Sub-total US east coast Gulf of Mexico Rivers and estuaries (88.2) Atmospheric (11.8) 18.2 Sub-total US Gulf of Mexico Pacific Northwest Point sources (21.8) 6.6 Diffuse sources (78.2) 23.6 Sub-total US Pacific NW Marine finfish aquaculture Total United States million tonnes N, i.e X 10 6 PEQ, total population: 319 million.

9 Nutrient sources and coastal loading in Canada Region and source Nitrogen 10 3 t y -1 (% total) Phosphorus 10 3 t y -1 NE Canada Rivers and estuaries (21.9) 10.4 Atmospheric (13.7) 6.5 St. Lawrence watershed Rivers and estuaries (46.6) 22.1 Atmospheric (17.8) 8.5 Finfish aquaculture 1.2 (0.2) 0.3 Sub-total Canadian east coast Western Canada Finfish aquaculture Sub-total Canadian west coast - - Total Canada thousand tonnes N, i.e. 222 X 10 6 PEQ, total population: 35 million.

10 Nutrient sources and coastal loading in China Region and source Nitrogen 10 3 t y -1 (% total) Phosphorus 10 3 t y -1 Major rivers Yangtze (62.5) Huanghe 16.5 (0.6) 0.8 Liaohe 3.8 (0.1) 0.3 Haihe 4.4 (0.2) 0.2 Huaihe 38.2 (1.4) 2.6 Qiantangjiang 47.3 (1.7) 1.7 Minjiang 87.0 (3.2) 3.2 Zhujiang (29.0) 30.6 Sub-total river loading (98.8) Coastal finfish aquaculture 32.8 (1.2) 8.5 Total China million tonnes N, i.e. 820 X 10 6 PEQ, total population: 1.4 billion. Norway now has more marine finfish culture than China (1.45 to 1.31 MMT y -1 )

11 Nutrient sources and loading to the coastal zone Summary for major areas of the world Country or region Nitrogen 10 3 t y -1 (% total) Phosphorus 10 3 t y -1 (% total) Europe United States Canada China Finfish aquaculture (1.0) 27.4 (3.3) Other sources (99.0) (96.7) Total Nutrient loading to the coastal zone from aquaculture is very low compared to other sources. Nevertheless, 70% of aquaculture worldwide takes place inland, and estimation of how much of that nitrogen reaches the coastal zone is a challenging calculation.

12 Nutrient sources and loading to the coastal zone Summary for major areas of the world Canada 7% China 24% United States 32% Europe 37% Canada 6% China 26% United States 27% Europe 41% Nitrogen Phosphorus Relative increase in phosphorus contribution indicates a greater role for finfish aquaculture.

13 Conceptual model of eutrophication Top-down control : the circuit-breaker between primary and secondary symptoms.

14 Aquaculture in Thailand - Mae Tak reservoir, Chiangrai Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus

15 Chiangrai pond culture, Thailand Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus

16 Species production from aquaculture Data for Thailand, % 3% 3% 3% 3% 12% 21% 51% White shrimp Tilapia Clarias Silver barb Gourami Pangasius Giant prawn Misc. sp. Species Tons y -1 Tilapia Clarias Silver barb Gourami Pangasius Giant prawn Misc. sp Total inland White shrimp White shrimp production is approximately the same as the total for inland aquaculture. Source: Department of Fisheries Thailand

17 Export of aquaculture products from Thailand Inland total and white shrimp Inland tons y M baht y M euro y -1 White shrimp tons y M baht y M euro y -1 27% 12% 24% 6% 6% 14% 36% 37% 23% 15% USA EU East Asia Asian countries USA EU Japan Canada Australia other White shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) is a high value product. During , export was ten times more than inland export, and income was fifty-five times higher. Source: Department of Fisheries Thailand

18 Nile tilapia Central Thailand

19 Nile tilapia Central Thailand

20 Study areas in Thailand Tilapia in NW Thailand, IMTA in Western Thailand.

21 Modelling framework Field and experimental data combined with various models Selection of model farms for tilapia and shrimp Definition of culture practice Integration in the FARM farm-scale model Development of individual growth models Validation of production & analysis of externalities Farm-scale economic analysis National scaling of production, externalities, and economic indicators A combination of models helps address different aspects of sustainability.

22 Individual-based model for white shrimp Field and experimental data used to calibrate and validate IBM First, get the IBM working, then scale to the population level.

23 Individual mass balance for white shrimp cultivation Final weight: 12.8 g, AquaShrimp model White shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) weight in ponds varies between g.

24 Individual mass balance for Nile tilapia cultivation Final weight: 755 g, AquaFish model Average individual weight for three ponds (8 rai) in Chiangrai is 713±59 g.

25 IMTA culture practice Put the shrimp in first so the tilapia don t eat them.

26 Blinded by the light Luring the shrimp with an energy-efficient 220 V bulb Shrimp are lured at night and captured in concertina nets.

27 Cholburee, Thailand Integrated culture of tilapia and shrimp Shrimp go in for one week, then the tilapia are added and eat the Azolla.

28 FARM model Application to Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) FARM model for finfish and shellfish polyculture. J.G. Ferreira, L. Falconer, J. Kittiwanich, L. Ross, C. Saurel, K. Wellman, C.B. Zhu, P. Suvanachai, Analysis of production and environmental effects of Nile tilapia and white shrimp culture in Thailand. Aquaculture, 447,

29 Production and environmental effects of pond culture of Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) in monoculture - Chiangrai Variable FARM - tilapia Monoculture Model inputs Seeding density 3.13 fish per m 2 Data - tilapia monoculture 2 rai (3200 m 2 ) ponds Seeding density (kg FW) Model outputs Production Total (TPP) (kg TFW) Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) Environmental externalities Outflow of NH 4+ (kg N) Outflow of chlorophyll (kg chl) Profit and loss Total income = Aquaculture products ($) Total expenditure ($) Feed cost ($) Seed cost ($) Energy cost ($) Farm Profit = Income-Expenditure ($) FARM model: results per pond; Recorded data: average of three ponds

30 FARM model for culture of finfish Mass balance for pond culture of Nile tilapia in Chiangrai Mass balance for tilapia pond culture (4 ponds, 8 rai total area,167 day cycle, starting day 206, seed weight 80 g, harvest weight >650 g). Yield of kg per pond (recorded data - average: 5400 kg and FCR 1.69). Model details: Ferreira et al, Aquaculture (2012)

31 FARM model for shrimp monoculture Mass balance for pond culture of white shrimp in Chanthaburi Mass balance for shrimp pond culture (1 pond, 2.5 rai area, 81 day cycle, density 80 ind. m -2, starting day 1, seed weight g, harvest weight >16 g). Yield of 4376 kg per pond (recorded data: 4000 kg, FCR 1.32). Model details: Ferreira et al, Aquaculture (2012)

32 FARM model for integrated multi-trophic aquaculture Mass balance for co-cultivation of tilapia and white shrimp Simulation for 81 days (one shrimp cycle) Tilapia increase sedimentation of organics and diagenesis, but significantly reduce algal growth through filtration, and therefore chlorophyll emissions. There is an additional crop of about 1 ton of tilapia (400 g weight) in this 2.5 rai farm.

33 Structure of site suitability model MCE based on slope, ph, land use, water temperature, water availability, towns and roads.

34 Site suitability analysis for pond culture in Thailand MCE based on slope, ph, land use, water temperature, water availability, towns and roads.

35 Upscaling to the Kingdom of Thailand Production and environment Regions Aquaculture production Primary production Environmental externalities due to outflows Ammonia Chlorophyll a PEQ t y -1 t N y -1 t N y -1 kg chl y -1 Northern North-eastern Central plain Eastern Western Southern Total

36 Upscaling to the Kingdom of Thailand Production and environment Regions Aquaculture production Primary production Environmental externalities due to outflows Ammonia Chlorophyll a PEQ t y -1 t N y -1 t N y -1 kg chl y -1 Central Eastern Western Southern Total

37 Fate of nutrients and chlorophyll Part of the water is stocked in other ponds for natural water quality improvement and then re-used in aquaculture; Part of the water is used in agri-aqua, e.g. rice cultivation; Some water is drained into rivers and canals. Thailand has a tight coupling between agriculture and aquaculture, so much of the waste is recycled either within the aqua-system or in agriculture.

38 Tilapia Culture Economic Indicators: Chiangrai province per rai (1600 m 2 ) Economic Indicators USD Labour (Household) Labour (Seasonal) Total Labour Total Expenditures Total Revenue (income)

39 Upscaling to the Kingdom of Thailand Economic analysis for Nile tilapia Direct economic indicators Indirect/induced economic impacts Value added to revenue Millions USD Total revenue Total expenditure Labour income for people Jobs created from production Jobs created From revenue Factors ratio: per t live weight 64 per Million USD Value M USD The indirect/induced impacts are based on data from the Honduras (Hishamunda et al, 2009, FAO Tech. Paper 512). This is not best practice, and highlights the need for improved economic data from Thailand.

40 Synthesis Nutrient budgeting helps understand what measures can be implemented for control these can be bottom-up and top-down; After you resolve point-source loading, there are still major (and very expensive) issues with diffuse loads; IMTA of tilapia with shrimp helps reduce some negative externalities of shrimp culture, but adds to others; Chlorophyll outflow from shrimp farming is forty times greater than from tilapia cultivation; Dynamic modelling can be combined with spatial data to provide global estimates of production and environmental effects this allows a more integrated economic valuation; Estimated gross profit from tilapia is about 65 million USD per year; In Thailand, the potential total cost of reducing externalities (20.1 X 10 6 USD) would lower profit by at least one third.

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