Producers. Energy transfer Primary productivity turns solar energy into available chemical energy. Producers. Producers. Nekton.
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1 Energy transfer Primary productivity turns solar energy into available chemical energy Producers 1. Seagrasses Producers 2. Macroscopic algae Brown, green, red algae Producers 3. Microscopic algae Golden algae Dinoflagellates Macrocystis grows up to 60 m long! Ulva Zooplankton Microscopic Copepods (0.5 mm) Radiolarians (<2 mm) Macroscopic Bluefin tuna Krill Moon jellyfish London University Photo: George Mobley Mackerel Photo: Bruce Robinson 1
2 Great white Squid (cephalopods) Caribbean reef squid Whale shark Blue spotted fantail ray Squid (cephalopods) Reptiles Squid (cephalopods) Reptiles Birds Leatherback, green sea turtle, banded sea snake Squid (cephalopods) Reptiles Birds Marine mammals Benthos Molluscs Manila Pacific Butter clams 2
3 Benthos Molluscs Crustaceans Northern Pink Shrimp Red Rock Crab Benthos Molluscs Crustaceans Bottom dwelling fish Cod Haddock World Fisheries: Increasing demand World Fisheries: Increasing demand 1 billion people rely on fish as their primary source of protein Fishing industry employs 200 million people Marine resources provide: - 20% of the animal protein eaten by humans - 5% indirectly by livestock fed with fish World Fisheries: Increasing demand Demersal fish (cod & haddock) Pelagic fish (herring,mackerel, anchovy, and tuna) Crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimp) Molluscs, cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, octopus) Marine mammals World Fisheries: Increasing demand 72 million t/yr Demersal fish (cod & haddock) Pelagic fish (herring,mackerel, anchovy, and tuna) 4 million t/yr Crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimp) Molluscs, cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, octopus) 2.5 million t/yr Marine mammals 3
4 World Fisheries... Issue 1: quantity 80% of fish stocks are fully to over-exploited, depleted, or in a state of collapse World Fisheries... Issue 2: food security 1950: 7 kg/person 1988: 17 kg/person For top predator species, population sizes have decreased (on average) by 90% Potential extinction of commercial fisheries similar to commercial whaling UN FAO State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2006 World Fisheries... Issue 3: quality 2004 EPA and FDA Advice For: Women Who Might Become Pregnant, Women Who are Pregnant, Nursing Mothers, Young Children Do not eat Shark, Swordfish, King Mackerel, or Tilefish because they contain high levels of mercury. Eat up to 6 ounces per week of fish you catch from local waters, but don't consume any other fish during that week. PUGET SOUND: The main contaminants of concern are polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and mercury which, once released into the environment, move up through the food chain into fish, marine mammals, and humans. Mercury and PCBs have been shown to cause behavioral and learning deficits in children exposed in the womb, so meal limits of certain fish are especially important for women of childbearing age and young children. World Fisheries... Issue 3: quality Mercury sources Naturally occurring in rock and soil Fossil fuel combustion Coal-fired power plants Electronics LCD monitors Lighting Flourescent bulbs, compact flourescents Products no longer sold: plumbing, pesticides, children s light-up shoes, TVs, latex paints World Fisheries... Issue 3: quality (1 ppm) US commercial seafood mercury concentration limit 4
5 Consequences of overfishing 1. Change in marine food web Consequences of overfishing 2. Local fisheries collapses Cod fishery, N. Atlantic 40,000 jobs lost $3 billion in welfare Anchovy fishery, Peru Fishing down the marine food web Pew Oceans Commission Pew Oceans Commission Consequences of overfishing 2. Local fisheries collapses Species peak peak 1992 decline year catch catch (m tons) % change Pacific herring % Atlantic herring % Atlantic cod % South African Pilchard % Haddock % Peruvian anchovy % Polar cod % Cape hake % Silver hake % Greater yellow croaker % Atlantic redfish % Cape horse mackerel % Chub mackerel % Blue whiting % South American pilchard % Alaska pollock % N Pacific hake % Japanese pilchard , % Consequences of overfishing 3. Conflicts Iceland Cod Wars (1958, 1972, 1975) Turbot Wars (1995) Tuna Wars: NE Atlantic Crab Wars (1999, 2002, 2004) Squid Wars Pollock Wars: Sea of Okhotsk Salmon Wars - here! Exclusive Economic Zone, 200 nm 1994, UN Convention on the Law of the Sea Consequences of overfishing 4. Habitat destruction 5. Bycatch Method Score (0-100) Dredges 63 Gillnets bottom 74 Gillnets midwater 55 Longlines bottom 36 Longlines pelagic 29 Pots and traps 42 Trawls bottom 90 Trawls midwater 6 Worst Fishing methods (worst) Dredge Towed metal bag wide, 2400 lbs Scallops, clams, oysters, shellfish Pew Oceans Commission 5
6 Fishing methods (worst) Bottom gillnet 350 long anchored net Sardines, goosefish, cod, pollock, flounder, salmon Significant bycatch - turtles, dolphins Bottom trawl Towed net with weights 200 wide, 40 high Shrimp, sole, flounder, rockfish Can disrupt seafloor Fishing methods (worst) Purse Seine Encircles a school of fish Bottom of net closed Hauled onboard / brought near surface Schooling fish: sardines, tuna Significant bycatch Fishing methods (best) Pelagic longline 1-50 miles long Tuna, swordfish Bycatch: sharks, turtles, seabirds Pots and Traps Wire or wood, baited cages Crab, lobster, rockfish Bycatch: marine mammals can become entangled in the rope connecting the cage to a buoy Fishing methods (best) Hook and Lining Lure fish with baited lines Surface dwellers: tuna, mahi mahi Bottom dwellers: cod Minimal bycatch Trolling Lure fish with towed baited lines Surface dwellers: tuna, mahi mahi Minimal bycatch Solutions: Fisheries management Goal: Create self sustaining marine ecosystems Solutions: Consumer choices What to choose? Downsize existing fishing fleet Reduce subsidies - Currently $124 billion spent, $70 billion earned International agreements on fish catch limits - US Magnuson-Stevens Reauthorization Act,
7 Solutions: Consumer choices What to choose? Thriving fisheries Fast growing populations Solutions: Reserves Reserves rapidly increase fish biomass in surrounding areas Goal: 30% of ocean protected as reserves Cost: $12-14 billion Chilean seabass toothfish live >40 years Orange roughy slimehead >100 years Pacific rockfish caught in 2001 was 205 years! Within 1-2 years, population densities increased 91%, average fish size up 31%, species diversity rose 20% Aquaculture 1 / 3 of all seafood consumed Includes marine, freshwater fish, shellfish Benefits? Aquaculture: catfish #1 aquaculture industry in US 2003: 660 million lbs, $425 million Ponds (10-20 acres) built on clay Filled with pumped surface or groundwater Wastewater treated Fed pellets of corn, soybeans, wheat 144,000 acres of ponds in MS, AR, LA, AL Aquaculture: tilapia Tilapia ponds 5th most popular US fish Tilapia fed in irrigation ditch, CA Urban aquaculture? Aquaculture: salmon Open net pens in offshore coastal areas 3 lbs feed for 1 lb farmed salmon Open net pen Salmon farm, BC National Geographic, 7
8 Aquaculture: tuna Bluefin tuna: Mediterranean Salmon: PNW rivers Bluefin tuna not yet successfully farmed - Over 40 farms in the Mediterranean - fattened in open net pens 6 mo. - (sushi: kuro/hon maguro) 22 lbs feed for 1 lb tuna - anchovies, sardines, herring Still wild caught: Skipjack tuna (katsuo) Albacore tuna Bigeye tuna Yellowfin tuna $50,000/fish in the sushi market Aquaculture Enclose fish in recirculating tanks Wastewater treated Young salmon growing under extended daylight hours in tanks, BC Striped bass Atlantic sturgeon (for caviar) Aquaculture Issues Carnivorous fish require wild fish feed Untreated waste can contaminate water Farmed fish can escape - Compete with wild salmon for resources - Interbreeding introduces inferior genetics Diseases and parasites spread to wild fish Destruction of important habitats for farms Polluted water = polluted fish - Potentially high level of PCBs - Use of antibiotics Aquaculture methods 4. Shellfish culture: mussels Mussel seed Mussel disc-net-line Penn Cove Shellfish Aquaculture methods 4. Shellfish culture: clams 1. Clam seed 2. Clam raft Aquaculture methods 4. Shellfish culture: oysters Oyster beds, harvest with dredge 4. Purging 3. Planting Suspended culture Penn Cove Shellfish Penn Cove Shellfish 8
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