Sometimes known as Ocean Barracuda, Ono, Pacific Kingfish, Malata Kingfish, Queen Fish

Transcription

1 WAHOO PACIFIC OCEAN Acanthocybium solandri Sometimes known as Ocean Barracuda, Ono, Pacific Kingfish, Malata Kingfish, Queen Fish SUMMARY Wahoo are a fast growing, highly fecund species of fish found worldwide throughout tropical and warm temperate seas. Wahoo are not commercially targeted but are caught in longline, purse seine, and troll fisheries targeting other species such as tuna and swordfish. A lack of data has hampered the completion of a comprehensive population assessment throughout the Pacific, so the status of their population in this region is unknown, although evidence from Taiwan indicates the population is not at a risk of over-exploitation. Pelagic longline, purse seine and troll fishing gears have a limited impact on bottom habitat, but pelagic longlines can catch high numbers of seabirds, sea turtles, and sharks. Some fisheries, such as the Hawaiian shallow-water pelagic longline, have instituted comprehensive mitigation measures to reduce bycatch. Criterion Points Final Score Color Life History Abundance Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts Management 2.25 Bycatch 1.25 Final Score 2.55 Color

2 LIFE HISTORY Core Points (only one selection allowed) If a value for intrinsic rate of increase ( r ) is known, assign the score below based on this value. If no r-value is available, assign the score below for the correct age at 50% maturity for females if specified, or for the correct value of growth rate ('k'). If no estimates of r, age at 50% maturity, or k are available, assign the score below based on maximum age Intrinsic rate of increase <0.05; OR age at 50% maturity >10 years; OR growth rate <0.15; OR maximum age >30 years Intrinsic rate of increase = ; OR age at 50% maturity = 5-10 years; OR a growth rate = ; OR maximum age = years Intrinsic rate of increase >0.16; OR age at 50% maturity = 1-5 years; OR growth rate >0.30; OR maximum age <11 years. Wahoo are a fast growing and short-lived species of fish (Hogarth 1976). Sexual maturity is reached at 92.5 to 102 cm fork length and before 1 year of age (Brown-Peterson et al. 2000; Jenkins 2009). Wahoo have a maximum age of 9-10 years, with growth rates between and (McBride 2008, Kishore and Chin 2001, Lee 2008). Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed) Species has special behaviors that make it especially vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., spawning aggregations; site fidelity; segregation by sex; migratory bottlenecks; unusual attraction to gear; etc.). Wahoo form aggregations in some areas, such as around sea mounts (Sepulveda 2011), and also aggregate around fish aggregating devices (FADs), which may increase their vulnerability to purse seine fisheries (Tarquet et al. 2007). Most fishing of Wahoo occurs away from FADs, so no points were subtracted Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity >20 years; sequential hermaphrodites; extremely low fecundity) Species has a small or restricted range (e.g., endemism; numerous evolutionarily significant units; restricted to one coastline; e.g., American lobster; striped bass; endemic reef fishes).

3 -0.25 Species exhibits high natural population variability driven by broad-scale environmental change (e.g. El Nino; decadal oscillations). Wahoo are associated with warm ocean fronts (NMFS 2001) but there is no information on whether they exhibit high natural population variability, so we have not subtracted any points Species does not have special behaviors that increase ease or population consequences of capture OR has special behaviors that make it less vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., species is widely dispersed during spawning) Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially resilient to fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity <1 year; extremely high fecundity). Wahoo reach sexual maturity by one year of age and are highly fecund. For example, during peak spawning months, females can spawn once every 2-6 days (Brown-Peterson et al. 1998) and can produce 789,600-1,671,300 eggs per batch, which correlated to an annual fecundity of million eggs (Jenkins et al. 2009) Species is distributed over a very wide range (e.g., throughout an entire hemisphere or ocean basin; e.g., swordfish; tuna; Patagonian toothfish). Wahoo are found worldwide throughout tropical and warm temperate seas (Hogarth 1976; Collette and Nauen 1983) and are thought to consist of a single population (Garber et al. 2005; Theisen 2007) Species does not exhibit high natural population variability driven by broad-scale environmental change (e.g., El Nino; decadal oscillations) Points for Life History

4 ABUNDANCE Core Points (only one selection allowed) Compared to natural or un-fished level, the species population is: 1.00 Low: Abundance or biomass is <75% of BMSY or similar proxy (e.g., spawning potential ratio) Medium: Abundance or biomass is % of BMSY or similar proxy; OR population is approaching or recovering from an overfished condition; OR adequate information on abundance or biomass is not available. There has been no comprehensive assessment of Wahoo in the Pacific and there are no plans to do an assessment in the western Pacific region (WPRFMC 2009). Therefore, the status of the population in this entire region is unknown and estimates of maximum sustainable yield (MSY) in the western Pacific Ocean are not available due to a lack of information on this species (WPRFMC unknown). However, an assessment of Wahoo in the waters east of Taiwan has been completed and suggest that population is not at risk of exploitation (Lee 2008). There is evidence that over the past three decades the number of Wahoo landed overall has increased steadily (Oxenford et al. 2003; Viana et al. 2008). In Guam and Hawaii, catches of Wahoo increased 122% and 15% respectively from 2007 to 2008 (WPRFMC 2009). However, catches decreased 32% and 48% in American Samoa and Northern Mariana Islands respectively during the same time period (WPRFMC 2009). We have awarded a middle score due to an overall lack of information High: Abundance or biomass is >125% of BMSY or similar proxy. Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed) The population is declining over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass estimates or standardized CPUE). Wahoo catch rates in the American Samoa longline fishery have decreased since 2006 (WPRFMC 2009). In the Guam longline fishery, Wahoo catch rates peaked in the early to mid 1980 s and have varied since then, but since 1999 catch rates appear to be increasing overall (WPRFMC 2009). The catch rates of Wahoo in the Hawaii longline fishery have varied over time with no clear trend and in the Northern Mariana Islands (NMI) longline fishery, the catch rates of Wahoo dropped significantly after peaks in the mid to late 1980 s, and after slight increases in the 1990 s and early 2000 s, appear to be declining again (WPRFMC 2009). Catch rates from the American Samoa troll fishery have varied over the years, peaking in the early 1990 s and remaining below this peak since then (WPRFMC 2009). However, in recent years catch rates have increased slightly (WPRFMC 2009). Catch rates from the

5 Guam troll fishery have varied over time and catch rates from the Hawaiian troll fishery have varied over time but have been increasing slightly since 2004 (WPRFMC 2009). Catch rates from trolling vessels in the NMI were highest in the mid to late 1980 s, declined drastically into the 1990 s and have remained fairly low, reaching the lowest levels in 2008 (WPRFMC 2009). Due to the variability in catch rates of Wahoo over time and between fisheries we have not subtracted points Age, size or sex distribution is skewed relative to the natural condition (e.g., truncated size/age structure or anomalous sex distribution) Species is listed as "overfished" OR species is listed as "depleted", "endangered", or "threatened" by recognized national or international bodies Current levels of abundance are likely to jeopardize the availability of food for other species or cause substantial change in the structure of the associated food web The population is increasing over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass estimates or standardized CPUE) Age, size or sex distribution is functionally normal. The average weight of Wahoo caught in American Samoa surveys has ranged from 26.3 to 44.3 lbs since 1996 and has increased since 2004 (WPRFMC 2009). In Hawaii, the weight of Wahoo caught on longline gear has varied only slightly over the years but with no clear trend and the average weight of Wahoo caught in the Hawaii troll fishery has remained fairly constant over time (WPRFMC 2009) Species is close to virgin biomass Current levels of abundance provide adequate food for other predators or are not known to affect the structure of the associated food web. Wahoo are open water predators that feed on other open water fish including small tunas (Manooch and Hogarth 1983; Collette and Nauen 1983; Oxenford et al. 2003). Little is known about current levels of Wahoo abundance or their role in the food web so no points were added Points for Abundance

6 HABITAT QUALITY AND FISHING GEAR IMPACTS Core Points (only one selection allowed) Select the option that most accurately describes the effect of the fishing method upon the habitat that it affects 1.00 The fishing method causes great damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g., cyanide; blasting; bottom trawling; dredging) The fishing method does moderate damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g., bottom gillnets; traps and pots; bottom longlines) The fishing method does little damage to physical or biogenic habitats (e.g., hand picking; hand raking; hook and line; pelagic long lines; mid-water trawl or gillnet; purse seines). There are no directed fisheries for Wahoo. Instead, they are caught incidentally in fisheries targeting other pelagic species such as tunas (Oxenford et al. 2003; Viana et al. 2008). For example, in Hawaii Wahoo are caught using pelagic longlines and trolls (lures or baited hooks are towed behind a vessel using rods and reels or hydraulic haulers) targeting tunas (WPRFMC 2004). In 2008, Wahoo were the 9th most commonly caught species by Hawaii longlines (WPRFMC 2009) and the 4th most commonly caught troll species between (WPRFMC 2009b). In American Samoa during 2008, Wahoo were the 4th and 5th most commonly caught species by longline and troll fisheries respectively (WPRFMC 2004). Longline fishing in American Samoa has increased dramatically since the late 1990 s, when troll fishing decreased and in 2008, Wahoo made up 67% of non-tuna species in the longline fishery (WPRFMC 2009). In Guam, the majority of landings from troll vessels are made up of Wahoo (WPRFMC 2004). In addition, Wahoo can be caught as bycatch in purse seine fisheries. These pelagic or surface gears have a very low impact on bottom habitat (Morgan and Chuenpagdee 2003). Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed) Habitat for this species is so compromised from non-fishery impacts that the ability of the habitat to support this species is substantially reduced (e.g., dams; pollution; coastal development) Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are not protected by management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc. Critical habitat areas for this species are not protected through management measures.

7 -0.25 No efforts are being made to minimize damage from existing gear types OR new or modified gear is increasing habitat damage (e.g., fitting trawls with roller rigs or rockhopping gear; more robust gear for deep-sea fisheries) If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is very slow (e.g., deep water corals; rocky bottoms) Habitat for this species remains robust and viable and is capable of supporting this species. Wahoo are typically found in offshore waters around oceanic islands, reef edges, walls and pinnacles (Collette and Nauen 1983). In the eastern North Pacific, Wahoo tend to remain in the upper water layers, remaining at around 18 m depth in the day and slightly shallower at night (Sepulveda et al. 2011). Depths of 253 m have been reported for this species in this region but are not the norm (Sepulveda et al. 2011). Wahoo appear to make vertical migrations during the night, and the average water temperature where Wahoo are found is 25 C but can range from C (Sepulveda et al. 2011). There is no indication that the pelagic oceanic waters Wahoo inhabit are degraded and incapable of supporting Wahoo, so we have awarded points. Climate change and warming may influence suitable habitat for Wahoo, however many climate change scenarios predict the abundance of tropical tunas to increase in the Pacific Ocean Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are protected by management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc Gear innovations are being implemented over a majority of the fishing area to minimize damage from gear types OR no innovations necessary because gear effects are minimal. Gear effects from this fishery are likely to be minimal If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is fast (e.g., mud or sandy bottoms) OR gear effects are minimal. Gear effects from this fishery are likely to be minimal Points for Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts

8 MANAGEMENT Core Points (only one selection allowed) Select the option that most accurately describes the current management of the fisheries of this species Regulations are ineffective (e.g., illegal fishing or overfishing is occurring) OR the fishery is unregulated (i.e., no control rules are in effect) Management measures are in place over a major portion over the species' range but implementation has not met conservation goals OR management measures are in place but have not been in place long enough to determine if they are likely to achieve conservation and sustainability goals. The Western Pacific Region Fishery Management Council s Fishery Management Plan for Pelagic Fisheries, manages Wahoo grouped together with other pelagic species in the US western Pacific Region. The areas included in this region are: American Samoa, Guam, Hawaii, the Northern Mariana Islands and the US possessions of Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef and the islands of Palmyra, Jarvis, Howland, Baker, Midway and Wake (WPRFMC 2009a). Management measures in this fishery include: permits, reporting requirements, area closures, limited entry (some fleets), maximum vessel size, and observer programs (WPRFMC 2009b), however specific measures are not in place for Wahoo. Off the US west coast Wahoo are monitored but not managed under the Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan of the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC 2007) Substantial management measures are in place over a large portion of the species range and have demonstrated success in achieving conservation and sustainability goals. Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed) There is inadequate scientific monitoring of stock status, catch or fishing effort. A population assessment of Wahoo in the Pacific Ocean waters is needed but insufficient scientific monitoring has hampered this process Management does not explicitly address fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and ecosystems.

9 -0.25 This species is overfished and no recovery plan or an ineffective recovery plan is in place Management has failed to reduce excess capacity in this fishery or implements subsidies that result in excess capacity in this fishery There is adequate scientific monitoring, analysis and interpretation of stock status, catch and fishing effort Management explicitly and effectively addresses fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and ecosystems. In the US western Pacific Ocean, management plans address fishery effects on the ecosystem (eg. WPRFMC 2008) This species is overfished and there is a recovery plan (including benchmarks, timetables and methods to evaluate success) in place that is showing signs of success OR recovery plan is not needed Management has taken action to control excess capacity or reduce subsidies that result in excess capacity OR no measures are necessary because fishery is not overcapitalized. Some fleets in the US western Pacific region utilize limited entry programs Points for Management

10 BYCATCH Core Points (only one selection allowed) Select the option that most accurately describes the current level of bycatch and the consequences that result from fishing this species. The term, "bycatch" used in this document excludes incidental catch of a species for which an adequate management framework exists. The terms, "endangered, threatened, or protected," used in this document refer to species status that is determined by national legislation such as the U.S. Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act (or another nation's equivalent), the IUCN Red List, or a credible scientific body such as the American Fisheries Society Bycatch in this fishery is high (>100% of targeted landings), OR regularly includes a "threatened, endangered or protected species." 2.00 Bycatch in this fishery is moderate (10-99% of targeted landings) AND does not regularly include "threatened, endangered or protected species" OR level of bycatch is unknown. Wahoo are caught incidentally in fisheries targeting other pelagic species such as tunas using longlines, trolls, and purse seines. The incidental capture of seabirds in pelagic longline fisheries has been identified as an issue in many areas. For example, the incidental take of seabirds in the western and central Pacific Ocean can be 1000 s of birds annually and mortality rates vary from % (Molony 2005). In the Hawaiian longline fishery, the incidental capture of Laysan and black-footed albatrosses has historically been an issue; however, recent management measures have successfully reduced the incidental capture of seabirds in this fishery (Gilman et al. 2008). The incidental capture of sea turtles in pelagic longlines has also been identified as an issue in many regions, but in the western Pacific, catch rates are much lower (0.007 turtles/1,000 hooks) than in other areas (Robins et al. 2002). In terms of the incidental capture of marine mammals, the Hawaiian longline fishery (deep-set) is listed as a Category I fishery, which means frequent incidental mortalities or serious injuries of marine mammals occur in this fishery. Interactions with Blainville s beaked whales, bottlenose dolphins, false killer whales, humpback whales, pantropical spotted dolphins, Risso s dolphins, short-finned pilot whales and stripped dolphins are possible (FR 74 No. 219). In the western and central Pacific Ocean a number of fish species are caught as bycatch in longline fisheries that capture Wahoo. These include marlins, sailfish, spearfish, swordfish, sharks, lancetfish, oilfish, sunfish, opah, pomfrets, mahimahi and other species (Lawson 2004).

11 We have assigned a medium score to account for the possible interactions between the longline fisheries that capture Wahoo and seabirds, sea turtles and marine mammals Bycatch in this fishery is low (<10% of targeted landings) and does not regularly include "threatened, endangered or protected species." Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed) Bycatch in this fishery is a contributing factor to the decline of "threatened, endangered, or protected species" and no effective measures are being taken to reduce it. Longline fisheries, specifically pelagic longlines, are known to be responsible for the incidental capture and death of hundreds of thousands of seabirds a year (Gilman et al. 2005) and this mortality is considered a primary reason for their population declines (Gilman 2001, and Tuck et al. 2003). Gilman (2001) has suggested that several species of albatross could become extinct as a consequence of the mortality associated with bycatch on longlines, if fisheries managers do not address the situation. Managers in Hawaii have begun to address the issue of incidental seabird interactions but this is not true throughout Wahoo s range. For example, since the re-opening of this fishery, fishermen are required to use weighted branch lines, thawed blue-dyed bait and strategic offal discards or side setting techniques that include setting from the port or starboard side, line shooters, bird curtains and deploying gear so it does not resurface (NMFS 2009). In addition, fisheries observers are required on all shallow setting longline vessels and on 20% of deep-set longline vessels to observer sea bird interactions (NMFS 2009). Since the introduction of these sea bird mitigation measures, the number of albatross caught by both the deep and shallow set fisheries has dropped from 2,433 in 2000 to 212 in 2008 (NMFS 2009). In the deep-set fishery sea bird interactions have been reduced by 83% (Gilman et al. 2005). In addition, from 2004 to 2008 no short tailed albatrosses (listed under the Endangered Species Act) were incidentally captured in the re-opened Hawaiian shallow-set longline fishery (NMFS 2009) and the 2004 Biological Opinion found the re-opening of the shallow-set fishery was not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the short-tailed albatross (USFWS 2004). In Hawaii, the swordfish longline fleet must use circle hooks with only fish (no squid) bait and this regulation has resulted in a 34% reduction in catches of mahimahi, Opah and Wahoo and an 83% and 90% reduction in capture rates of leatherback and loggerhead sea turtles respectively (Gilman et al. 2007b). In addition, shark catch rates declined by 36% with the use of circle hooks (Gilman et al. 2007b) and the 2004 Biological Opinion found the shallow-set fishery was not likely to jeopardize the existence of any species listed under the Endangered Species Act (WPRFMC 2009b). We have subtracted points to account for the other fisheries with no management measures in place.

12 -0.25 Bycatch of targeted or non-targeted species (e.g., undersize individuals) in this fishery is high and no measures are being taken to reduce it. Pelagic longline fisheries that catch Wahoo can also catch a large number of sharks and the number of sharks caught by these fisheries can be a large percentage of the total catch, possibly negatively affecting shark populations worldwide (Mandelman et al. 2008). For example, in the western and central Pacific Ocean from 1980 to 2004, 290,000 sharks representing over 40 species were observed caught by longlines (Molony 2005). The most commonly caught species was the blue shark (Molony 2005) and based on anecdotal evidence, it can be assumed that the majority of sharks were killed prior to being discarded. Sharks have historically made up 50% of the catch and currently make up 32% of the catch (due to bait restrictions) in the Hawaiian swordfish longline fishery (Gilman et al. 2007b). Blue sharks (Prionace glauca) are one of the most commonly caught shark bycatch species, representing as much as 92% of the shark catch in pelagic longline fisheries (Gilman et al. 2007b). Blue, oceanic whitetip, bigeye thresher and crocodile shark non-standardized catch rates declined in this fishery between the time period of and (Walsh et al. 2009). This indicates that management measures implemented in the Hawaii shallow-set fishery to reduce sea turtle interactions have also reduced the incidental capture of sharks (Walsh et al. 2009). However, this is not the case throughout Wahoo s range in the Pacific Ocean and we have therefore subtracted points Bycatch of this species (e.g., undersize individuals) in other fisheries is high OR bycatch of this species in other fisheries inhibits its recovery, and no measures are being taken to reduce it. Wahoo are a commonly caught species of fish in purse seine fisheries (WPRFMC 2009b) The continued removal of the bycatch species contributes to its decline Measures taken over a major portion of the species range have been shown to reduce bycatch of "threatened, endangered, or protected species" or bycatch rates are no longer deemed to affect the abundance of the "protected" bycatch species OR no measures needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear) There is bycatch of targeted (e.g., undersize individuals) or non-targeted species in this fishery and measures (e.g., gear modifications) have been implemented that have been shown to reduce bycatch over a large portion of the species range OR no measures are needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear) Bycatch of this species in other fisheries is low OR bycatch of this species in other fisheries inhibits its recovery, but effective measures are being taken to reduce it over a large portion of the range.

13 +0.25 The continued removal of the bycatch species in the targeted fishery has had or will likely have little or no impact on populations of the bycatch species OR there are no significant bycatch concerns because the fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear) Points for Bycatch REFERENCES Brown-Peterson, N.J., Franks, J.S. and Burke, A.M Preliminary observations on reproductive biology of wahoo, Acanthocybium solandri, from the northern Gulf of Mexico and Bimini, Bahamas. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 51: Collette, B.B. and Nauen, C.E FAO species catalogue, vol 2. Scrombrids of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of tunas, mackerels, bonitos and related species known to date. FAO Fisheries Symposium 125: Dalzell, P. and Boggs, C.H Pelagic fisheries catching blue and striped marlines in the US western Pacific islands. Marine and Freshwater Research 54: Federal Register (FR) List of fisheries for 2010 Franks, J.S., Brown-Peterson, N.J., Griggs, M.S., Garber, N.M., Warren, J.R. and Larson, K.M Potential of the first dorsal fish spine for estimating the age of wahoo, Acanthocybium solandri, from the Northern Gulf of Mexico, with comments on specimens from Bimini, Bahamas. P In: R.L. Creswell (eds) 51st Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute Meeting, St. Croix, US Virgin Islands. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. Hogarth, W.T Life history aspects of wahoo, Acanthocybium solandri (Cuvier and Valenciennes) from the south Pacific. Ph.D. Dissertation. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. Garber, A.F., Tringali, M.D. and Franks, J.S Population genetic and phylogeographic structure of wahoo, Acanthocybium solandri, from the western central Atlantic and central Pacific Oceans. Marine Biology 147: Gilman, E Integrated management to address the incidental mortality of seabirds in longline fisheries. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 11: Gilman, E., N. Brothers, and D.R. Kobayashi Principles and approaches to abate seabird by-catch in longline fisheries. Fish and Fisheries 6:

14 Gilman, E., Kobayashi, D., Swenarton, T., Brothers, N., Dalzell, P. and Kinan-Kelly, I. 2007a. Reducing sea turtle interactions in the Hawaii-based longline swordfish fishery. Biological Conservation 139: Gilman, E., Clarke, S., Brothers, N., Alfaro-Shigueto, J., Mandelman, J., Mangel, J., Peterson, S., Piovano, S., Thompson, N., Dalzell, P., Donoso, M. Goren, M. and Werner, T. 2007b. Shark depredation and unwanted bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries: industry practices and attitudes, and shark avoidance strategies. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, Honolulu, HI, USA. 217 p. Gilman, E., Clarke, S., Brothers, N., Alfaro-Shigueto, J., Mandelman, J., Mangel, J., Peterson, S., Piovano, S., Thompson, N., Dalzell, P., Donoso, M. Goren, M. and Werner, T. 2007b. Shark depredation and unwanted bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries: industry practices and attitudes, and shark avoidance strategies. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, Honolulu, HI, USA. 217 p. Iverson, E. and Yoshida, H Notes on the biology of the wahoo in the Linde Islands. Pacific Science 11: Jenkins, K.L. and McBride, R.S Reproductive biology of wahoo, Acanthocybium solandri, from the Atlantic coast of Florida and the Bahamas. Marine and Freshwater Research 60: Kishore, R. and Chin, X Age and growth studies at the CFRAMP/IMA regional age and growth laboratory- progress of work done and future approaches. In: S. Singh-Renton (ed) Report of the 2000 Caribbean pelagic and reef fisheries assessment and management workshop, CARICOM Fishery Report 9. Hasting, Barbados. Lawson, T Availability of observer data for estimating catches of non-target species by longliners in the western and central Pacific Ocean, with catch estimates for offshore fleets in tropical waters. SCTB17 Working Paper SWG-5. Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Oceanic Fisheries Programme, Noumea, New Caledonia. Lee, T.M Estimation of life history parameters, biological reference points, and associated uncertainties for wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri) in the waters off eastern Taiwan. Masters thesis, National Taiwan University. Mandelman, J.W., Cooper, P.W., Wernder, T.B. and Lagueux, K.M Shark bycatch and depredation in the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline fishery. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 18: Manooch, C.S., and Hogarth, W.T Stomach contents and giant trematodes from wahoo, Acanthocybum solandri, collected along the south Atlantic and gulf coasts of the United States. Bulletin of Marine Science 33:

15 McBride, R.S., Richardson, A.K. and Maki, K.L Age, growth and mortality of wahoo, Acanthocybium solandri, from the Atlantic coast of Florida and the Bahamas. Marine and Freshwater Research 59: Molony, B Estimates of the mortality of non-target species with an initial focus on seabirds, turtles, and sharks. WCPFC-SC1 EB WP-1. Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission, Nouemea, New Caledonia. Morgan, LE. And Chuenpagdee, R Shifting gears: addressing the collateral impacts of fishing methods in US waters. Pew Science Series. Washington D.C., Island Press. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Final environmental impact statement: Pelagic fisheries of the Western Pacific region. Southwest Fisheries Science Center. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Annual report on seabird interactions and mitigation efforts in the Hawaii longline fisheries for NMFS Pacific Islands Regional Office. Honolulu, HI. 44p. Oxenford, H.A., Murray, P.A. and Luckhurst, B.E The biology of wahoo (Acanthyocybium solandri) in the western central Atlantic. Gulf and Caribbean Research 15: Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) Fishery management plan for US west coast fisheries for highly migratory species, as amended by amendment 1. Pacific Fishery Management Council, Portland, OR. 129 pp. Online: Robins, C.M., Bache, S.J. and Kalish, S.R Bycatch of sea turtles in pelagic longline fisheries Australia. Bureau of Rural Sciences final report to the Fisheries Resources Research Fund, Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Canberra, Australia. Sepulveda, C.A., Aalbers, S.A., Ortega-Garcia, S., Wegner, N.C. and Bernal, D Depth distribution and temperature preferences of wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri) off Baja California Sur, Mexico. Marine Biology 158: Taquet, M., Sancho, G., Dagorn, L., Gaertner, J.S., Itano, D., Aumeeruddy, R., Wendling, B. and Peignon, C Characterizing fish communities associated with drifting fish aggregating devices (FADs) in the Western Indian Ocean using underwater visual surveys. Aquatic Living Resources 20: Theisen, T Population genetic structure, movement patterns and environmental preferences of the pelagic wahoo, Acanthocybium solandri. PhD. Dissertation, Florida Atlantic University. Tuck, G.N., Polacheck, T. and Bulman, C.M Spatio-temporal trends of longline fishing effort in the Southern Ocean and implications for seabird bycatch. Biological Conservation 114:1-27.

16 US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) US Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Opinion on the effects of the reopened shallow-set sector of the Hawaii-based longline fishery on the short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus). Formal Consultation Log Number F p. Viana, D.L., Hazin, F.H.V., Nunes, D., Carvalho, F., Veras, D., and Travassos, P The wahoo Acanthocybium solandri fishery in the vicinity of the Saint Peter and Saint Paul archipelago, Brazil, from 1998 to Collective Volume of Scientific Papers 62: Walsh, W.A., Bigelow, K.A. and Sender, K.L Decreases in shark catches and mortality in the Hawaii-based longline fishery as documented by fishery observers. Marine and Coastal Fisheries Dynamics, Management and Ecosystem Science 1: Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC). Unknown. WPRFMC reports: important pelagic fishes of the Pacific. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, Honolulu, HI. 13 p. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) US Western Pacific fisheries past to present. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, Honolulu, HI. 4 p. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) Fishery ecosystem plan for the American Samoa archipelago. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, Honolulu, HI. 217 pp. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC). 2009a. Pelagic fisheries of the western Pacific region 2008 annual report. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, Honolulu, HI. 287 pp. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC). 2009b. Fishery ecosystem plan for Pacific pelagic fisheries of the western pacific Reigon. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, Honolulu, HI. 251 p.