Seafood Watch Seafood Report

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1 Seafood Watch Seafood Report California Market Squid Doryteuthis (Loligo) opalescens (Image Monterey Bay Aquarium) West Coast Region Updated March 11, 2010 Julia S. Stewart Consulting Researcher Samantha Port-Minner Consulting Researcher Original Report dated March 31, 2003 Robert Mazurek Fisheries Research Analyst Monterey Bay Aquarium

2 About Seafood Watch and the Seafood Reports Monterey Bay Aquarium s Seafood Watch program evaluates the ecological sustainability of wild-caught and farmed seafood commonly found in the United States marketplace. Seafood Watch defines sustainable seafood as originating from sources, whether wild-caught or farmed, which can maintain or increase production in the long-term without jeopardizing the structure or function of affected ecosystems. Seafood Watch makes its science-based recommendations available to the public in the form of regional pocket guides that can be downloaded from The program s goals are to raise awareness of important ocean conservation issues and empower seafood consumers and businesses to make choices for healthy oceans. Each sustainability recommendation on the regional pocket guides is supported by a Seafood Report. Each report synthesizes and analyzes the most current ecological, fisheries and ecosystem science on a species, then evaluates this information against the program s conservation ethic to arrive at a recommendation of Best Choices, Good Alternatives or Avoid. The detailed evaluation methodology is available upon request. In producing the Seafood Reports, Seafood Watch seeks out research published in academic, peer-reviewed journals whenever possible. Other sources of information include government technical publications, fishery management plans and supporting documents, and other scientific reviews of ecological sustainability. Seafood Watch Research Analysts also communicate regularly with ecologists, fisheries and aquaculture scientists, and members of industry and conservation organizations when evaluating fisheries and aquaculture practices. Capture fisheries and aquaculture practices are highly dynamic; as the scientific information on each species changes, Seafood Watch s sustainability recommendations and the underlying Seafood Reports will be updated to reflect these changes. Parties interested in capture fisheries, aquaculture practices and the sustainability of ocean ecosystems are welcome to use Seafood Reports in any way they find useful. For more information about Seafood Watch and Seafood Reports, please contact the Seafood Watch program at Monterey Bay Aquarium by calling Disclaimer Seafood Watch strives to have all Seafood Reports reviewed for accuracy and completeness by external scientists with expertise in ecology, fisheries science and aquaculture. Scientific review, however, does not constitute an endorsement of the Seafood Watch program or its recommendations on the part of the reviewing scientists. Seafood Watch is solely responsible for the conclusions reached in this report. Seafood Watch and Seafood Reports are made possible through a grant from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. 2

3 Table of Contents I. Executive Summary... 4 II. Introduction... 7 III. Analysis of Seafood Watch Sustainability Criteria for Wild-caught Species Criterion 1: Inherent Vulnerability to Fishing Pressure Criterion 2: Status of Wild Stocks Criterion 3: Nature and Extent of Bycatch Criterion 4: Effect of Fishing Practices on Habitats and Ecosystems Criterion 5: Effectiveness of the Management Regime IV. Overall Evaluation and Seafood Recommendation V. References VI. Appendix I: Wild-capture Fisheries Evaluation..34 3

4 I. Executive Summary The California market squid lives in the eastern Pacific Ocean along the coast from Baja California to Southeastern Alaska. The scientific name for market squid was recently changed from Loligo opalescens to Doryteuthis opalescens due to a better understanding of squid phylogeny. Market squid have a low age at first maturity, a short life span, and high fecundity; however, their intrinsic rate of increase and von Bertalanffy growth coefficients are unknown. Market squid exhibit several characteristics that increase their vulnerability to fishing pressure, including a relatively narrow species range, dense spawning aggregations and attraction to lighted fishing gear. As such, Seafood Watch considers California market squid to be moderately vulnerable to fishing pressure. The status of the wild market squid stock is a moderate conservation concern according to Seafood Watch criteria because many aspects of the wild stock are unknown, and there is large uncertainty in the status of the stock. The management classification status is unknown and the fishery is currently managed based solely on fishery-dependent landings data and estimates of biological parameters. There are no direct or statistical procedures available to assess the population size, and the fishery is managed using an MSY-proxy based on the Egg Escapement method, the efficacy of which has yet to be determined. The occurrence of overfishing is unknown, and the age and size distributions of fished market squid are decreasing. Bycatch in the California market squid fishery is considered to be a moderate conservation concern according to Seafood Watch criteria. Because the presence of bycatch is only checked at the port where the squid are landed and is not quantified, the bycatch rate is unknown. The majority of bycatch consists of other coastal pelagic species, but frequently includes benthic (bottom-dwelling) species as well. The fishery has occasional interactions with marine mammals, but preliminary assessments show that no marine mammals, sea turtles or seabirds were caught in the fishery from The population consequences of bycatch are unknown, but there are demonstrated ecosystem impacts, and the overall bycatch rate is increasing. There is also an increasing trend in the incidental catch of market squid egg capsules that could have negative effects on the ecosystem and management of the fishery. The California market squid fishery mainly uses purse seine nets and pumps at the surface, and thus should inflict minimal damage on the seafloor. However, when purse seine nets do contact the seafloor, they can be as destructive as bottom trawls. In the case of the market squid fishery, interactions with the benthos are more similar to fixed bottom gear than mobile bottom gear and thus are deemed to cause moderate habitat damage. The market squid fishery occurs over a moderate spatial scale along the California coast in sandy and muddy bottom areas, which are moderately resilient to fishing impacts. Market squid is a forage species and plays an important role in California coastal food webs. There is concern that removing market squid and squid eggs capsules could cause changes in the food web and the broader ecosystem; however, no assessment of these impacts has been completed. Due to the moderate habitat damage caused by the fishery s seine nets and the moderate resilience of the habitat, Seafood Watch deems the California market squid fishery to have moderate effects on habitats and the ecosystem. 4

5 The management regime regulating the California market squid fishery is currently considered ineffective by Seafood Watch. There is no stock assessment for this species nor is one planned for the future. Current management is based on fishery-dependent data used to estimate biological parameters, but it has not been demonstrated that collection and analysis of these data occur in a time frame relevant to maintaining the health of the stock. The California Department of Fish and Game (CDF&G) has implemented gear limits and weekend closures to protect the squid resource. To reduce potential negative effects on nesting seabirds, CDF&G has prohibited attracting lights in all waters of the Gulf of Farallones National Marine Sanctuary. Lights have also been restricted to a maximum of 30,000 watts with required shielding in several of the Channel Islands (CDF&G 2005). However, no further management measures have been implemented to reduce the capture of non-target species and egg capsules. Regulation of the market squid fishery is well managed by CDF&G with mandatory logbooks, trained at-sea observers, and port-side samplers that collect data on landings and report the presence or absence of non-target species (but without quantification). Stock productivity has varied over time, but it is unclear if this is a result of environmental conditions (El Niño) or an inappropriate total allowable catch (TAC) and data collection regime. Without a current stock assessment or plans for a future assessment, as well as no bycatch plan to address the increasing capture of egg capsules, Seafood Watch deems the management of the California market squid fishery to be moderately effective. The market squid fishery s moderate Seafood Watch rankings for stock status, bycatch, habitat and ecosystem impacts, and management effectiveness result in an overall recommendation of Good Alternative. This ranking could be improved by preventing market squid purse seines from contacting the seafloor, collecting accurate data on bycatch rates, and developing a more precautionary harvest strategy for this forage species that incorporates food web considerations. Table of Sustainability Ranks Conservation Concern Sustainability Criteria Low Moderate High Critical Inherent Vulnerability Status of Stocks Nature of Bycatch Habitat & Ecosystem Effects Management Effectiveness About the Overall Seafood Recommendation: A seafood product is ranked Best Choice if three or more criteria are of Low Conservation Concern (green) and the remaining criteria are not of High or Critical Conservation Concern. A seafood product is ranked Good Alternative if the five criteria average to yellow (Moderate Conservation Concern) OR if the Status of Stocks and Management Effectiveness criteria are both of Moderate Conservation Concern. 5

6 A seafood product is ranked Avoid if two or more criteria are of High Conservation Concern (red) OR if one or more criteria are of Critical Conservation Concern (black) in the table above. Overall Seafood Recommendation: Best Choice Good Alternative Avoid 6

7 II. Introduction California market squid (Doryteuthis opalescens, formerly Loligo opalescens) has been an important commercial fishery species since the 1860s and is currently the most valuable (in US dollars) and the second largest (in tons) fishery in California (Figure 1) (PFMC 2009). Market squid was California s largest fishery for nearly ten years, but since 2002, sardine landings have exceeded market squid landings. Market squid landings were 34,600 mt in 2008, down from 45,000 mt in The decrease in market squid landings has driven up per-haul market prices; there was an 11% increase in ex-vessel price for squid landed in The overall value of the fishery, however, has declined due to lower sales volumes: in 2008, the fishery was worth $23.9 million, down from $29.1 million in 2007 (PFMC 2009). Nevertheless, market squid continues to be California s most valuable fishery (Figure 1b). The permit season lasts from April 1 through March 31 of the following year, allowing seasonal statistics to be reported separately from annual ones. The 1999/2000 season remains the record high with 115,400 mt landed (Figure 1) (CDF&G 2008). Figure 1. Information on (A) landings (mt) and (B) ex-vessel revenue ($US) for coastal pelagic species from Market squid data are in blue. (Figures from (PFMC 2009).) The market squid fishery in California is comprised of northern and southern components managed under the 2005 Market Squid Fishery Management Plan (MSFMP) (CDF&G 2005). Although historically market squid was fished in Monterey Bay (the northern fishery), landings in recent years have been much higher in the Southern California Bight (the southern fishery) (Figure 2). Landings in the southern fishery began to steadily increase in the 1984/1985 season, and have exceeded those of the northern fishery ever since. Catch per unit effort (CPUE) in the southern fishery is twice that of the northern fishery (Figure 3b)(Zeidberg et al. 2006), meaning that fishermen in the northern fishery must exert twice the effort in order to obtain the same amount of catch. As catch has been increasing in the southern fishery, three seasons (1998/1999, 1999/2000 and 2007/2008) have exhibited regional domination, where southern landings exceed 99.7% of the total California catch (CDF&G 2008). The northern fishery typically operates from April through November, and the southern fishery typically operates from October through March (Porzio and Brady 2008) (Figure 3) due to regional and temporal differences in peak spawning. Currently, however, fishing is nearly year-round in the southern fishery, and the northern fishery is diminishing. There were no landings in the northern fishery in the 2006/2007 7

8 and 2007/2008 fishing seasons (Figure 2) and through most of the 2008/2009 season. Early in 2009, only a small amount of market squid was landed in Monterey Bay. Figure 2. Comparison of market squid landings for the California northern and southern fisheries by fishing season (April 1 March 31) from 1980/1981 to 2007/2008 (Figure from (CDF&G 2008).) Figure 3. Fishery data for market squid from (A) Fishing effort and (B) catch per unit effort (CPUE) for the Monterey Bay (April [APR] black circles) and southern California (October [OCT] unfilled circles) regions. Note the lack of landings in OCT of 1984 and APR of 1998 following strong El Niño events. (Figure from (Zeidberg 2004).) 8

9 Fishermen target market squid at night when they aggregate in shallow waters to spawn. Lights are used to attract the squid to the surface where they are caught using purse seine nets and pumps. Purse seine nets are set around the school, and squid are transferred to the boat using either brail nets or by pumping the squid directly into the hold (CDF&G 2008). Squid can also be transferred directly into the hold of the boat without setting a purse seine net at all (PFMC 2008c). There is no commercial market squid aquaculture in the United States (NMFS 2008). Currently, the market squid fishery is managed in California by the California Department of Fish and Game (CDF&G) in coordination with the Pacific Fisheries Management Council (PFMC) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). As is the case with most cephalopod squid fisheries (Payne and Agnew 2006), it is difficult to make accurate stock estimates for market squid because they live less than one year and die soon after spawning, so there is no annual biomass carryover. The CDF&G currently manages the market squid fishery based on proportional reproduction escapement, which is determined during the fishing season (Maxwell et al. 2005). Escapement in this sense is defined as the proportion of a female squid s lifetime fecundity that is spawned, on average, before the female is captured in the fishery (PFMC 2008b). This lifetime potential fecundity is based on the number of eggs a female has when she begins to spawn. The number of eggs in a female squid decreases as she lays them, thus the number of eggs remaining in her body when she is caught compared to the presumed potential fecundity will reveal an estimate of how many eggs she has laid. Management does not count the actual number of remaining eggs and instead uses indirect indices to estimate reproductive output. Indirect indices include mantle thickness (as body mass is thought to be redirected to reproduction) or gonad mass (as new eggs are not formed once a female begins to spawn) in relation to mantle length (Macewicz 2003, 2004). The sampled female squid are thought to be representative of the entire population of female squid caught in the fishery. The egg escapement model is used to determine biological reference points as a proxy for maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and also to assess whether the fishery is surpassing sustainable exploitation. There are several assumptions on which this model is based: a) only mature squid are harvested, b) potential fecundity and number of eggs are accurately measured, c) life history parameters such as natural mortality and egg laying rate are accurately estimated, and d) instantaneous fishing mortality (F) can be used as management units (e.g., used as fishing effort) (Macewicz 2004, PFMC 2008c). The egg escapement model is based on a spawning biomass per recruit theory, with the idea that if a threshold is not exceeded, the stock will have a surplus of individuals that can be targeted by the fishery. Currently, the threshold is set at a preliminary value of 30%; further studies are required to determine whether this number needs to be modified (CDF&G 2005, PFMC 2009). Scope of the analysis and the ensuing recommendation: Market squid is included in the Pacific Fishery Management Council s (PFMC) Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan (CPS FMP), which covers California, Oregon and Washington (PFMC 2007). Since 1986, nearly all market squid have been fished and landed in California, including those fished by boats from Oregon and Washington. In recent years, landings in Oregon have composed % of the total fishery landings and landings in 9

10 Washington have been effectively zero. As such, the following report and recommendations are based only on an assessment of the market squid (Doryteuthis opalescens) fishery in California. Availability of Science Despite ongoing efforts by fisheries management scientists, academics and scholars, there are still many unanswered questions in regard to the life history and population trends of market squid. Extensive laboratory studies have been conducted on Doryteuthis opalescens, but its behavior in the wild is poorly understood. There are no direct or fishery-independent statistical estimates of biomass. An extensive literature exists on D. opalescens, including academic papers, books, theses (both masters and doctoral), government reports, and websites (academic, government, and amateur). There also exist a great number of newspaper and magazine articles on topics directly related to market squid. This Seafood Watch recommendation is based upon current scientific studies and management reports. Population growth estimates, stock size and maximum sustainable yield are all unknown at this time. Market Availability Common and market names: Squid, market squid, calamari, opal squid, and opalescent inshore squid Seasonal availability: Squid are generally available in fishable quantities year-round, with fishing normally occurring from April November in the northern fishery and from October March in the southern fishery, reflecting regional peak spawning (Porzio and Brady 2008). However, the vast majority of recent landings have been in the southern fishery. Product forms: Most market squid is frozen for human consumption, although small amounts are sold fresh or canned. Market squid is also sold frozen or live as bait for commercial and recreational fisheries (CDF&G 2008, NMFS 2008). Import and export sources and statistics: There is little demand for market squid in the United States. The majority of the commercial catch is exported, primarily to Asia. In 2008, 34,535 mt of market squid were exported with a value of $50.1 million. This was a 9% decrease in quantity and a 3% decrease in value for west coast market squid exports compared to 2007 (Figure 1) (PFMC 2009). The majority of market squid exports are frozen and sent to China, Japan, and other countries including Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Spain, and the Philippines (PFMC 2008c, 2009). 10

11 The growing global market for squid, combined with struggling foreign squid fisheries, has resulted in an increased demand for California market squid. This demand has led to increased effort and landings facilitated by newer, larger, and more efficient vessels and greater processing capacity on shore (PFMC 2008c). In the last decade, the volume of squid landed by California fishermen has been dependent on the international market (CDF&G 2008): landings increased almost 400% between the 1990/1991 and 1997/1998 seasons (Figure 1), a trend driven almost entirely by the southern fishery (Figure 2). Because the market squid fishery is demand-based, prices continue to remain high as the landings decrease. III. Analysis of Seafood Watch Sustainability Criteria for Wild-caught Species Criterion 1: Inherent Vulnerability to Fishing Pressure California market squid (Doryteuthis opalescens) are nearshore cephalopods with a relatively narrow species range living in the eastern Pacific Ocean from Baja California, Mexico to Southeastern Alaska. Market squid are small (up to 30 centimeters total length) and have a short life span lasting up to eight months. The intrinsic rate of increase ( r ) and the von Bertalanffy growth coefficient ( k ) are unknown, and it is debated whether the von Bertalanffy model is even applicable to squid (Rodhouse 1988). Market squid reach sexual maturity at a young age (six months), are highly fecund, and probably die soon after spawning. Market squid aggregate near the surface at night, after which females deposit up to 20 egg capsules (each containing eggs or ~3000 eggs per female (Macewicz 2003)) on sandy areas in shallow waters at depths of meters (m) (Maxwell et al. 2004, Zeidberg 2004). Paralarvae hatch from the egg capsules after several weeks. From the time paralarvae leave their hatching grounds to when they return as adults to spawn, little is known about the activities or whereabouts of market squid. As adults, they are highly migratory and are found traveling in schools in deep waters off the shelf. These adult squid make diel vertical migrations in which they come to surface waters at night. They spawn year-round in shallow waters on sandy bottoms (Zeidberg et al. 2006). Market squid feed on zooplankton, small fish and squid, and are important forage for larger fish and squid, as well as marine mammals and seabirds. In Monterey Bay, spawning events usually begin in April and end in October, whereas near the Channel Islands, spawning events begin in October and end in April (CDF&G 2008). The seasonality in spawning between northern and southern California has been attributed more to ocean temperatures near the sandy bottom rather than biological differences (Zeidberg et al. 2006). Both temperature and food availability seem to influence the growth and abundance of squid (Jackson and Domeier 2003). Squid that hatch and live during the warmer, nutrient-poor conditions of El Niño have tended to be smaller, have slower growth rates and be less numerous than squid living through the colder, nutrient-rich conditions of La Niña (Jackson and Domeier 2003). This effect was confirmed in several ways: 1) in the amount of squid landed in the 1997/1998 El Niño (Figure 1) (Zeidberg et al. 2006), 2) in the fishing effort during this period as viewed by remote sensing (Maxwell et al. 2004), 3) in the fact that there were fifty times more paralarvae in the years after El Niño than during (Zeidberg and Hamner 2002), and 4) in the 11

12 smaller number and size of squid in the scat of sea lions during the 1883/1984 El Niño event (Lowry and Carretta 1999). The highest catches of squid on record came during a La Niña period when productivity was high due to enhanced upwelling and lower temperatures, which resulted in increased zooplankton abundance (Figure 3). Because of their short life cycle, the entire stock of market squid is renewed twice annually. Also, because there is no generational overlap, the population size reflects only the previous generation s spawning success and the new generation s survivorship (NMFS 2008, Porzio and Brady 2008). The population size from year to year is rather unstable, as environmental factors and increased predation can disrupt cohorts. Market squid are attracted to light, and thus fishermen use large, high-wattage lights to attract squid to the surface. This unusual attraction is one of three behaviors that increase the vulnerability of market squid to fishing pressure. Market squid also aggregate to spawn, which is when they are targeted by the fishery (and also when there is an increased likelihood of catching individuals before spawning) (Forsythe et al. 2004), and they require a specific habitat to spawn (shallow, sandy habitats near submarine canyons) (NMFS 2008). The sandy nearshore substrate where market squid spawn is vulnerable to damage from fishing gear (Malakoff 1998, Chuenpagdee et al. 2003) but has not otherwise been compromised by non-fishery activities. Table 1. Life history characteristics of California market squid. Intrinsic Rate of Increase (r) Age at Maturity Growth Rate Unknown 6 months Unknown Max Age 8 months Max Size Total length: 30 cm Fecundity High: up to thousands of eggs per female Species Range Baja California, Mexico to Southeastern Alaska Special Behaviors Spawning aggregation; attracted to gear; spawn on specific habitats Sources Forsythe et al. 2004, Maxwell et al. 2004, NMFS 2008, Zeidberg et al Synthesis The intrinsic rate of increase ( r ) and the von Bertalanffy growth coefficient ( k ) for market squid are unknown. Market squid reach sexual maturity at a young age, are highly fecund, and have a short life span; however, they inhabit a relatively narrow range, exhibit high annual population variability driven by oceanographic conditions, form dense spawning aggregations targeted by the fishery, and exhibit a strong attraction to the fishing gear. As such, Seafood Watch considers market squid to be moderately vulnerable to fishing pressure. Inherent Vulnerability Rank: Resilient Moderately Vulnerable Highly Vulnerable 12

13 Criterion 2: Status of Wild Stocks The status of wild stocks is largely unknown. Because there is no fishery-independent population survey or measure of biannual recruitment success, it cannot be determined how vulnerable the stock is to fishing pressure. The management classification status for this species is unknown, and while the occurrence of overfishing is also unknown, overfishing may need to be redefined for the market squid fishery (PFMC 2008c). To date, attempts to estimate biological reference points, namely maximum sustainable yield (MSY),the fishing mortality rate that produces MSY (F MSY ), and the biomass that can produce MSY(B MSY ), have been unsuccessful. Instead, managers use an MSY-proxy approach (a modified MSY control rule) that is based on the egg escapement method, the current informal assessment tool for market squid (PFMC 2002, 2008c). Escapement is defined as the proportion of a female squid s lifetime fecundity that is spawned, on average, before the female is captured in the fishery (PFMC 2008b). This lifetime potential fecundity is based on the number of eggs a female has when she begins to spawn. As the number of eggs in her body decreases when she lays them, the number of eggs remaining in her body when she is caught compared to the presumed potential fecundity will reveal an estimate of how many eggs she has laid. An MSY control rule should maintain a long-term average catch similar to what would be caught using MSY (PFMC 2008c). The primary focus of the MSY control rule is on the biomass of the stock, and the extraction threshold is set more conservatively than the MSY levels set for actively managed fisheries 1. Further research is needed to determine whether the egg escapement value as a proxy for MSY is being determined correctly or is even an appropriate proxy. Research is also needed to determine whether the stock is overfished or subject to overfishing. The market squid fishery is managed based on proportional escapement, and there is no calculation for absolute egg production in order to predict future population sizes (Maxwell et al. 2005). Furthermore, data are only collected and analyzed regional/quarterly, limiting their usefulness for management (PFMC 2009). Trends in biomass are unknown. Trends in catch data may reflect abundance trends, but this is not certain (NMFS 2008). The long-term trend in landings varies with a decreasing short-term trend (Figure 2). Because fishing occurs only on spawning aggregations in shallow water and squid have been documented at greater depths using other gear, it is unclear if landings only reflect availability to the fishery or overall stock size (CDF&G 2005). The squid fishery also varies due to environmental conditions such as El Niño. During an El Niño event (e.g., 1984, 1998), squid landings (Figures 1 and 2), fishing effort (Figure 3a) and catch per unit effort (CPUE) (Figure 3b) declined (Zeidberg 2004), while in La Niña years, landings increased (Marinovic 2003, 2007). A troublesome trend in recent years is that the mean size (in both weight and size) of squid supporting the fishery has been decreasing (Porzio and Brady 2008). Data since the 1999/2000 season show a general decline in mean squid dorsal mantle length in the northern and southern fisheries with the exception of the southern fishery s 2005/2006 season (Figure 4). 1 An actively managed fishery means that there would be an annual stock assessment to consider the stability of the stock. Currently, Pacific sardine and Pacific mackerel are the only coastal pelagic species actively managed by the PFMC (PFMC 2009). See Criterion 5: Effectiveness of the Management Regime for more discussion. 13

14 Figure 4. Mean squid dorsal mantle length by fishing season for fishery-dependent samples taken from the northern fishery (Monterey: MRY) and the southern fishery (the northern Channels: NCI and Catalina Island: CAT). (Figure from (Porzio and Brady 2008).) The current percentage of immature squid in market squid landings is undocumented. In the 1998/1999 season, the figure was 2.6% (Macewicz 2004), but this has likely changed and it is important to continue monitoring for management considerations. Because the egg escapement model is based on only catching mature squid, a large catch of immature squid could greatly overestimate the amount of egg escapement in the population because immature squids produce no eggs (Macewicz 2004, Maxwell et al. 2005). The degree of uncertainty in the status of the market squid stock is moderate. Another concerning trend is that there were no landings in the northern fishery in the 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 fishing seasons as well as through most of the 2008/2009 season (CDF&G 2008). There is currently no clear explanation for this lack of landings. Table 2. Stock status of market squid. Classification Status B/B MSY Occurrence of Overfishing F/F MSY Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Abundance Trends/CPUE Long-term landings and CPUE variable; short-term landings decreasing Age/Size/Sex Distribution Decreasing Degree of Uncertainty in Stock Status Moderate Sources NMFS 2008b;(PFMC 2008c, Porzio and Brady 2008) SFW Rank Moderate Synthesis Both the management classification status of California market squid and the occurrence of overfishing in the fishery are unknown. Only an MSY-proxy is available, so trends in biomass 14

15 are also unknown. There is a variable long-term trend in landings and CPUE and a short-term decline in landings. While the natural stock s age, size and sex distributions are unknown, the sizes of fished squid have been decreasing for nearly ten years. In addition, there were no landings in the northern fishery in the 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 seasons and through most of the 2008/2009 season without any clear cause. Because only fishery-dependent data are available for estimation of the condition of the California market squid stock, there is a high degree of uncertainty in its status. Consequently, Seafood Watch deems the status of the California market squid stock to be a moderate conservation concern. Status of Wild Stocks Rank: Healthy Moderate/Rebuilding/Unknown Poor Critical Criterion 3: Nature and Extent of Bycatch Seafood Watch defines sustainable wild-caught seafood as marine life captured using fishing techniques that successfully minimize the catch of unwanted and/or unmarketable species (i.e., bycatch). Bycatch is defined as species that are caught but subsequently discarded (injured or dead) for any reason. Bycatch does not include incidental catch (non-targeted catch) if it is utilized, accounted for and managed in some way. Port-side sampling has been implemented to monitor bycatch for the market squid fishery, but only the presence or absence of non-target species is reported, without quantification (PFMC 2009). Because bycatch is not measured by at-sea observers, there is the possibility of fishers discarding bycatch before landing the squid. Port-side bycatch is only recorded as being in a certain percentage of landed market squid hauls and not in terms of numbers of individuals or weights. In 2008, 7% of market squid landings included bycatch, up from 4% in 2007 and 2% in In 2008, 34 different species of bycatch were reported (PFMC 2009). Most of the bycatch consisted of other coastal pelagic species (CPS) that school near market squid. None of these species, including Pacific sardine, Pacific mackerel, northern anchovy and jack mackerel, are considered overfished or otherwise jeopardized by the market squid fishery (PFMC 2009). Fishermen receive a lower price for hauls that have other fishes mixed in with the market squid, and thus there is incentive to reset the net and do another haul (Zeidberg 2009). However, fishermen are able to sell CPS bycatch to processors even when that fishery has already reached its limit. In addition to CPS species, incidental capture of rockfishes, eels, salmon, sharks, and skates occur, although infrequently (PFMC 2009). Numerous benthic (bottom-dwelling) bycatch species such as sanddabs, flounders, rays, crabs and eelgrass indicate gear interaction with the seafloor (PFMC 2008c, 2009). The consequences for populations of these species and how the ecosystem is affected by discarded bycatch are unknown. Because market squid catch is often pumped directly into the hold rather than sorted by hand, there are fewer opportunities to release bycatch live while at sea; however, larger fishes that will 15

16 not fit through the pumps are generally released prior to pumping or kept for personal use by the fishermen. This often means that larger species are not reported (or are only reported in logbooks) and are not tallied by port-side observers. However, as large predators often cut through schools instead of remaining in them when foraging, many can avoid capture in the squid nets (PFMC 2008c). A major concern in the market squid fishery is bycatch of market squid egg capsules. The fishery s management is based on the number of eggs that escape mortality (fishing-caused and natural). Thus, unintentional capture of successfully escaped eggs will cause estimates of survivorship to be inaccurately high and could result in overfishing. Capturing successfully escaped eggs also indicates interaction with the seafloor. The frequency of egg capture as documented by port-side monitoring indicates an increasing trend over the past several years. From 1998 to 2001, there was a 1.8% frequency of egg capture. In 2003, the frequency of occurrence rose to 4.9%, and in 2004 it rose to 5.1% (PFMC 2008c). In 2008, market squid egg capsules were observed in 8.8% of observed landings (PFMC 2009). Physical disturbance of egg capsules on the seafloor, even if they are not physically removed, can affect normal development or stimulate premature hatching of the embryos (Gilly 2009). The 2005 MSFMP states that if the incidence of egg capsule bycatch continues to increase, management may need to restrict fishing over certain bottom depths, temporarily close shallowwater habitats or impose stringent gear restrictions (CDF&G 2005). As the trend for market squid egg capsule bycatch has been increasing, attention has shifted from the fact that there are an increasing number of market squid egg capsules in the catch to the question of how old the eggs are (PFMC 2009). This question aims to identify whether the eggs were scraped off the bottom or laid in the net. There is the possibility that captured squids lay egg capsules in the nets, and thus the presence of egg capsules does not necessarily indicate that nets are interacting with the seafloor. Through research conducted in 2007, CDF&G found that investigation of embryo development and the condition of the egg capsule itself can determine when the egg case was laid (PFMC 2009). However, there are no accounts of this protocol being applied in the market squid fishery. Also, there is no discussion of how the capture of eggs, no matter where they were laid, affects the management of the squid fishery, which is based on surviving egg escapement. Management has not yet ensured that the fishery is not targeting maturing females that have not yet spawned, which could result in gross overestimates of the actual escapement and lead to overfishing. This is a large risk when fishing grounds are located directly above the spawning grounds (Forsythe et al. 2004). Since 2004, trained at-sea observers have monitored fishing practices in CPS fisheries with the aim of complementing port-side monitoring and documenting bycatch rates (PFMC 2007). While this program is an important component of assessing bycatch, it has yet to be standardized with appropriate statistical techniques, especially spatially and across fisheries. Data from the atsea observer program from have not yet been fully analyzed. Nevertheless, preliminary assessments show no marine mammals, sea turtles or seabirds were caught in this time period (PFMC 2008c). Intentional mortality of marine mammals was seen prior to the 1994 amendment to the Marine Mammal Protection Act, but is currently less frequent. Annual Marine Mammal Stock Assessment Reports in the US Pacific have shown few interactions with the market squid fishery, but NMFS classifies it as a Category II fishery (occasional incidental 16

17 mortality and serious injury of marine mammals) (Carretta et al. 2008). There have been four documented marine mammal mortalities (one unidentified common dolphin and three Risso s dolphins) and almost one hundred live releases since The market squid fishery is also known to use seal bombs and other deterrents (although it is said that seal bombs are no longer effective) (Carretta et al. 2008). The current extent of lethal and nonlethal marine mammal interactions with the market squid fishery is unknown (Carretta et al. 2008). Synthesis Bycatch in the California market squid fishery is considered to be a moderate conservation concern. The fishery has occasional interactions with marine mammals, but preliminary assessments show that no marine mammals, sea turtles or seabirds were caught in the fishery from While the overall bycatch rate is not known, the frequency of occurrences of landings containing bycatch, including the incidental catch of market squid egg capsules, is increasing. The population consequences of bycatch, the impacts on the ecosystem and current trends in the rate of overall bycatch are unknown. Nature of Bycatch Rank: Low Moderate High Critical Criterion 4: Effect of Fishing Practices on Habitats and Ecosystems Habitat Effects The California market squid fishery mainly fishes using purse seine nets and surface pumps (CDF&G 2005). The extent of fishing gear impacts on habitats and the ecosystem depends on the spatial scale of the fishery and the type of habitat where fishing occurs (Morgan 2003). Seine nets are generally regarded by Seafood Watch as inflicting minimal habitat damage as long as they do not contact the seafloor. However, this is not the case in the market squid fishery: there is evidence that market squid seine nets do interact with the benthos. Logbooks report that this occurs more often in the northern fishery than in the southern fishery (PFMC 2008c, 2009). The frequency of such interactions with the benthos is unknown, but could potentially occur as much as 75 85% of the time, based on a comparison of records of net sizes and bottom depths at specific fishing locations (Zeidberg 2009). Further evidence of interactions with the benthos comes from bycatch records, which include many species of bottom-dwelling fishes, invertebrates, and mature (>2 weeks old) market squid egg capsules (PFMC 2009, Zeidberg 2009). In assessing the impacts of different gear types on marine substrates, Chuenpagdee and colleagues concluded that when seine nets drag across the bottom as is the case to some degree in the market squid fishery they are as destructive to the benthos as bottom trawls (Chuenpagdee et al. 2003). However, it is likely that the seine nets behave more like fixed gear (e.g., pots, bottom longlines) than bottom trawls due to the area impacted. Based on this information, Seafood Watch considers purse seine nets to cause moderate damage to seafloor habitats, similar to fixed bottom gears. 17

18 The preferred habitats of market squid are sandy and muddy bottom areas (CDF&G 2005), which are known to be moderately resilient to fishing (Morgan 2003). Soft sediments are less likely to be impacted than hard structures that rise above the seafloor such as coral (Quandt 1999). A review of fishing effects found that fauna associated with sandy (coarser) sediments were less affected by trawl disturbance than those in soft, muddy (biogenic) sediments (Collie 2000). Recovery rates appear to be slower in muddy and structurally complex habitats, while mobile sandy sediment communities can withstand 2 3 trawl passes per year without significant adverse change to physical structures or biota (Collie 2000). In general, organisms in stable sediments such as gravel and mud suffer more adverse effects than those in unconsolidated sediments (Collie 2000). For soft bottom habitats, scraping the ocean bottom causes: 1) sediment resuspension (turbidity) and smoothing; 2) removal of and/or damage to non-target species; and 3) destruction of three-dimensional habitat (both biotic and abiotic (Auster 1999)). While soft bottom habitats are generally less sensitive to disturbance by trawling than rocky bottoms and coral reefs, studies have found decreased habitat heterogeneity and epifaunal abundance in heavily trawled areas for both sandy bottom (Engel 1998) and mud bottom habitats (Hixon 2007). Numerous reviews and meta-analyses document the severe effects of bottom trawling on epifaunal communities in low-disturbance muddy bottom habitats (Auster 1999, Norse 1999, Kaiser 2002, NRC 2002, Thrush 2002, Kaiser 2006). The market squid fishery occurs on a moderate spatial scale, and thus habitat damage occurs on a moderate scale as well in terms of the California ecosystem. However, the coverage of fishing activity over squid spawning grounds is extensive. In 2008, 8.8% of sampled landings contained market squid egg capsules (PFMC 2009). The occurrence of egg capsules as bycatch was higher in the northern fishery than in the southern fishery (PFMC 2009). This is thought to be due to the shallower waters in which squid are targeted in the northern fishery and may be cause for concern in terms of both habitat destruction and management, as reduced survivorship would have negative impacts on the stock and result in overestimates of its size. Substrate damage associated with the use of purse seine nets in shallow water and the subsequent mortality of squid eggs have been poorly studied, but acoustic techniques used to estimate egg beds on shallow substrates could help assess this damage (Foote et al. 2006). Ecosystem Effects Market squid, along with other small- to medium-sized fishes and invertebrates, are called forage species because they are major prey for larger predators such as fishes, marine mammals, and seabirds (Figure 5). Being relatively short-lived, populations of forage species can be greatly affected by changes to their planktonic food sources (e.g., as a result of changes in oceanographic conditions) as well as in predation levels, larval retention patterns, and water conditions. As prey for higher predators, forage species provide a primary pathway for energy transfer between plankton and higher predators in marine foodwebs. At higher and lower trophic levels, there are many species to facilitate these energy transfers, but the small number of forage species means their role is crucial to the foodweb (Alder 2006). 18

19 Figure 5. Known interactions of Doryteuthis opalescens off California (Figure adapted from (Morejohn et al. 1978) in (Boyle and Rodhouse 2005).) Because they are so critical to the marine ecosystem, removing forage species can impact marine mammals and seabirds (Baraff 2000, Tasker 2000, Furness 2003, Becker 2006). Kaschner and colleagues spatially modeled interactions between forage fisheries and marine mammal and seabird predators using data collected in the 1990s (Kaschner 2006). The model results showed a much higher consumption of forage species by fisheries than by marine mammals (Figure 6). The results also showed that these fisheries concentrated their catch and effort in small areas with fishing rates occasionally higher than 1,000 tons per square kilometer (t km 2 /year, Figure 7) (Kaschner 2006). Due to the intensive pressure they place on forage species, fisheries targeting forage species may threaten populations of seabirds, marine mammals, and other predators by reducing their available prey. Scientists suggest that increased pressure on forage species results in depletion of the base of the marine foodweb, with consequent declines in seabird and marine mammal populations (Alder 2006, Watson 2006). 19

20 Figure 6. Mean estimated annual consumption of small pelagics by marine mammals in comparison to fishery catches in the 1990s (Figure from (Kaschner 2006).) Figure 7. Distribution of catches of small pelagics for an average year in the 1990s. Note the open-ended scale, which indicates that catch rates can reach up to 150,000 t km 2 /year in some areas. (Figure from (Kaschner 2006).) Fisheries targeting forage species can also reduce the productivity of other commercial and recreational fish that consume those species as prey (Walters 2005)(Alder 2008). Harvesting large amounts of small pelagic species is likely to lead to increases in competitor populations and declines in predator populations (Dayton 2002). For example, Uphoff found that declines in the body condition of predatory striped bass (Morone saxatilis) were correlated with declines in heavily exploited stocks of menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) in Chesapeake Bay (Uphoff 2003). Fishers in that area were concerned that declines in menhaden caused by industrial fishing would affect stocks of striped bass and other predators (Pauly 2007, Alder 2008). 20

21 Given forage species importance as prey, the impact of oceanographic conditions on their populations substantially affect marine mammal and seabird populations. For example, during South America s El Niño years, substantial seabird and marine mammal mortalities were observed (Hays 1986, Alder 2008). On the Pacific coast of the United States, high mortality of seabirds was observed during the El Niño events of 1997/1998 and 2005 (MBNMS 2006). Worldwide human consumption patterns of forage species were also impacted by El Niño events in 1972/1973, 1983, and in the 1990s (Alder 2006). In California, there is concern that removing market squid could cause substantial localized changes in the food web (Morejohn et al. 1978, Jackson and Domeier 2003, PFMC, 2008b). Market squid is a critical food source for numerous species in the California Current, including many threatened and endangered species. In Monterey Bay alone, 19 species of fish feed on market squid, including many commercially important species such as Pacific bonito, halibut, tuna, and all of the depleted, threatened and endangered salmon stocks along the west coast (Figure 7) (Morejohn et al. 1978, CDF&G 2005). Predators from many trophic levels consume both small pelagic fishes and squid as either a primary or supplementary food source (CDF&G 2005). The common murre (Uria aalge) alone ate 52,414 mt (57,776 short tons [st]) of market squid in 2004 (over 40% of their wintering diet). This is more than the amount of squid landed by the fishery in 2007 (49,438 mt) and 45% of the all-time highest market squid landings in 1999/2000 (115,400 mt). It has been estimated that marine mammals consume 3 11 times the amount of prey that seabirds do (Briggs and Chu 1987). Thus, removing large numbers of forage species will likely affect the availability of those species for higher marine predators. Nevertheless, an assessment of the ecosystem impacts of the market squid fishery has not been completed, and therefore the impacts of the removal of market squid on the ecosystem are unknown. In 2000, the State of California implemented a full prohibition on the commercial catch of krill (a ubiquitous prey item among macrozooplankton). The PFMC followed with a complete ban on krill fishing in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off the coasts of California, Oregon, and Washington in 2006 (PFMC 2008b). Finally, on July 13, 2009, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) published a final rule in the Federal Register banning commercial krill fishing, which went into effect on August 12, This ban was instated because krill is such an important forage species and has been documented to have direct impacts on ecosystems (Marinovic 2007, PFMC 2008c). While market squid is a known forage item for many predators, less work has been done to evaluate the impacts that commercial fishing has on local ecosystems. Further studies, along with lessons learned from the ban on commercial krill catch, will provide much-needed information on this topic. Currently, management is considering whether to incorporate the ecosystem impacts of the market squid fishery into future PFMC Ecosystem Fishery Management Plans and Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation reports (PFMC 2008c). Another ecosystem concern is that vessels using light to attract squid have negative effects on nesting seabirds. As a result, attracting lights are prohibited in all waters of the Gulf of Farallones National Marine Sanctuary and are restricted to a maximum of 30,000 watts with shielding requirements in several of the Channel Islands (CDF&G 2005). 21

22 As discussed in Criterion 3: The Nature and Extent of Discarded Bycatch, the catch of market squid egg capsules has been increasing over the past several years. Egg capsules were found in 8.8% of market squid landings in Removing viable egg capsules has negative impacts on the survival of market squid hatchlings; even the physical disturbance of egg capsules can affect normal development or stimulate the premature hatching of embryos (Gilly 2009). However, the overall effect of egg capsule removal on the ecosystem is unknown. Synthesis Based on net sizes and depths fished, the market squid fishery s purse seine nets are likely to interact with the seafloor 75 85% of the time. The impact of these interactions is considered more similar to fixed bottom gear than mobile bottom gear. The fishery occurs over a moderate spatial scale in sandy and muddy bottom areas, which are considered moderately resilient. Market squid is a forage species and plays an important role in California marine food webs. There is concern that removing market squid and squid eggs capsules could cause changes in food webs and the ecosystem; however, no assessment of these impacts has been completed. Due to the moderate habitat damage caused by the fishery s seine nets and the moderate resilience of the habitat, Seafood Watch deems the California market squid fishery to have moderate effects on habitats and the ecosystem. Effect of Fishing Practices Rank: Benign Moderate Severe Critical Criterion 5: Effectiveness of the Management Regime The market squid fishery is under the jurisdiction of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the California Department of Fish and Game (CDF&G) and the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC). The Magnuson-Stevens Act requires a biomass estimate for federally managed fisheries. Because there is no biomass estimate for market squid, CDF&G manages the squid fishery for California and is responsible for the Market Squid Fishery Management Plan (MSFMP). The PFMC has deferred management of market squid to CDF&G consistent with the PFMC s 1999 Federal Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan (FMP). The PFMC also manages other migratory species under the Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan (CPS FMP) including Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax), Pacific mackerel (Scomber japonicus), northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax), and jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus) (PFMC 2008a). In 1998, industry-sponsored legislation went into effect imposing a moratorium on the number of participating vessels, establishing a limited-entry fishery, and creating a permit system (with conservation and management research funded by permit sales) (Porzio and Brady 2008). This was the beginning of the process of creating the market squid FMP. In 2001, CDF&G was given authority to manage the market squid fishery. The MSFMP was adopted in late 2004 and put 22

23 into effect on March 28, 2005, in time for the 2005/2006 fishing season to open on April 1, 2005 (CDF&G 2005). Prior to 1997, there were regulations in Monterey Bay that included light and gear limits and weekend closures (Porzio and Brady 2008). These regulations came about in a piecemeal fashion (Porzio and Brady 2008), largely because the market squid fishery was one of the last open access fisheries on the west coast. In the 1990s, fishermen from other troubled fisheries joined the market squid fishery, and as the operation grew, local fishermen worried about the effects of this rapid growth on their livelihoods. In the first season after the 1998/1999 moratorium, 243 vessel permits were issued for market squid. Wattage restrictions on light boats were put into place due to increases in seabird nest abandonment and chick predation. The first season these restrictions were implemented (1999/2000) was the all-time record for highest market squid landings (Figure 2) (Porzio and Brady 2008). There were 53 light boat permits issued that year. The fishery has changed since then: in 2008, 93 vessel permits were issued (42 of which were responsible for 90% of the landings) including 62 light boat permits (Porzio and Brady 2008, PFMC 2009). The 2005 MSFMP was designed to manage the market squid stock sustainably over the longterm and to reduce the potential for overfishing while also being flexible to environmental and socioeconomic changes. On the foundation of the 1998 regulations, the 2005 MSFMP was structured to achieve these goals by: 1) setting a seasonal total allowable catch (TAC) of 107,047 metric tons (118,000 short tons) to maintain the historic size of the fishery; 2) maintaining monitoring programs designed to evaluate the impact of the fishery; 3) continuing weekend closures that provided squid forty-eight hours of uninterrupted spawning; 4) continuing gear regulations regarding wattage and light shields; 5) establishing a restricted access program with provisions for initial entry into the fishery, permit types, permit fees and permit transferability; and 6) creating a closure to protect seabirds that restricts the use of lights near the Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary (CDF&G 2005, PFMC 2008c). The TAC is equal to the average of the three highest recorded landings since 1999, from the 1999/2000 season to the 2001/2002 season. Low yield years were not included because it was thought that El Niño years were anomalously low, and thus the TAC value was set to be just below the all-time record catch (CDF&G 2005). The chosen TAC was the least conservative (highest) of all options considered (Table 3) (CDF&G 2005). As landing trends continue to decline, this level may have to be reconsidered. It remains unclear whether management considered all of the concerns raised by scientists when implementing the TAC. 23

24 Table 3. Market squid landings by season, 1991/1992 through 2002/2003, and average landings based on 10, 5, or 3 years using different seasons. Averages are rounded to the nearest thousand. Table from (CDF&G 2005) (Table 3.2). Currently, the CPS FMP designates market squid as a monitored species (meaning that monitoring landings and available abundance indices are considered sufficient information to manage the stock) (PFMC 2008a). Market squid is not actively managed, which would mean that there would be an annual stock assessment to consider the stability of the stock. Pacific sardine and Pacific mackerel are the only coastal pelagic species actively managed by the PFMC. Through various legislative steps, the market squid fishery could be actively managed; the MSYproxy control rule has been set with this possibility in mind. However, the 2006 reauthorization of the Magnuson-Stevens Act ended recent consideration of active management for market squid because of the species short lifespan (PFMC 2009). It was thought that the fishery control rules in place under the MSFMP (including the restricted access program that limits fishery participation and the expansion of marine protected areas in California over spawning areas) precluded the need for active management. The MSFMP states that as trends in fishery operations are monitored, any changes (e.g., in targeted fishing locations or in the number of egg capsules or immature squid caught) could be cause for reconsideration (CDF&G 2005, PFMC 2008c). There is neither a fishery-independent stock assessment for market squid nor one planned for the future. However, both the long-finned (Loligo pealei) and short-finned (Illex illecebrosus) squid fisheries on the east coast of the United States have stock assessments. In California, estimating biological reference points (most notably MSY) for market squid has been unsuccessful. Instead, managers use an MSY-proxy approach (a modified MSY control rule), which is an informal assessment tool with the aim of maintaining a long-term average catch similar to what would be harvested using MSY (PFMC 2009). The MSY control rule is used as a tool to gauge whether the fishery should be considered for active management. Fishery-dependent data are regularly collected and analyzed. The CDF&G has conducted regional/quarterly preliminary analyses, including estimates of fishing mortality, egg 24

25 escapement, and abundance estimates with data from (PFMC 2009). Sensitivity analyses and simulation modeling have been conducted for the same time period. In the fall of 2006, the CPS management team (CPSMT) presented their preliminary results to the PFMC, although the resulting report (Appendix 3 of the PFMC SAFE 2009, finalized in June 2009) had not yet been published when this Seafood Watch Report was written (PFMC 2009). It has not been demonstrated that regional/quarterly collections and analyses are at the proper time scale to detect changes in the fishery and facilitate maintenance of stock productivity. The lifespan of market squid is approximately six months and the fishing season is even shorter, but data are not analyzed for months after collection. Data for the market squid fishery need to be analyzed in real-time so that management can close the fishery if there is a problem. Landings of market squid have been decreasing since 2000, and the three most recent years have seen no landings in the northern fishery (Figure 2). The MSFMP is based on the egg escapement method, which is used to assess whether the fishery catch is above or below a pre-determined threshold of sustainable exploitation (PFMC 2002). This threshold is currently set at 30% (a preliminary statistic intended as a precautionary reference point (PFMC 2009)). In order to successfully use the egg escapement method, data need to be analyzed in a timely manner to enable effective management actions. If the data are not analyzed on a relevant time scale, the assumptions underpinning the egg escapement model are that a) only mature squid are harvested, b) potential fecundity and number of eggs are accurately measured, c) life history parameters such as natural mortality and egg laying rate are accurately estimated, and d) instantaneous fishing mortality (F) can be used as management units (e.g., used as fishing effort) (Macewicz 2004, PFMC 2009) may not hold, but fishing would continue. It is currently unknown how many immature females are caught by the market squid fishery, with the most recent figure (2.6%) being from the 1998/1999 season (Macewicz 2004). Recently, attention has shifted from the fact that there are an increasing number of market squid egg capsules in landings to the question of how old these eggs are (PFMC 2009). The question aims to identify whether the eggs were scraped off the benthos or whether they were laid in the net; CDF&G has developed a protocol for determining the age of these eggs (PFMC 2009). While it is an important question to answer in order to determine whether gear is interacting with benthic habitats and ecosystems, it is troubling that females are being caught before having a chance to spawn naturally. This is an increasing trend. The fecundity of fished squid requires frequent monitoring to detect any changes, and CDF&G has the authority (without amendments to the MSFMP) to take appropriate steps to conserve the market squid stock (PFMC 2009). There is not enough information available to determine whether management has a good track record of heeding the advice of external scientists when setting or exceeding catch quotas. However, the pre-season statistic of sustainable exploitation remains at its initial value of 30% set in 2005 (CDF&G 2005, PFMC 2009). Given the six options considered in designing the MSFMP, the TAC was not set conservatively (Table 3). There are documented scientific opinions that the TAC should be set more conservatively, and these could be considered more carefully in the future. Some of these scientific opinions are also documented in the MSFMP itself, in the public comment section (CDF&G 2005). There may be cause to reassess the management track record as new data become available and as the management comes up for review. 25

26 Bycatch is of moderate concern in the market squid fishery. Trends of bycatch in the fishery, although not quantified, are increasing, as is the capture of market squid egg capsules. While the majority of bycatch comprises other CPS fishes that are not endangered and can still be landed, there were 34 different species of bycatch in 2008, many of them benthic (bottom dwelling). The number of benthic species, combined with the increasing incidence of market squid egg capsules, raises concerns about fishing gear interactions with benthic habitats and ecosystems. Although the MSFMP illustrates several inherent qualities of the market squid fishery that reduce bycatch (CDF&G 2005, PFMC 2009), several of these properties are outdated or irrelevant (e.g., California no longer has a large-scale reduction fishery, and squid are not caught over rocky bottoms). Management has implemented gear limits and weekend closures to protect the squid resource. To reduce potential negative effects on nesting seabirds, management has prohibited attracting lights in all waters of the Gulf of Farallones National Marine Sanctuary and has restricted lights to a maximum of 30,000 watts in addition to requiring light shielding in several of the Channel Islands (CDF&G 2005). However, management has not implemented any other measures to reduce the capture of non-target species and egg capsules or to minimize interactions with benthic habitats and ecosystems. The CDF&G is, however, currently analyzing logbook information to investigate bycatch trends (PFMC 2008c). The CDF&G does effectively enforce existing fishery regulations with use of mandatory logbooks, trained at-sea observers, and portside samplers that collect data on landings and bycatch. Stock productivity has varied over time but it is unclear if this is a result of environmental conditions (El Niño) or an inappropriate TAC and data collection regime. The future of management of the market squid fishery is currently under consideration, although many questions remain unanswered. Further studies are needed in order to adequately set the MSY and TAC. Reliable fishery-independent assessments of abundance are needed to manage the fishery (Porzio and Brady 2008). There are many management approaches that other squid fisheries have taken (Payne and Agnew 2006), including modeling (Reiss et al. 2004, Maxwell et al. 2005) and remote sensing (Waluda et al. 2002, Maxwell et al. 2004). Enhanced assessment of CDF&G s logbook program and more studies of biological-related parameters involving spawning and death could elucidate the amount of time spent on spawning grounds and the maturity levels of those squid. This is important to ensure that models and MSY estimates are accurate and that catches of immature squid and un-spawned mature squid are minimal (Jackson and Domeier 2003, Forsythe et al. 2004, Maxwell et al. 2005). There is currently a call for caution from the fishery conservation community, with requests to address ecosystem effects in the management of forage fisheries (MATF 2007, NCMC 2008). In some regions, fisheries managers are beginning to heed the call for ecosystem-based management of forage species. For example, the Canadian commercial fishery for North Pacific krill has been restricted to a low TAC to prevent negative impacts on commercial fisheries for Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis), chinook salmon (Onchorynchus tschawytscha), and coho salmon (Onchorynchus kisutch), along with multiple whale species including blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), and minke whale (Balenoptera acutorostrata) (Nicol 1997). It is also clearly stated in 26

27 the Canadian North Pacific krill FMP that the TAC will not increase until scientific analysis showing that such an increase will not negatively impact predators is presented to and accepted by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO 2007). In the United States, NMFS has recently proposed a revision to its National Standard I Guidelines that considers ecological factors in setting allowable catches for forage fisheries (Federal Register 2008). Despite these signs of progress, however, most forage fisheries, including the market squid fishery, are still managed using a single-species rather than an ecosystem-based approach. Table 4. Management measures for the commercial California market squid fishery. Management Jurisdictions & Agencies CDF&G, PFMC Total Allowable Landings Size Limit 107,047 mt None Lighting restrictions Gear Restrictions Trip Limit Area Closures Sources None, but tradable permit system Weekend closures, protected area closures (CDF&G 2005, NMFS 2008, PFMC 2008c)b Synthesis The CDF&G enacted a Market Squid Fishery Management Plan (MSFMP) in However, a stock assessment has not been completed and none is planned for the future. Only fisherydependent data are collected and analyzed, and it has not been demonstrated that this is being done on a time scale relevant to management of the fishery. Stock productivity has varied over time, but it is unclear if this is a result of environmental conditions (El Niño) or an inappropriate TAC and data collection regime. The TAC has been set at approximately the maximum historic level, which is neither precautionary nor binding on the fishery, due to the lack of a solid understanding of the stock status or ecosystem impacts of the fishery. It is unclear whether management is correctly implementing scientific advice into catch quotas. The CDF&G recently began an at-sea observer program, but currently does not quantify bycatch. Management has implemented gear limits and weekend closures to protect the squid resource. To reduce potential negative effects on nesting seabirds, management has prohibited attracting lights in all waters of the Gulf of Farallones National Marine Sanctuary and has restricted lights to a maximum of 30,000 watts while requiring lights to be shielded in several of the Channel Islands. However, management has not implemented any other measures to reduce the capture of non-target species and egg capsules or to investigate interactions with benthic habitats and ecosystems. Given that there is no stock assessment or plan to conduct one, and that there is no bycatch plan to address the increasing capture of egg capsules, Seafood Watch deems the management of the California market squid fishery to be moderately effective. Effectiveness of Management Rank: Highly Effective Moderately Effective Ineffective Critical 27

28 IV. Overall Evaluation and Seafood Recommendation California market squid exhibit a combination of life history characteristics that makes them moderately vulnerable to fishing pressure. Factors that make them resilient to fishing include a young age at maturity, high fecundity, and a short life span. However, market squid also inhabit a relatively narrow range, exhibit high population variability driven by oceanographic conditions such as El Niño, and are commercially targeted in dense spawning aggregations, which impacts their reproductive success and increases their vulnerability to fishing. The management classification status of the market squid fishery and the occurrence of overfishing are both unknown. The fishery is currently managed based solely on fisherydependent landings data, and the degree of uncertainty in stock status is high. There are no direct or statistical procedures to assess the population size, and the fishery is managed using an MSY-proxy based on egg escapement; the effectiveness of this method is yet to be determined. Bycatch in the market squid fishery is considered a moderate conservation concern because, although the monitoring program currently does not quantify the amount of bycatch, frequency of bycatch occurrence has been increasing. In addition, the population consequences of bycatch are unknown. The increasing trend in captured egg capsules is also a concern. The California market squid fishery mainly uses purse seine nets and pumps at the surface. This gear often interacts with the seafloor, and when it does, it can behave like fixed bottom gear, capturing market squid egg capsules and damaging the benthos. Seafood Watch considers the use of purse seines that have contact with the seafloor over moderately sensitive soft bottom habitat to be a moderate conservation concern. Market squid is an important forage species in the food webs of the California Current. There is concern that removing market squid and squid eggs capsules could cause changes in the food web and the ecosystem. However, no assessment of these impacts has been completed or incorporated into management. Current management of the California market squid fishery is deemed to be moderately effective, as no formal stock assessments have been conducted and there are no plans to reduce capture of egg capsules. Data collection and analysis have not been conducted at demonstrably relevant time scales to monitor the fishery, and management measures have not been successful at maintaining stock productivity. The market squid fishery s moderate Seafood Watch rankings for stock status, bycatch, impacts to habitats and ecosystems, and management effectiveness result in an overall recommendation of Good Alternative. However, demonstrated measures to prevent purse seines from contacting the seafloor, as well as additional efforts to better monitor fishery bycatch and assess the ecosystem impacts of squid removal could improve the ranking of this fishery. 28

29 Table of Sustainability Ranks Conservation Concern Sustainability Criteria Low Moderate High Critical Inherent Vulnerability Status of Stocks Nature of Bycatch Habitat & Ecosystem Effects Management Effectiveness Overall Seafood Recommendation: Best Choice Good Alternative Avoid Acknowledgments Seafood Watch thanks Dale Sweetnam of the CDF&G and an anonymous reviewer who graciously reviewed this report for scientific accuracy. Special thanks are also due to William Gilly, who provided further details on the fishery. Scientific review does not constitute an endorsement of the Seafood Watch program, or its seafood recommendations, on the part of the reviewing scientists. Seafood Watch is solely responsible for the conclusions reached in this report. 29

30 V. References Alder, J., and Pauly, D On the Multiple Uses of Forage Fish: From Ecosystems to Markets. In: Alder, J., Pauly, D., (eds). On the multiple uses of forage fish: from ecosystems to markets. Fisheries Centre Research Reports 14(3). Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia:viii-ix. Alder, J., Campbell, B., Karpouzi, V., Kaschner, K., and Pauly, D Forage Fish: From Ecosystems to Markets. Annual review of environment and resources 33: Auster, P. J., Langton, R.W The effects of fishing on fish habitat. American Fisheries Society Symposium 22: Baraff, L. S., and Loughlin, T.R Trends and potential interactions between pinnipeds and fisheries of New England and the U.S. West Coast. Marine Fisheries Review 62:1-39. Becker, B. H., and Beissinger, S. R Centennial decline in the trophic level of an endangered seabird after fisheries decline. Conservation Biology 20: Boyle, P., and P. G. Rodhouse Cephalopods: Ecology and Fisheries. Blackwell Publishing Oxford, England:452 pgs.. Briggs, K. T., and E. W. Chu Trophic relationships and food requirements of California seabirds: updating models of trophic impact. In Seabirds: Feeding Ecology and Role in Marine Ecosystems Ed. by J.P.Croxall: Carretta, J. V., K. A. Forney, M. S. Lowry, J. Barlow, J. Baker, D. Johnston, B. Hanson, M. M. Muto, D. Lynch, and L. Carswell US Pacific Marine Mammal Stock Assessments: A NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS. NOAA NMFS SWFSC Report: CDF&G Market Squid Fishery Management Plan. California Department of Fish and Game: CDF&G Review of some California fisheries for 2007: coastal pelagic finfish, market squid, dungeness crab, California spiny lobster, highly migratory species, ocean salmon, groundfish, California halibut, hagfish, Pacific herring and recreational. CalCOFI Reports 49: Chuenpagdee, R., L. E. Morgan, S. M. Maxwell, E. A. Norse, and D. Pauly Shifting gears: assessing collateral impacts of fishing methods in US waters. Front. Ecol. Environ. 1: Collie, J. S., Hall, S. J., Kaiser, M. J., Poiner, I.R A quantitative analysis of fishing impacts on shelf-sea benthos.. Journal of Animal Ecology 69: Dayton, P., Thrush, S., and Coleman, F Ecological Effects of Fishing in Marine Ecosystems of the United States.. Pew Oceans Commission, Arlington, VA. DFO Integrated Fisheries Management Plan. Euphausiids.. Department of Fisheries and Oceans January 1, 2007 to December 31, Engel, J., Kvitek, R Effects of otter trawling on a benthic community in Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Conservation Biology 12: Foote, K. G., R. T. Hanlon, P. J. Iampietro, and R. G. Kvitek Acoustic detection and quantification of benthic egg beds of the squid Loligo opalescens in Monterey Bay, California. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 119: Forsythe, J., N. Kangas, and R. T. Hanlon Does the California market squid (Loligo opalescens) spawn naturally during the day or at night? A note on the successful use of ROVs to obtain basic fisheries biology data Fish. Bull. 102:

31 Furness, R. W Impacts of fisheries on seabird communities. Scientia Marina 67: Gilly, W personal communication. Hays, C Effects of the El Nino on Humboldt penguin colonies in Peru. Biological Conservation 36: Hixon, M. A., and B.N. Tissot Comparison of trawled vs untrawled mud seafloor assemblages of fishes and macroinvertebrates at Coquille Bank, Oregon. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 344: Jackson, G. D., and M. L. Domeier The effects of an extraordinary El Niño event on the size and growth of the squid Loligo opalescens off Southern California. Marine Biology 142: Kaiser, M. J., Clarke, K.R., Hinz, H., Austen, M.C.V., Somerfield, P.J., Karakassis, I Global analysis of response and recovery of benthic biota to fishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series 311:1 14. Kaiser, M. J., Collie, J.S., Hall, S.J., Jennings, S., Poiner, I.R., Modification of marine habitats by trawling activities: prognosis and solutions. Fish and Fisheries 3: Kaschner, K., Karpouzi, V., Watson, R., and Pauly, D Forage fish consumption by marine mammals and seabirds,. In: Alder, J., Pauly, D., (eds). On the multiple uses of forage fish: from ecosystems to markets. Fisheries Centre Research Reports 14(3). Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia: Lowry, M. S., and J. V. Carretta Market squid (Loligo opalescens) in the diet of California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) in southern California ( ). CalCOFI Reports 40: Macewicz, B. J., Hunter, J.R., Lo, N.C.H Lifetime fecundity of the market squid, Loligo opalescens, with application to monitoring escapement. Modern approaches to assess maturity and fecundity of warm- and cold-water fish and squids Workshop: Macewicz, B. J., Hunter, J.R., Lo, N.C.H., LaCasella, E.L Fecundity, egg deposition, and mortality of market squid (Loligo opalescens). Fish. Bull. 102: Malakoff, D Papers posit grave impact of trawling. Science 282:2168. Marinovic, B New Model LInks Ocean Conditions to Squid Biomass. California Sea Grant Program. Marinovic, B., Croll, D. A., and Mangel, M. S Assessing the impact of climate change on the California squid fishery: an integrated approach. California Sea Grant Program Maxwell, M. R., A. Henry, C. D. Elvidge, J. Safran, V. R. Hobson, I. Nelson, B. T. Tuttle, J. B. Dietz, and J. R. Hunter Fishery dynamics of the California market squid (Loligo opalescens), as measured by satellite remote sensing. Fish. Bull. 102: Maxwell, M. R., L. D. Jacobson, and R. J. Conser Eggs-per-recruit model for management of the California market squid (Loligo opalescens) fishery. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 62. MBNMS Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Ecosystem Observations: Bird Populations. Beach Combers Update, May Morejohn, V. G., J. T. Harvey, and L. T. Krasnow The importance of Loligo opalescens in the food web of marine vertebrates in Monterey Bay, California. Department of Fish and Game Fish Bulletin 169:

32 Morgan, L. E., Chuenpagdee, R Shifting gears: addressing the collateral impacts of fishing methods in U.S. waters.. Pew science series on conservation and the environment Island Press Publication Services: Washington DC, USA:42 p. Nicol, S. a. E., Y Krill fisheries of the world. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 367. NMFS FishWatch: US Seafood Facts: Market Squid. Norse, E., Watling, L Effects of mobile fishing gear: the biodiversity perspective.. American Fisheries Society Symposium 22: NRC Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. A multi-author study prepared for NMFS by the National Research Council, Ocean Studies Board.. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. :126 p. Pauly, D Tales of a small, but crucial, fish. Science Payne, A. G., and D. J. Agnew Trends and assessment of cephalopod fisheries. Fisheries Research 78:1-3. PFMC Status of the Pacific coast coastal pelagic species fishery and recommended acceptable biological catches: Stock assessment and fishery evaluation. Pacific Fishery Management Council Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation (SAFE) 3 (Appendix 3: Market squid maximum sustainable yield): PFMC Backgrounder: coastal pelagic species. Pacific Fishery Management Council PFMC. 2008a. Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan. PFMC. 2008b. Fisheries Management: CPS Recent Amendments. PFMC. 2008c. Status of the Pacific coast coastal pelagic species fishery and recommended acceptable biological catches: Stock assessment and fishery evaluation Pacific Fishery Management Council Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation (SAFE) Number 9: PFMC Status of the Pacific Coast Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery and Recommended Acceptable Biological Catches: SAFE. Pacific Fishery Management Council 10: Porzio, D., and B. Brady Status of the fisheries report: market squid. California Department of Fish and Game:1-11. Quandt, A Assessment of fish trap damage on coral reefs around St. Thomas, USVI. Independent project report, UVI. Reiss, C. S., M. R. Maxwell, J. R. Hunter, and A. Henry Investigating environmental effects on population dynamics of Loligo opalescens in the Southern California Bight. CalCOFI Reports 45: Rodhouse, P. G Physiological progenesis in cephalopod molluscs. The Biological Bulletin 195: Tasker, M. L., Camphuysen, C.J., Cooper, J., Garthe, S., Montevecchi, W.A., and Blaber, S. J. M The impacts of fishing on marine birds. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: Thrush, S. F., Dayton, P.K., Disturbance to marine benthic habitats by trawling and dredging: implications for marine biodiversity. Ann. Rev. Ecolog. Syst. 33: Uphoff, J. H., Jr Predator-prey analysis of striped bass and Atlantic menhaden in Upper Chesapeake Bay. Fisheries Management and Ecology 10:

33 Walters, C. J., Christensen, V., Martell, S. J., and Kitchell, J. F Possible ecosystem impacts of applying MSY policies from single-species assessment. ICES Journal of Marine Science 62: Waluda, C. M., P. N. Trathan, C. D. Elvidge, V. R. Hobson, and P. G. Rodhouse Throwing light on straddling stocks of Illex argentinus: assessing fishing intensity with satellite imagery. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 59: Watson, R., Alder, J., Pauly, D Fisheries for forage fish, 1950 to the present. In: Alder, J., Pauly, D. (eds.) On the multiple uses forage fish: from ecosystems to markets. Fisheries Centre Research Reports 14(3). Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia.:1-20. Zeidberg, L. D personal communication. Zeidberg, L. D., and W. M. Hamner Distribution of squid paralarvae, Loligo opalescens (Cephalopoda: Myopsida), in the Southern California Bight in the three years following the El Niño. Marine Biology 141: Zeidberg, L. D., W. M. Hamner, N. P. Nezlin, and A. Henry The fishery for California market squid (Loligo opalescens) (Cephalopoda: Myopsida), from 1981 through Fisheries Bulletin 104: Zeidberg, L. D., Hamner, W.M., Moorehead, K., Kristof, E Egg masses of Loligo opalescens (Cephalopoda: Myopsida) in Monterey Bay, California following the El Niño event of Bulletin of Marine Science 74:

34 VI. Appendices Appendix I. Wild-capture Fisheries Evaluation Capture Fisheries Evaluation Species: Market Squid Region: West Coast Region Analyst: Julia Stewart Date: March 11, 2010 Seafood Watch defines sustainable seafood as originating from sources, whether fished 2 or farmed that can maintain or increase production in the long-term without jeopardizing the structure or function of affected ecosystems. The following guiding principles illustrate the qualities that capture fisheries must possess to be considered sustainable by the Seafood Watch program. Species from sustainable capture fisheries: have a low vulnerability to fishing pressure, and hence a low probability of being overfished, because of their inherent life history characteristics; have stock structure and abundance sufficient to maintain or enhance long-term fishery productivity; are captured using techniques that minimize the catch of unwanted and/or unmarketable species; are captured in ways that maintain natural functional relationships among species in the ecosystem, conserves the diversity and productivity of the surrounding ecosystem, and do not result in irreversible ecosystem state changes; and have a management regime that implements and enforces all local, national and international laws and utilizes a precautionary approach to ensure the long-term productivity of the resource and integrity of the ecosystem. Seafood Watch has developed a set of five sustainability criteria, corresponding to these guiding principles, to evaluate capture fisheries for the purpose of developing a seafood recommendation for consumers and businesses. These criteria are: 1. Inherent vulnerability to fishing pressure 2. Status of wild stocks 3. Nature and extent of discarded bycatch 4. Effect of fishing practices on habitats and ecosystems 5. Effectiveness of the management regime Each criterion includes: Primary factors to evaluate and rank Secondary factors to evaluate and rank Evaluation guidelines 3 to synthesize these factors A resulting rank for that criterion 2 Fish is used throughout this document to refer to finfish, shellfish and other wild-caught invertebrates. 3 Evaluation Guidelines throughout this document reflect common combinations of primary and secondary factors that result in a given level of conservation concern. Not all possible combinations are shown other combinations should be matched as closely as possible to the existing guidelines. 34