Seafood Watch Seafood Report

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1 Seafood Watch Pacific Flatfishes Report July 31, 2009 Seafood Watch Seafood Report Pacific Flatfishes Alaska plaice (Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus) Arrowtooth flounder (Atheresthes stomias) Dover sole (Microstomus pacificus) English sole (Parophrys vetulus) Flathead sole (Hippoglossoides elassodon) Greenland turbot (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) Pacific sanddab (Citharichthys sordidus) Petrale sole (Eopsetta jordani) Rex sole (Errex zachirus) Rock sole (Lepidopsetta bilineata) Sand sole (Psettichthys melanostictus) Starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus) Yellowfin sole (Limanda aspera) Image Monterey Bay Aquarium Original Report May 1, 2006 Stock Status Updated July 31, 2009 Santi Roberts and Melissa M. Stevens Fisheries Research Analysts Monterey Bay Aquarium

2 Seafood Watch Pacific Flatfishes Report July 31, 2009 About Seafood Watch and the Seafood Reports Monterey Bay Aquarium s Seafood Watch program evaluates the ecological sustainability of wild-caught and farmed seafood commonly found in the United States marketplace. Seafood Watch defines sustainable seafood as originating from sources, whether wild-caught or farmed, which can maintain or increase production in the long-term without jeopardizing the structure or function of affected ecosystems. Seafood Watch makes its science-based recommendations available to the public in the form of regional pocket guides that can be downloaded from The program s goals are to raise awareness of important ocean conservation issues and empower seafood consumers and businesses to make choices for healthy oceans. Each sustainability recommendation on the regional pocket guides is supported by a Seafood Report. Each report synthesizes and analyzes the most current ecological, fisheries and ecosystem science on a species, then evaluates this information against the program s conservation ethic to arrive at a recommendation of Best Choices, Good Alternatives or Avoid. The detailed evaluation methodology is available upon request. In producing the Seafood Reports, Seafood Watch seeks out research published in academic, peer-reviewed journals whenever possible. Other sources of information include government technical publications, fishery management plans and supporting documents, and other scientific reviews of ecological sustainability. Seafood Watch Research Analysts also communicate regularly with ecologists, fisheries and aquaculture scientists, and members of industry and conservation organizations when evaluating fisheries and aquaculture practices. Capture fisheries and aquaculture practices are highly dynamic; as the scientific information on each species changes, Seafood Watch s sustainability recommendations and the underlying Seafood Reports will be updated to reflect these changes. Parties interested in capture fisheries, aquaculture practices and the sustainability of ocean ecosystems are welcome to use Seafood Reports in any way they find useful. For more information about Seafood Watch and Seafood Reports, please contact the Seafood Watch program at Monterey Bay Aquarium by calling Disclaimer Seafood Watch strives to have all Seafood Reports reviewed for accuracy and completeness by external scientists with expertise in ecology, fisheries science and aquaculture. Scientific review, however, does not constitute an endorsement of the Seafood Watch program or its recommendations on the part of the reviewing scientists. Seafood Watch is solely responsible for the conclusions reached in this report. Seafood Watch and Seafood Reports are made possible through a grant from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. 1

3 I. Executive Summary Flatfishes are a distinct group in the order Pleuronectiformes, comprising 11 families with more than 500 species worldwide. Flounders, soles, turbots, halibuts, sanddabs, plaices, and tonguefishes (true soles) are included under the auspice of flatfish. In most Pacific coast seafood markets, many species of flounder are erroneously referred to as soles. Pacific halibut has been evaluated separately by Seafood Watch in another report. * Landings of Pacific flatfish currently far outweigh landings of Atlantic flatfish in the United States. Of the 163,980 metric tons (mt) of flatfish landed in the US in 2004, 137,152mt or 84% were Pacific species. Flatfish landings off the US West Coast are at their lowest point in 50 years due to severe restrictions on the entire West Coast groundfish fishery primarily to help depleted rockfish (and lingcod) populations recover (lingcod are now rebuilt). Alaska has accounted for 80-90% of Pacific flatfish landings in the last 15 years, but much of the catch is exported (primarily yellowfin sole, rock sole, and Greenland turbot) so US West Coast fisheries likely still account for much of the flatfish on the US market. Northeast Pacific flatfish are relatively long-lived, surviving anywhere from 10 years (Pacific sanddab) up to 60 years (Dover sole). Age at 50% maturity varies considerably from 2-3 years in Pacific sanddab to 10.5 years in yellowfin sole. The fastest growing, shortest lived species (rex sole, English sole, sand sole, and Pacific sanddab) are deemed inherently resilient to fishing, while the yellowfin sole is deemed inherently vulnerable to fishing due to the species late age-atmaturity. All other flatfish species, including arrowtooth flounder, rock sole, flathead sole, Alaska plaice, Greenland turbot, Dover sole, petrale sole, and starry flounder, are deemed moderately resilient to fishing. Stock assessments are conducted biannually (Gulf of Alaska GOA) or annually (Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands BSAI) for Alaskan flatfish species, and all of the major stocks appear to be well above the B MSY proxy with low fishing mortality except Greenland turbot. Greenland turbot biomass has been declining for three decades, and is now only just above the B MSY proxy. The status of all Alaskan stocks that are assessed and managed as single species, including yellowfin sole, arrowtooth flounder, rock sole, flathead sole, Greenland turbot, and Alaska plaice in the BSAI and arrowtooth flounder, Dover sole, and flathead sole in the GOA, are thus deemed healthy and of low conservation concern by Seafood Watch. The one exception is rex sole, deemed of moderate conservation concern because there is insufficient data to reliably evaluate adult biomass and/or overfishing status. Stocks managed in complexes are deemed of moderate conservation concern. The only stock assessments to have been conducted for British Columbia (BC) flatfish stocks since 2000 are for petrale sole, arrowtooth flounder, and rock sole. Those assessments concluded that the stocks were being fished sustainably at or below full exploitation. However, concern over low recruitment in the years leading up to the most recent assessments resulted in the assessors suggesting that follow-up assessments be conducted in the early 2000s. No follow-up assessments have been conducted as of this writing. Petrale sole are thought to have recovered from very low biomass levels in the mid 1990s to at or above B MSY levels today, and managers believe the stock is likely stable and being fished sustainably. However, concerns remain over the status of several BC * 2

4 stocks and the lack of recent assessments for many of them. The status of all BC flatfish stocks is thus of moderate conservation concern. Of the 12 flatfish species managed by the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC), four have been assessed: Dover sole, English sole, petrale sole, and starry flounder. These species account for the majority of landings. Dover sole and starry flounder stocks are healthy, having biomass above the management target of B40% and currently only being lightly to moderately exploited. Biomass trends for English and petrale sole are similar, declining to record low (and overfished) levels in the early to mid-1990s, and increasing quickly since then. English sole stocks are now thought to be well above B40%, while both petrale sole stocks are below that target, but above the overfishing threshold. These increases in biomass are in concert with lowered fishing mortality. English sole stocks are currently only lightly exploited, while petrale sole stocks coast-wide are close to maximally (sustainably) exploited. The stock status of US West Coast stocks is generally of moderate conservation concern, either because the status of the stock is unknown or the species cooccurs and is caught and landed with several other flatfish species of unknown stock status (e.g., English sole). The exceptions are Dover sole and starry flounder stocks, which are deemed to be in healthy condition and thus of low conservation concern. The US and Canadian Pacific groundfish fisheries experience a large amount of incidental catch for three reasons: 1) the multispecies nature of the fishery; 2) management measures implemented for a year-round fishery; and 3) almost 100% mortality of captured rockfish. Measured as a percentage of the retained catch, discards (not including invertebrates) in all US West Coast groundfish fisheries combined are approximately 20%, and in BC fisheries are approximately 21% (both excluding Pacific hake, a pelagic species not likely caught in bottom trawls targeting flatfish). These are generalizations, however, as target species is not identified in the West Coast Groundfish Observer Program (WCGOP) summary data nor in the data the author received from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada (DFO). For example, discards clearly vary considerably between region and target species. In addition, the estimates for the US West Coast should probably be considered minimums, as invertebrates are not included in the summary data. In Alaska, data for the directed flatfish fisheries was available, which indicates that the overall discard rate in these fisheries is approximately 51% of the retained catch. Again there is variation by region and target species, with discard rates generally lower in the BSAI than the GOA. In addition, the main discarded species at that time (2001 data) was arrowtooth flounder, a species for which there is an increasingly sizeable market. Thus, discards today are likely considerably less than in 2001, and are deemed of moderate conservation concern by Seafood Watch. The only flatfish species targeted and caught in large quantities by gears other than trawls is the Greenland turbot in the BSAI. This species is primarily (approx. 80% in 2004) caught by bottom longline. This fishery has relatively low bycatch (32% of the retained catch), but Alaskan bottom longline fisheries still regularly catch protected seabirds, some of which are considered threatened or endangered by one or more national or international agencies (in particular, black-footed and Laysan albatross). Bycatch in this fishery thus remains a moderate conservation concern. Bottom trawl fisheries account for the vast majority of landings of Pacific flatfish by US and Canadian fishermen, although a small percentage is landed by bottom longline in Alaska (primarily Greenland turbot). Flatfish typically inhabit relatively soft bottom habitats such as mud and sand, from the coastline to the deep waters of the continental slope. Trawls that target species in shallow water with resilient habitats such as sand or gravel likely have moderate habitat impacts, while 3

5 those in deep water or shallow mud cause more severe effects. Fixed gear such as bottom longlines have less of an impact on the bottom habitat than bottom trawls but likely still have a moderate impact on deep water flatfish habitat (such as that for Greenland turbot). Thus, the habitat impacts of trawling for yellowfin sole, rock sole, Alaska plaice, Pacific sanddab, sand sole, and starry flounder, and longline fishing for Greenland turbot are deemed of moderate conservation concern, while those of trawling for arrowtooth flounder, flathead sole, rex sole, Dover sole, English sole, and petrale sole are deemed of serious conservation concern. Alaskan flatfish are managed as target species or species groups, meaning individual Total Allowable Catches (TACs) have been established for them. The less frequently caught species are grouped into complexes and managed with a catch limit applied to the entire complex. Catch limits are based on robust biannual assessments conducted with both fisheries dependent and research survey data. Off the US West Coast and BC, data collection and analysis is far more limited, both in terms of the number of stocks assessed and in the quality of the data. The US West Coast manages groundfish fisheries through cumulative landing limits enforced through dockside monitoring and the West Coast Groundfish Observer Program. BC groundfish trawl fisheries are managed through an Individual Vessel Quota scheme that sets quotas for commercially important species (24 species and one species group) both targeted and caught incidentally. Quotas can be transferred or sold. Any vessel that meets the target or incidental catch quota of these commercially important species (and is unable to trade with another fisher) is restricted to mid-water trawling for the remainder of the season. Observer programs are in place in all regimes: 10-20% coverage off the US West Coast; 30% coverage of medium-sized ( ft) vessels off Alaska; and 100% coverage of the bottom trawl vessels off BC and the large (>125 ft) vessels off Alaska. All regimes have bycatch and habitat damage mitigation plans in place, including area closures and gear restrictions. Overall, management is relatively good for groundfish fisheries off the Pacific coast of North America, but concerns remain over the lack of recent assessments in BC and the fact that little data collection is conducted for many less commercially important flatfish species in US West Coast and BC fisheries in particular. Thus, Alaskan flatfish management is deemed highly effective, while management of US West Coast and BC fisheries is deemed moderately effective. The tables below provide a summary of the information above and an overall seafood recommendation for the Pacific flatfish evaluated in this report. All Pacific flatfish fall into Seafood Watch s Good Alternatives category, meaning they are a good alternative to seafood from the Avoid list but there are some concerns over the way they are fished. However, this ranking masks considerable diversity in the level and type of conservation concern between species and region. Some species are still a better choice than others, such as the longline-caught Greenland turbot from Alaska, rock sole and Alaska plaice from Alaska, and sand sole from the US West Coast. These are all just below the Best Choice standard. There is also no high concern factor with Pacific sanddab from the US West Coast or with starry flounder. For all others except yellowfin sole (AK), the damage caused by bottom trawling in muddy and/or deep sea habitats is of high concern. Yellowfin sole is the latest maturing flatfish examined here and is particularly vulnerable to fishing, another high concern. However, Seafood Watch did not identify two high conservation concern factors for any one flatfish fishery, the threshold for being on the Avoid list. Yellowfin sole, Flathead sole, Arrowtooth flounder, Rex sole, Rock sole, and Alaska plaice from the Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands and the Gulf of Alaska have been certified as sustainable to the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) standard. The MSC is an independent non-profit organization, which has developed an environmental standard for sustainable and well-managed fisheries. It uses 4

6 a product label to reward environmentally responsible fishery management and practices ( Table of Sustainability Ranks Sustainability Criteria Inherent Vulnerability Status of Stocks Nature of Bycatch Habitat and Ecosystem Effects Management Effectiveness Conservation Concern Low Moderate High Critical Rex sole, English sole, Pacific sanddab, sand sole Gulf of Alaska Arrowtooth flounder, Dover sole & Flathead sole Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands Yellowfin sole, arrowtooth flounder, rock sole, flathead sole, Greenland turbot, Alaska plaice US West Coast Dover sole, English sole & starry flounder AK Arrowtooth flounder, rock sole, flathead sole, Alaska plaice, Greenland turbot, Dover sole, petrale sole, starry flounder All BC Other AK including rex sole US West Coast petrale sole Trawl Bottom longline Bottom longline Trawl-caught yellowfin sole, rock sole, sand sole, Alaska plaice, Pacific sanddab, starry flounder BC US West Coast Yellowfin sole Trawl-caught arrowtooth flounder, flathead sole, rex sole, Dover sole, English sole, petrale sole About the Overall Seafood Recommendation: A seafood product is ranked Avoid if two or more criteria are of High Conservation Concern (red) OR if one or more criteria are of Critical Conservation Concern (black) in the table above. 5

7 A seafood product is ranked Good Alternative if the five criteria average to yellow (Moderate Conservation Concern) OR if the Status of Stocks and Management Effectiveness criteria are both of Moderate Conservation Concern. A seafood product is ranked Best Choice if three or more criteria are of Low Conservation Concern (green) and the remaining criteria are not of High or Critical Conservation Concern. Overall Seafood Recommendation for Pacific flatfish None Best Choice Yellowfin sole Arrowtooth flounder Rock sole Flathead sole Alaska plaice Greenland turbot Rex sole Dover sole English sole Petrale sole Pacific sanddab Sand sole Starry flounder Good Alternative None Avoid 6

8 II. Introduction Flatfishes are a distinct group in the order Pleuronectiformes, comprising 11 families with more than 500 species worldwide (Nelson 1994). Flounders, soles, turbots, halibuts, sanddabs, plaices, and tonguefishes (true soles) are included under the auspice of flatfish. Flatfishes of Pacific waters consist of two broad groups one includes the flounder families Paralichthyidae, Bothidae (left-eyed) and Pleuronectidae (right-eyed), the other includes the sole family Cynoglossidae and tonguefishes (Kramer et al. 1995; Nelson 1994). In most Pacific coast seafood markets, many species of flounder are mistakenly referred to as soles. For the purpose of this report, however, common/market names are used (e.g., petrale sole) so the reader can better identify seafood items encountered in the marketplace. Availability of Science Age and growth estimates have not been validated for any of the species assessed in this report, and therefore should be evaluated cautiously. An estimate of the intrinsic rate of increase (r) for US stocks was not found for any species, perhaps because current assessments for flatfish do not require that this parameter be known. Fecundity estimates are included where available. Market Information Common and market names: Pacific flatfish are sold generically as sole, dab, plaice, fluke, flounder, and flatfish (Kramer et al. 1995). When used for sushi or sashimi, flatfishes are commonly sold as hirame. Some species-specific market names are listed below: o Rock sole: Alaskan flounder o Arrowtooth flounder: turbot o Dover sole: slime sole, slippery sole, shortfinned sole o English sole: California sole, lemon sole (Canada), pointed nose sole o Petrale sole: brill (British Columbia), California sole, roundnosed sole o Rex sole: longfinned sole, witch sole o Pacific sanddab: mottled sanddab, soft flounder, melgrim o Greenland turbot: Greenland halibut Seasonal availability: Individual fishing seasons vary with regions, species, and annual adjustments in regulations. Off the US West Coast, cumulative trip limits are designed to spread the allowable quota over the course of the year (except where spawning season and/or mammal migratory patterns force closures), allowing groundfish fishing to occur year-round. For most flatfish species discussed here, availability is constant throughout the year, but market demand probably affects peak landings. Product forms: Much of the product landed along the contiguous west coast is delivered fresh to market, but in fishing areas far from population centers (such as Alaska) the fish are simply put in a block and frozen whole. Another common process is to take the head and tail off, leave in the guts (called kirimi), and then freeze the fish. Flatfish are difficult to fillet by hand, so that stage of the process 7

9 usually waits until the fish gets to the retailer or restaurant. Forms often seen by the consumer are: fresh (whole, dressed - head on, boneless - headed and gutted, fillets); and frozen (whole, dressed - head on, headed and gutted, fillets, blocks - mainly yellowfin fillets). Sole fillets are usually not breaded because of their high quality taste *. Import/export statistics: The US currently exports far more flatfish than it imports. Imports are mainly from China, Canada, and several other countries (Figure 1); exports are mainly from Alaska (yellowfin sole, rock sole, and Greenland turbot) (Figure 2). It is unclear what percentage of the flatfish on the market is from domestic fisheries. Approximately 30% of the total US supply of flatfish is from imports (excluding halibuts), but the actual percentage of imported flatfish on the market is likely far higher because imports are already dressed weight as opposed to wet weight, and most of the catch of the two biggest US fisheries is exported (see below). An additional complicating factor is that some flatfish is caught in US waters, sent abroad for processing and then imported back into the US market US imports (mt) Other Argentina Netherlands Viet Nam Canada China Argentina 7% Netherlands 8% Viet Nam 8% Other 10% Canada 20% China 47% Country Imports (mt) China Canada 8022 Viet Nam 3246 Netherlands 3006 Argentina 2796 Other 4003 Figure 1: US imports of flatfish excluding halibut, (NMFS 2005a). According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) data, most of the flatfish production in China is from aquaculture. Thus, any soles or flounders labeled as coming from China are likely farmed (the new US Country of Origin Labeling law requires large retailers to provide labels on the origin of their seafood, including whether it is farmed or wild-caught). All of Canada s and nearly all of that from the Netherlands is wild-caught (FAO 2005). Soles currently make up the majority of imported flatfish (Figure 3). The two biggest export species (excluding unspecified flatfish) are yellowfin sole and rock sole. These species together account for approximately 50 percent of US flatfish landings from the Pacific and Atlantic combined (2004). Yellowfin sole is landed only in Alaska, and rock sole almost entirely so (West Coast landings comprise less than 1% of total US landings for the species). Thus, much of the Alaskan flatfish catch is exported. Yellowfin sole is exported to China, Japan, * Ed Richardson. Personal Communication. Resource Economist. At-Sea Processor s Association, Seattle, WA. 8

10 and South Korea, and rock sole to China and Japan. These three countries combined accounted for nearly 90 percent of total US flatfish exports in 2004 (NMFS 2005a). Canada accounts for almost all of the remainder of US exports (only 2% to other countries in 2004). Greenland turbot exports in particular are typically sent to Canada (90% in 2004) (NMFS 2005a). Greenland turbot 12% Species Exports (mt) Rock sole 17% Unspecified flatfish 23% Yellowfin sole 48% Yellowfin sole Unspecified flatfish Rock sole Greenland turbot 8134 Sole 241 Plaice 38 Total Figure 2: US flatfish exports and re-exports by species, 2004 (NMFS 2005a). Excluding halibut (except Greenland turbot) US Imports (mt) Sole Plaice Non specified flatfish Greenland turbot Flounder China Canada Viet Nam Netherlands Argentina Other Figure 3: US flatfish imports, by country and species or species group, 2004 (NMFS 2005a). Excluding halibut (except Greenland turbot). US Fishery Fishing effort, trends, range & distribution Landings of Pacific flatfish currently far outweigh landings of Atlantic flatfish in the US. Of the 163,980mt of flatfish landed in the US in 2004, 137,152mt or 84% were Pacific species (NMFS 2005b). Landings in West Coast states (California, Oregon, and Washington) increased slowly 9

11 from 20,738mt in 1950 to a peak of 34,011mt in 1982, remained roughly stable until 1991, and have declined slowly since (Figure 4). The 13,369mt landed in 2004 is the lowest quantity landed since 1950 (the year NMFS data begins) (NMFS 2005a). Landings off the US West Coast are likely to remain low for the foreseeable future as allowable catches have been drastically cut to protect overfished rockfish stocks. However, total landings of Pacific flatfish in the US exploded in the late 1980s with the expansion of the Alaskan fishery, which has accounted for 80-90% or more of landings since 1991 (Figure 4). Peak landings were in 1991, the year the yellowfin sole fishery, a major component of the fillet industry, became fully domestic (Witherell 2000). With stricter catch limits, Alaskan flatfish landings have declined since then and have been roughly stable since (Figure 4) Washington Oregon California Alaska Landings (mt) Figure 4: Trend in US West Coast flatfish landings by state, (NMFS 2005a). Commercially important flatfish species By far the biggest US flatfish fisheries are in Alaska. Alaskan fisheries for yellowfin sole, rock sole, arrowtooth flounder, flathead sole and Alaska plaice are all larger than the largest flatfish fishery on the US West Coast (Dover sole) (Figure 5). Yellowfin sole (Limanda aspera) Yellowfin sole are caught in bottom trawls as a directed fishery in the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (BSAI) region of Alaska and as bycatch in Pacific cod, bottom pollock and other flatfish fisheries in the BSAI and Gulf of Alaska (GOA). The BSAI directed fishery takes place on the mid and inner shelf during ice-free conditions (typically spring through December), and there is particularly large effort directed at spawners in nearshore northern Bristol Bay (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; Wilderbuer and Nichol 2004). Rock sole (Lepidopsetta bilineatus and L. polyxstra) Over 99 percent of US landings of rock sole are from the BSAI area (NMFS 2005a). They are caught by bottom trawls in both directed fisheries and as bycatch in fisheries for Pacific cod, bottom pollock, yellowfin sole, and other flatfish species (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Historically, the fishery 10

12 has occurred throughout the mid and inner Bering Sea shelf during ice free conditions. Fishers also target spawning populations during the winter months for their high value roes (eggs) (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a) Landings (mt) West Coast AK Yellowfin sole Rock Sole Arrowtooth Flounder Flathead Sole Alaska plaice Dover Sole Other flatfish (BSAI) Shallow water flatfish (GOA) Greenland turbot Rex Sole Petrale Sole English Sole Deepwater flatfish (GOA) Unspecified Sanddabs Sand Sole Pacific Sanddab Starry Flounder Unspecified Flatfish Unspecified Turbots Curlfin Sole FLAT Figure 5: Pacific flatfish landings in US fisheries, 2004 (PacFIN 2005; ADFG 2005). Arrowtooth flounder (Atheresthes stomias) Arrowtooth flounder are landed in fisheries from Oregon to the BSAI (NMFS 2005a). Over 90 percent of US landings are in Alaska. In 2004, the species accounted for two-thirds of the GOA flatfish catch and 9-10 percent of the BSAI flatfish catch (excluding halibut except Greenland turbot). Landings are roughly equal from the two regions (NMFS 2005a). The species accounted for roughly half of the flatfish landings in BC in 2004, and was the most landed flatfish species off the West Coast after Dover sole in 2004 (PacFIN 2005; DFO 2005). Arrowtooth flounder are caught in bottom trawls usually targeting higher value species such as Pacific cod, bottom pollock, sablefish and other flatfish in Alaskan waters and Dover sole and thornyheads (Sebastolobus spp.) off the West Coast. Historically, they have been discarded due to a flesh softening condition caused by protease enzyme activity, but have been an important component of the flatfish catch in all areas since the 1990s (except California). In the GOA for example, the number retained increased from 2 percent in 1992 to 43 percent in 2000 (NMFS/NPFMC 2005b). Flathead sole (Hippoglossoides elassodon) Flathead sole are caught in bottom trawls in a directed fishery in the BSAI and as bycatch in fisheries for Pacific cod, bottom pollock, and other flatfish species (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Nearly 11

13 90% of US landings in 2004 were from the BSAI, with the remainder in the GOA (NMFS 2005a). They were also a minor component of BC flatfish landings in 2004 (DFO 2005). Alaska plaice (Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus) All landings of Alaska plaice in 2004 were made in the BSAI (NMFS 2005a). They are caught with bottom trawls in both a directed fishery and as bycatch in other fisheries during ice-free conditions. There has been a lack of targeting in recent years, so landings have been relatively low (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Greenland turbot (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) This species is technically a halibut, explaining the American Fishery Society s use of the name Greenland halibut (Ianelli et al. 2005). Fisheries for it have not been evaluated in Seafood Watch halibut reports, however, so it is included here. Greenland turbot is found in both the North Atlantic and North Pacific. The fisheries off Atlantic Canada are the largest in North America (FAO 2005), and accounted for 80% of the Greenland turbot imported into the US from Canada in 2004 (exports data from the DFO 2005). Alaska has a sizeable turbot fishery, but it is not a common component of BC fisheries. Imports from Canada (5,012mt in 2004) considerably outweigh US landings (2,132mt in 2004). Although the relative weights of imports, exports and landings are probably not directly comparable due to processing, most of that total US supply appears destined for export (8,134mt in 2004, Figure 2). All US landings of the species in 2004 were from the BSAI region of Alaska (ADFG 2005). They are caught in directed trawl and bottom longline fisheries, and as bycatch in other groundfish fisheries including those for sablefish and Pacific cod (FIS 2003; Ianelli et al. 2004). Bottom longline fisheries account for the majority of landings (70% in 2004) (ADFG 2005). Rex sole (Glyptocephalus zachirus) Rex sole are caught by bottom trawls in directed fisheries and as bycatch. Approximately 75 percent of US landings in 2004 were from Alaska (all from the GOA), with the remainder divided roughly equally between Oregon and California (PacFIN 2005). In 2004, no more than 2% of total flatfish landings in each of CA, OR, WA, GOA and BSAI were of rex sole, and less than 5% in BC (excluding halibut) (PacFIN 2005; ADFG 2005; DFO 2005). Dover sole (Microstomus pacificus) Dover sole are an important component of the flatfish catch all up the Pacific coast of North America (PacFIN 2005; ADFG 2005; DFO 2005), but especially so off the West Coast where they are a dominant continental shelf and slope species (PFMC 2005). The species accounted for 50 percent of all West Coast flatfish landings in 2004 (excluding halibut, except Greenland turbot), and was the number one species landed (in terms of volume) in California and Oregon (PacFIN 2004). It was the number two species landed after arrowtooth flounder in Washington and British Columbia (PacFIN 2005; DFO 2005). The species is a major target of the deep water trawl fishery (PFMC 2005). It is less important in Alaskan fisheries, where it is landed and managed as part of a complex with other flatfish species (ADFG 2005). 12

14 Landings (mt) WA CA OR Dover Sole Arrowtooth Flounder Petrale Sole English Sole Rex Sole Unspecified Sanddabs Sand Sole Pacific Sanddab Starry Flounder Rock Sole Unspecified Flatfish Unspecified Turbots Curlfin Sole FLAT Figure 6: US West Coast flatfish landings by state and species, 2004 (PacFIN 2005). English Sole (Parophrys vetulus) English sole were the fourth most landed flatfish off the US West Coast and BC in 2004 (excluding halibut) (PacFIN 2005; DFO 2005). Off the US West Coast, they are caught with starry flounder, sand sole, and Pacific sanddab, which together form the nearshore, mixed species assemblage (PFMC 2005). They are also landed in the GOA as part of a complex of shallow water flatfish, including rock sole, yellowfin sole, starry flounder and Alaska plaice (ADFG 2005). English sole are usually caught in relatively shallow water, less than 100m deep (PFMC 2005). Petrale sole (Eopsetta jordani) Petrale sole are caught both in directed fisheries and as bycatch in other bottom fisheries. They are a particularly important component of the US West Coast catch, where they are the second most landed flatfish species in California and Oregon (PacFIN 2005), and bring the highest price per pound of the trawl-caught flatfish (PFMC 2005). They are also landed in BC and the GOA (DFO 2005; ADFG 2005). Most of the catch is made by deep-water bottom trawlers at depths of m (PFMC 2005). Pacific sanddab (Citharichthys sordidus) Pacific sanddabs are taken commercially in the bottom trawl fishery off California, Oregon and Washington (Love 1996; PacFIN 2005). The species was the sixth most landed species (in terms of weight) in Oregon in 2004, and is likely the fourth or fifth most landed flatfish species off California (landings of sanddabs in California are not specified to the species level PacFin 2005). 13

15 Other species Several other Northeast Pacific flatfish species are of minor or modest commercial importance, including sand, butter, curlfin and longhead sole and starry flounder. Of these, sand sole and starry flounder are probably the most important (in terms of landings), especially off the US West Coast (PacFIN 2005; ADFG 2005; DFO 2005). Consumption information According to a recent survey of West Coast (AK, WA, OR, CA) seafood markets and restaurants, Dover and English sole were the most frequently consumed flatfish, followed by petrale sole, rex sole, and Pacific sanddabs (Mahoney and Schueneman 2001). Value-added products such as frozen/packaged fillets were not included in this survey. III. Analysis of Seafood Watch Sustainability Criteria for Wild-caught Species Criterion 1: Inherent Vulnerability to Fishing Pressure Northeast Pacific flatfish are relatively long-lived, surviving anywhere from 10 years (Pacific sanddab) to up to 60 years (Dover sole). Spawning generally occurs between late winter and early spring, depending on species and location (Leet et al. 2001). Generally, soles feed on small invertebrates that live on or in the seafloor sediments (e.g., amphipods and other small crustaceans, snails, brittle stars, polychaete worms, clams) and on fishes (e.g., other flatfishes, capelin, herring, pollock) and squid (NMFS 1998). Predators of juvenile and adult soles include larger flatfish, other groundfish and pelagic fishes, sharks, skates, rays, and marine mammals (NMFS 1998). More detail of the life history of the main commercially important flatfish species follows in the text below and is later summarized in Table 1. Yellowfin sole Yellowfin sole are distributed in the Pacific from off British Columbia to the Chukchi Sea in North American waters, and south to the Sea of Japan. The center of their North American distribution is on the Eastern Bering Sea shelf where they are managed as a single stock. From overwintering grounds near the shelf/slope break at approximately 200m, adults move into separate nearshore spawning and feeding areas as the ice recedes in April or early May (Nichol 1997). Spawning is protracted and variable, and typically occurs at depths of less than 30m (Wilderbuer and Nichol 2002). After spawning, adults disperse widely over the continental shelf for feeding. Maximum age is approximately 31 years, with an estimated 50% maturity of 29cm in length and about 10.5 years of age. Fecundity is high and directly related to age/size, with up to 3.5 million eggs in older individuals (Nichols and Acuna 2001; NMFS/NPFMC 2005b). The BSAI directed fishery takes place on the mid and inner shelf during ice-free conditions (typically spring through December), and there is particularly large effort directed at spawners in nearshore northern Bristol Bay (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; Wilderbuer and Nichol 2004). Arrowtooth flounder Arrowtooth flounder are common from central California and Oregon through the Eastern Bering Sea in Alaska. They are the most abundant flatfish species in the GOA (NMFS/NPFMC 2005b). From overwintering grounds near the shelf margins and upper slope areas, adults migrate onto the middle and outer shelf with the onset of warmer water temperatures in April and May. Spawning is 14

16 variable and protracted, and may range from as early as September through March (Rickey 1995). Female arrowtooth flounder mature at 4-8 years, with an estimated age at 50% maturity of 5 years, based on samples collected off the Washington coast (Rickey 1995; PFMC 2005). Little information exists on fecundity (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a) but the species may live up to 20 years (Mecklenberg et al. 2001). Arrowtooth flounder are caught in bottom trawls usually targeting higher value species such as Pacific cod, bottom pollock, sablefish and other flatfish in Alaskan waters and Dover sole and thornyheads (Sebastolobus spp.) off the West Coast. Rock sole Rock sole are distributed from California waters to the Sea of Japan, including the GOA and BSAI. Biomass in North American waters is concentrated off British Columbia (Forrester and Thompson 1969), the central GOA, and in the Southeast Bering Sea (Alton and Sample 1976). Rock sole in the GOA are actually thought to be two separate species: a northern rock sole (L. polyxstra) and a southern rock sole (L. bilineatus) (Orr and Matarese 2000). These species overlap in the GOA, but the northern rock sole comprises the majority of the biomass in the BSAI area (Wilderbuer and Walters 2004), where virtually all landings are made (NMFS 2005a). Adults are demersal and occupy separate winter (spawning) and summer (feeding) distributions in the Eastern Bering Sea (EBS) (Alton and Sample 1976). The estimated age at 50% maturity for female southern and northern rock soles is 9-10 years and 7 years, respectively (Stark and Somerton 2002; Wildebuer and Walters 2004). Female rock soles may live up to 18 years (PFMC 2005). Fecundity increases with age, with a 35 cm fish producing perhaps 400,000 eggs a year, and a 46cm fish producing perhaps 1.3 million eggs per year (PFMC 2005). The BSAI fishery mainly occurs during ice-free conditions; however, spawning populations are also targeted during the winter months for their roe (eggs), which fetches a high market price (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Flathead sole Flathead sole are distributed from northern California to the GOA and Bering Sea, and possibly to the Sea of Okhotsk (Hart 1973). Adults overwinter near the shelf margins, and spawn mainly in March and April. They then migrate onto the outer and mid shelf for feeding as the waters warm and the ice recedes. An estimate of 50% maturity in females is not available (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a), but both sexes may mature as young as 2-3 years in Puget Sound, but not until 6 years in the Bering Sea. Males live to 17 years and females to 21 years. Fecundity increases with size, from 72,000 to 600,000 eggs per year (PFMC 2005). Alaska plaice Alaska plaice are distributed from the GOA to the Chukchi Seas, and in Asian waters as far south as Peter the Great Bay (Quast and Hall 1972). Adults migrate from their overwintering grounds near the shelf margins onto the central and northern shelf of the EBS (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Female Alaska plaice are thought to reach 50% maturity at 6-7 years and produce an average of 56 thousand eggs at cm and 313,000 eggs at cm (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). The BSAI fishery is conducted during ice-free conditions, though landings have been relatively low in recent years due to a lack of a directed fishery (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Greenland turbot Greenland turbot are distributed in the north of both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans but not the intervening Arctic Ocean (NMFS/NPFMC 2005). Off the west coast of North America, they are mainly distributed in the BSAI region (Ianelli et al. 2004), though they are found as far south as Baja California (FishBase 2005). Adults are generally demersal and undergo seasonal shifts in 15

17 depth distribution, moving deeper in the winter to spawn. Females reach 50% maturity at 5-10 years and produce 23, ,000 eggs at sizes of 83 cm or smaller (D yakov 1982). Rex sole Rex sole are distributed from Baja California to the Bering Sea and western Aleutian Islands, and are widely distributed throughout the GOA. They overwinter near the shelf margins, migrating onto the mid and outer continental shelf in April and May each year. Adults are demersal and are generally found in water deeper than 300m (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Off Oregon, rex sole are probably the most widely distributed sole on the continental shelf and upper slope (PFMC 2005). Also off Oregon, female rex sole mature at 3 years, and produce 3,900 to 238,000 eggs depending on size/age. Rex sole are fairly slow-growing, and can reach 24 years of age (Love 1996). Dover sole Dover sole are distributed from Baja California to the Bering Sea and Northwest Aleutian Islands (Hart 1973). They are a seasonally migratory species, moving from summer and fall feeding grounds in shallow water ( m) to spawning grounds in deep waters ( m) in late fall (Alton 1972; Barss and Demory 1988; Hunter et al. 1990). Barss and Demory (1988) reported that males tend to stay in waters deeper than 300 m, suggesting only females and juveniles migrate inshore. Dover sole live to a maximum age of years (Leet et al. 2001; Sampson and Wood 2001), with females attaining a larger size (55-60 cm) than males (~40 cm). Age at 50% maturity for females off the coast of Oregon is reported to be between 6 and 9 years (~34 cm; DiCosimo and Kimball 2001). Fecundity is directly related to size: a 42.5 cm female is estimated to release around 52,000 eggs, whereas a 57.5 cm female is estimated to release 266,000 eggs (Hunter et al. 1992; Yoklavich and Pikitch 1989). English Sole English Sole are distributed from Baja California to the southeast Bering Sea and the western Aleutian Islands (Allen and Smith 1988). They have separate feeding and spawning grounds, migrating north in the spring, after spawning, to summer feeding grounds, and south in the fall (Garrison and Miller 1982). Adults typically occur on the inner continental shelf in the North Pacific (Allen and Smith 1988), but are found in deeper waters further south, from the sublittoral zone in Puget Sound through intermediate depths off Oregon and the outer shelf in Southern California (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). English sole maximum age has been estimated at 22 years (Chilton and Beamish 1982). Older individuals are commonly sampled in the US commercial fishery, while in the Canadian commercial fishery fish older than 12 years are rarely observed (Fargo et al. 2000). Sexual maturity occurs at approximately cm in length and between three and five years of age (males mature earlier, at two years), after which female growth rate is significantly higher than that of males (Fargo et al. 2000). In Puget Sound, all males are mature by two years of age, while many females don t mature until age four (NMFS 1998). Fecundity is directly related to age/size, with egg production being from 150,000 to nearly two million eggs annually (Forrester 1969). Growth is likely affected by environmental conditions such as upwelling (Kreuz et al. 1982), and is density dependent (Peterman and Bradford 1987). Petrale Sole Petrale sole are distributed along the Pacific coast of North America from Baja California to at least as far north as southeast Alaska. Adults are demersal and show migration from shallow feeding 16

18 grounds in the summer to deeper spawning grounds in the winter (Garrison and Miller 1982; Hart 1973). Petrale sole begin to mature at three years, and may live 25 years (Sampson and Lee 1999). Age at 50% maturity for males is seven years (29-43 cm) and for females eight years (>31 cm) (Sampson and Lee 1999). Fecundity is size-related, with a 42 cm female producing up to 400,000 eggs, while a 57 cm female may produce 1.2 million eggs (Garrison and Miller 1982). Pacific sanddab Pacific sanddab is the largest of four sanddab species inhabiting the Pacific Ocean and distributed from Baja California to the eastern Gulf of Alaska (Garrison and Miller 1982). Migrations in this species are poorly known, though they are thought to migrate between winter spawning grounds and summer feeding grounds in a manner similar to that of the other flatfish species discussed in this report (Pearcy 1978). Pacific sanddabs reach a maximum length of 40 cm, although few are more than 25 cm. Age at 50% maturity is three years in California and two years in Puget Sound (Garrison and Miller 1982; Hart 1973). Rackowski and Pikitch (1989) suggest a maximum age of 10 years, but the species may reach 13 years off Oregon (Barss 1976). Fecundity estimates were not found for Pacific sanddabs in the available literature. Other species Several other Northeast Pacific flatfish species are of minor or modest commercial importance, including sand, butter, curlfin and longhead sole, and starry flounder. Of these, sand sole and starry flounder are probably the most important, especially off the US West Coast. Both are distributed from California to the Bering Sea, typically in fairly shallow shelf waters less than 150 m (Garrison and Miller 1982; Allen and Smith 1988; Hart 1973; PFMC 2005). Starry flounder is also found in estuaries as far as 120 km upstream (PFMC 2005). Of the two, starry flounder is the slowergrowing and longer-lived, reaching a maximum of 21 years of age with an estimated age at 50% maturity of 3-6 years (Garrison and Miller 1982; PFMC 2005). These characteristics are ten and three, respectively, in sand sole (Sommanni 1969; Garrison and Miller 1982). Synthesis Seafood Watch evaluates the inherent vulnerability of species based on several biological factors, including the intrinsic rate of increase r, the age at 50% maturity, Von Bertalanffy growth coefficient k, maximum age, and fecundity (Table 1) (values for r were generally not found for flatfish because the catch-at-age assessment models used for most flatfish do not require this parameter to be known, so the parameter is not included in Table 1). These are then tempered with information on the species range, special behaviors which might make the species more vulnerable to fishing, and the quality of the species habitat, and evaluated using the guidelines below. 17

19 Table 1: Life history characteristics of commercially-important Northeast Pacific flatfish, excluding halibut. Species Yellowfin sole Arrowtooth flounder 50% k (3-26 yrs) (F) 0.39 (M) Max age Fecundity (eggs/yr) million Rock sole 10-Jul n/a , million Distribution Source Conservation Concern BC to South Korea; centered in EBS in US waters 20 Unknown Central California to the Eastern Bering Sea California to the Sea of Japan NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; Wilderbuer and Nichols 2004; NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; Wilderbuer and Sample 2004; Mecklenberg et al. 2001; PFMC 2008 NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; Stark and Somerton 2002; Wildebuer and Walters 2004; PFMC 2005A High Moderate Moderate Flathead sole Unknown, but >6 in Bering Sea , ,000 California to BSAI, possibly Okhotsk Sea NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; Spencer et al. 2004a; PFMC 2005A Moderate Alaska plaice 7-Jun , ,000 GOA and Bering Sea NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; Spencer et al. 2004b Moderate Greenland turbot 10-May n/a >21 23, ,000 North Atlantic and Pacific; Baja to Chukchi Sea in NE Pacific NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; Ianelli et al Moderate Rex sole 3 n/a 24 3, ,000 Baja California to the BS and western AI PFMC 2005A; Love 1996; Eschermeyer et al Low Dover sole 9-Jun 0.12 (F) 0.07 (M) , ,000 Baja California to the Bering Sea and Northwest Aleutian Islands Hart 1973; Sampson and Wood 2001; DiCosimo and Kimball 2001; Hunter et al. 1992; Yoklavich and Pikitch 1989; PFMC 2008 Moderate English sole 5-Mar (F) (M) ,000-2 million Baja California to BSAI Allen and Smith 1988; Stewart 2005; Forrester 1969; Chilton and Beamish 1982; PFMC 2008 Low Petrale sole (F) 0.08 (M) , million Baja California to GOA Sampson and Lee 1999; Garrison and Miller 1982; Lai et al. 2005; PFMC 2008 Moderate Pacific sanddab 3-Feb n/a 13- Oct Unknown Baja California to the eastern GOA Low Sand sole 3 n/a , million California to the Bering Sea Sommani 1969; PFMC 2005A; Garrison and Miller 1982 Low Starry flounder 6-Mar 0.25 (F) (M) , million Central California to the Bering Sea Garrison and Miller 1982; PFMC 2005A; PFMC 2008 Moderate 18

20 Seafood Watch Pacific Flatfishes Report July 31, 2009 Conservation Concern: Inherent Vulnerability Rex sole, English sole, Pacific sanddab, sand sole Low (Inherently Resilient) Arrowtooth flounder, rock sole, flathead sole, Alaska plaice, Greenland turbot, Dover sole, petrale sole, starry flounder Moderate (Inherently Neutral) Yelowfin sole High (Inherently Vulnerable) Criterion 2: Status of Wild Stocks Alaska All flatfish species (excluding halibut) in Alaskan waters are managed under the North Pacific Fishery Management Council (NPFMC) Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (BSAI) and Gulf of Alaska (GOA) Groundfish Fishery Management Plans (FMPs), the latest iterations of which were published in November 2004 (BSAI FMP 2004; GOA Groundfish FMP 2004). They are managed as target species, meaning individual Total Allowable Catches (TACs) have been established for each species. In the BSAI, yellowfin sole, arrowtooth flounder, rock sole, flathead sole and Alaska plaice each have species-specific TACs, while Other flatfish have a combined TAC. In the GOA, rex sole, flathead sole and arrowtooth flounder have species-specific TACs, while other species are managed with a combined TAC for the Deep water complex and Shallow water complex. Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation (SAFE) reports are conducted for all target species. Catch limits and overfishing and overfished thresholds are prescribed through a tier system based on the amount of biological and fishery information available. For species in Tier 1 and 2, there is a reliable estimate of biomass (B) and fishing mortality (F) at Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY), denoted as B MSY and F MSY, respectively. At the other end of the tier system are species for which there is very little biological information available but there is a reliable catch history from (Tier 6). For the major commercial Alaskan flatfish stocks, except GOA rex sole, there is enough information known and collected to estimate current biomass and unfished biomass (Table 2). For these species, biomass at 40% of unfished biomass (B40%) is used as a proxy for B MSY, B20% is the overfished threshold, and F35% is the overfishing threshold. For all other species, managers do not have enough information to estimate unfished biomass and therefore an overfished threshold cannot be defined. The overfishing threshold is set at F35% for rock sole and at the point estimate of natural mortality (M) for all other species except Greenland turbot (a halibut) and deep sea sole in the BSAI, for which no estimates of biomass or fishing mortality are available (Table 2) (BSAI FMP 2004; GOA FMP 2004; BSAI SAFE 2004; GOA SAFE 2004). 19

21 Table 2: Tiers used to determine the overfishing level (OFL) and Allowable Biological Catch (ABC) for North Pacific flatfish (GOA FMP 2004; BSAI FMP 2004). FMP Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 3 Tier 4 Tier 5 Tier 6 Reliable point estimates of: Overfished threshold Overfishing threshold BSAI B B MSY PDF of F MSY B B MSY F MSY F30% F40% B B40% F30% F40% B F30% F40% B M Reliable catch history, /2B MSY 1/2B MSY B20% Not defined Not defined Not defined F MSY F35% F35% F35% M Not defined Yellowfin sole; arrowtooth flounder; northern rock sole; flathead sole; Alaska plaice; Greenland turbot GOA Dover sole ii ; Arrowtooth flounder; Flathead sole Northern and southern rock sole iii Other flatfish i Rex sole; shallow water complex other than rock soles Deep water complex other than Dover sole i The Eastern Bering Sea other flatfish complex is made up of arctic flounder, butter sole, curlfin sole, deepsea sole, Dover sole, English sole, longhead dab, Pacific sanddab, petrale sole, rex sole, roughscale sole, sand sole, slender sole, starry flounder, and Sakhalin sole. ii The GOA deep water flatfish complex is made up of Dover sole, Greenland turbot, and deepsea sole. iii The GOA shallow water flatfish complex is made up of northern and southern rock sole, yellowfin sole, butter sole, starry flounder, English sole, sand sole, and Alaska plaice. Yellowfin sole Yellowfin sole is one of the most abundant flatfish species in the Eastern Bering Sea (EBS) and is the target of the largest flatfish fishery in the U.S. It is managed as a single stock on the EBS shelf, and as part of the other flatfish complex in the GOA. Abundance in the Aleutian Islands is negligible (Wilderbuer and Nichol 2004). The most recent assessment for the BSAI stock was conducted in 2004 using data from fisheries (total catch, catch-at-age) and bottom trawl surveys (biomass estimates, population age composition estimates, weight at age, proportion mature at age) (Wilderbuer and Nichol 2004). Female spawning biomass is well above B40% (BCurr/B40%=1.9), and fishing mortality is below F40% (Fcurr/F40%=0.65) (Figure 7). Thus, the stock is not overfished, nor is overfishing occurring (Wilderbuer and Nichol 2004). In addition to the simple reduction in total biomass, fishery-induced changes in population parameters such as the proportion of males to females and age and size distribution can affect the ability of a stock to replenish itself. For example, recent research on black rockfish suggests age truncation (where the relative proportion of older fish to younger fish has declined) in some rockfish may have a much greater impact on the reproductive capacity of a population than simple reduction of biomass of mature females. Maintaining a significant proportion of older fish may be critical to long-term replenishment and stability in exploited fish populations (Berkeley et al. 20

22 2004a). Berkeley et al. (2004b) conclude that, in black rockfish, old-growth age structure, combined with a broad spatial distribution of spawning and recruitment, is at least as important as spawning biomass in maintaining long-term sustainable population levels. How important such factors are in other species is generally unknown, but is a potential concern in fisheries where the population is skewed. This is not the case for yellowfin sole, however, for which there is no evidence of age or size truncation. Thus, stock status in yellowfin sole is of low conservation concern. Figure 7: Estimated female spawning biomass and fishing mortality for BSAI yellowfin sole, 2004, including B40% (Wilderbuer and Nichol 2004). No overfished threshold has been defined for the shallow water complex in the GOA, which contains yellowtail sole, northern and southern rock sole, butter sole, starry flounder, English sole, and Alaska plaice. However, the 2004 catch of all species in the shallow water complex (2,938mt) was less than half the Allowable Biological Catch (ABC) for yellowfin sole alone (6,928mt) (yellowfin sole has the fourth highest ABC in the complex after the two rock soles and starry flounder) (Turnock et al. 2004a). Thus, the shallow water complex as a whole, including yellowfin sole, is not experiencing overfishing. As managers do not have enough information to identify the overfished threshold for these species, Seafood Watch deems their stock status of moderate conservation concern. Arrowtooth flounder Arrowtooth flounder (Atheresthes stomias) is a relatively large flatfish that co-occurs with the Kamchatka flounder (A. evermanni) in the Bering Sea and, secondarily, in the Aleutian Islands (Wilderbuer and Sample 2004). These species are very similar in appearance and are not usually distinguished in commercial catches. They are considered a single stock for assessment and management purposes (Wilderbuer and Sample 2004). Arrowtooth flounder is currently the most abundant groundfish in the GOA and is also managed as a single stock. Stock structure of arrowtooth flounder coast-wide is not known (Turnock et al. 2003a). Arrowtooth flounder assessments in the BSAI and GOA are carried out using fisheries dependent and research survey data. Total biomass and spawning biomass in the BSAI increased from the 1980s until stabilizing at a level well above B40% in the early to mid 1990s (Figure 8). In the GOA, total biomass and spawning biomass has been increasing steadily since the early 1970s, and is now approximately double B40% (Figure 9). Fishing mortality is well below target rates in the BSAI (F2004/F40%=0.034/0.26=0.12) (Wilderbuer and Sample 2004) and in the GOA (F has been lower than 0.03 since 1961; F40% for 2004 was 0.142) (Turnock et al. 2003a). There is no 21

23 evidence of the population being age or size truncated or otherwise skewed. Thus, arrowtooth flounder stocks in Alaska are not overfished, nor are they experiencing overfishing. Stock status is therefore of low conservation concern. Figure 8: Estimated total and female spawning biomass of BSAI arrowtooth flounder, including the management target B40% (Wilderbuer and Sample 2004). Figure 9: Estimated age 3+ biomass ( line) and female spawning biomass (+ line) of GOA arrowtooth flounder, including 95% confidence intervals and female spawning biomass at MSY (Turnock et al. 2003a). Rock sole Although two species of rock sole inhabit BSAI waters, biomass is dominated by the northern rock sole (Lepidopsetta polyxstra), and both species are managed as a single stock (Wilderbuer and Walters 2004). In the GOA these species are managed as part of the shallow water flatfish complex detailed in the yellowfin sole section above. Assessments for northern rock sole in the BSAI are based on data from both fisheries and annual research surveys (Wilderbuer and Walters 2004). Biomass (both total and female spawning) has been increasing steadily since the mid-1970s and has been above B40% since the early 1990s (Figure 10). Female spawning biomass has been stable at approximately double B40% since 1995, 22

24 while total biomass has been declining from its peak in Both are still well above B40%. Fishing mortality, meanwhile, has been well below F40% (0.15 in 2004) since the early 1990s (Figure 10). Thus, rock sole are not overfished nor experiencing overfishing in Alaska and stock status is of low conservation concern. Figure 10: Estimated female spawning biomass and fishing mortality for BSAI northern rock sole, 2004, including B40% (Wilderbuer and Walters 2004). F40% in 2004 was Flathead sole The northern part of the flathead sole s (Hippoglossoides elassodon) range overlaps with the related Bering flounder (H. robustus) in the Bering Sea, and both are caught in the same fisheries. They are morphologically very similar so they have traditionally been lumped together in catch statistics and observer data. Although there are differences in life history characteristics between the two species, and at-sea identification has improved in recent years (Walters and Wilderbuer 1997), stock assessments, ABCs and TACs are still combined for both species (Spencer et al. 2004). Figure 11: Estimated total and female spawning biomass of BSAI flathead sole, including 95% confidence intervals (dashed lines) and the management target SPB40% (dotted line) (Spencer et al. 2004a). Assessments are conducted using fisheries dependent and independent data in both the GOA and BSAI (Spencer et al. 2004; Turnock et al. 2003b). In the BSAI, total biomass and female spawner biomass show a similar trend, increasing steadily since the late 1970s/early 1980s to a peak in the 23

25 mid 1990s, followed by a steady decline (Figure 11). Current biomass is well above the management target (B2005/B40%=198,337/113,842=1.74), and fishing mortality is below the target (F2004/F40%=0.075/0.30=0.25) (Figure 11). In the GOA, biomass has been stable above B40% for the last two decades, and fishing mortality is well below the management target (Turnock et al. 2004b). Thus, flathead sole is not overfished nor experiencing overfishing in the BSAI or GOA, and is thus of low conservation concern. Figure 12: Estimated total biomass ( line) and female spawning biomass (+ line) of GOA flathead sole, including 95% confidence intervals (dashed lines) and the management target SPB40% (dotted line) (Turnock et al. 2003b). Greenland turbot Greenland turbot have been managed separately from arrowtooth flounder since 1985 (Ianelli et al. 2004). Assessments now include both catch data and research survey data. However, information on age composition is limited and the catchability of Greenland turbot in slope trawl surveys and natural mortality rates is uncertain (Figure 13). While not overfished, the stock has been on a downward trend since the early 1970s and is now only slightly above the management target (B2005/B40%=55,600/51,600=1.07). Management has responded to this trend with increasingly conservative catch limits (the ABC for 2005 is 25% of the maximum permissible ABC based on F40%), and fishing mortality is currently well below the overfishing level (F2005/F35% =0.07/0.5=0.14) (Ianelli et al. 2004). For now, Greenland turbot stock status is of low conservation concern, but the stock will need to be monitored closely. 24

26 Figure 13: Total age 1+ biomass trend for Greenland turbot in the EBS/AI region (Ianelli et al. 2004). Alaska plaice Alaska plaice is not currently a targeted species but is caught in a variety of fisheries in the BSAI area (Spencer et al. 2004b). Approximately 96% is discarded; these discards are taken into account in assessment and management (Spencer et al. 2004b). Until recently, the species was managed as part of the other flatfish complex in the BSAI. Since 2002, it has been managed and assessed separately (Spencer et al. 2004b). In the GOA they are managed as part of the shallow water complex (see yellowfin sole above). In the BSAI, Alaska plaice are assessed with both research survey and fishery data. Biomass increased from 1975 to a peak in the early 1980s, and has declined since then. It is still well above B40% (SPB2005/SPB40%=202,065/117,799=1.71). Fishing mortality (including discards) is well below the management target (F2004/F40%=0.022/0.57=0.038) and there is no evidence of truncation in the stock (Spencer et al. 2004b). Thus, BSAI Alaska plaice is not overfished nor experiencing overfishing, and thus its stock status is of low conservation concern. Figure 14: Estimated biomass of BSAI Alaska plaice, including 95% confidence intervals (dashed lines) (Spencer et al. 2004b). 25

27 Rex sole (GOA) Rex sole is currently under single-species management in the GOA, after being removed from the deep water flatfish complex in 1993 (Turnock and A mar 2004). The stock is assessed using both research survey and fishery data (Turnock and A mar 2004). In 2006, the rex sole stock was moved to a biannual assessment schedule, with current assessments based on Tier 5 calculations. Biomass has been variable since the early 1980s (Figure 15). However, because estimates of F35%, F40%, and B40% are not considered reliable, it is unknown if the stock is overfished and B/B MSY has not been not estimated. For this reason, stock status is a moderate conservation concern in this fishery. Figure 15: Predicted and observed biomass of rex sole (GOA). The line with triangles indicates predicted biomass while the circles (error bars are approximate log normal 95% confidence intervals) show observed survey biomass (Figure from Stockhausen 2007). BSAI other flatfish complex, including rex sole, starry flounder, and butter sole This complex contains more than a dozen species, but biomass consists primarily of starry flounder, rex sole, longhead dab, and butter sole. In recent years, starry flounder and rex sole have comprised the majority of the catch (Spencer et al. 2004c). In 2004, these two species combined accounted for 84% of all other flatfish landings, with landings roughly equal for the two species. Butter sole accounted for roughly 11% of the landings in 2004 (Figure 16). 26

28 Figure 16: Landings of BSAI other flatfish landings are through October 2, 2004 (Spencer et al. 2005c). Pre-fishing biomass of all species in the other flatfish complex is unknown, so ABCs and the overfishing threshold are based on estimated natural mortality (Spencer et al. 2004c). This parameter is not known for most of these species, and so is estimated from the natural mortality of other flatfish, which varies from 0.12 for yellowfin sole to 0.25 for Alaska plaice. Managers therefore consider a fishing mortality of 0.20 as the overfishing threshold for the other flatfish, and a fishing mortality of 0.15 as the Allowable Biological Catch (ABC). Fishing mortality is estimated to have been roughly since at least 1997 for rex sole and starry flounder, and so is well below the overfishing threshold (Figure 17). As pre-fishing biomass is unknown, managers cannot set an overfished threshold for these species or the complex as a whole (Spencer et al. 2004c). However, biomass of starry flounder and rex sole has been increasing since 1997 (Figure 17). Butter sole, in contrast, appears to have been decreasing in biomass since 1997 (Figure 17). In addition, fishing mortality appears to have been above the overfishing threshold in both 2003 and However, butter sole are rarely caught in the research surveys, leading to a high level of uncertainty (CV=0.86 in 2004) in actual biomass. The 2005 assessment indicates a five-fold jump in biomass, which is not likely for a species with the life-history characteristics of butter sole (Wilderbuer et al. 2005; Paul Spencer, AFSC, pers. comm.), further suggesting significant sampling errors. It is unknown whether the other 13 species are experiencing overfishing or are overfished (Figure 17) (Spencer et al. 2004c). As an overfishing threshold does not exist for even the major flatfish components of this complex (starry flounder and rex sole), stock status for the species in this complex is of moderate conservation concern. 27

29 Biomass, rex sole and starry flounder (mt) Biomass, butter sole (mt) Fishing mortality Butter Sole Starry Flounder Rex Sole Figure 17: Estimated biomass and fishing mortality of BSAI rex sole, starry flounder and butter sole, including the overfishing threshold (horizontal dotted line; F=0.2) (data from Spencer et al. 2004c). GOA deepwater flatfish complex (Greenland turbot, deep sea sole, Dover sole) Greenland turbot, deep sea sole and Dover sole have traditionally been managed under the deepwater flatfish complex in the GOA. Dover sole makes up the majority of landings, as reflected by the species-specific ABCs (97% of the total deepwater flatfish ABC is for Dover sole) (Turnock et al. 2004a). Due to a lack of reliable estimates of pre-fishing and current biomass and natural mortality, these ABCs were set based on 75% of the overfishing level, which is the average catch from 1978 to 1995 (Tier 6 in Table 2). This remains the case for Greenland turbot and deepsea sole today, with 2005 ABCs set at 179 and 4mt, respectively (Turnock et al. 2004a). The catch of these two species has been below their respective ABCs since 1999 (Turnock et al. 2003c), so the stocks are not being overfished. Dover sole is still managed as part of this complex, but was assessed with a new age-based model in 2004 using both fisheries-dependent and research survey data (Groundfish Fisheries Plan Team 2004). The stock is lightly fished, with biomass well above the management target (Figure 18) (SPB2005/SPB40%=36,444/16,477=2.21), and overfishing not occurring (F2004/F40%= 682/7,760=0.09). There is also no evidence that the stock is skewed with respect to size (Turnock and A mar 2004d). However, not enough data is available to estimate overfished thresholds for any species in the complex, so stock status remains a moderate conservation concern. 28

30 Figure 18: Estimated age 3+ biomass ( line) and female spawning biomass (+ line) of GOA Dover sole, including 95% confidence intervals and female spawning biomass at MSY (dashed line; 16,477mt) (Turnock and A mar 2004d). British Columbia Arrowtooth flounder (turbot) Stock structure of arrowtooth flounder (turbot) in British Columbia (BC) waters is poorly understood. Both fisheries-dependent and independent data (triennial research surveys) are used for assessment of arrowtooth flounder in BC (Fargo and Starr 2001). The latest assessment indicates that populations are being fished at sustainable levels in all areas. These conclusions are based on the survey biomass index for Hecate Strait showing no long term trend ( ), catch rates from the west coast of Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Sound/Hecate Strait showing no trend from 1996/97 to 2000/01, and age composition of catches in Hecate Strait showing no sign of age truncation (Fargo and Starr 2001). In addition, estimates of fishing mortality were below the best estimate of natural mortality (M=0.2). Dover sole There are two separate stocks of Dover sole along the west coast of Canada: one around Vancouver Island (Areas 3C/D), and one around the Queen Charlotte Islands (Area 5A-E). The results of a biomass survey conducted in 1995 suggest that the Vancouver Island stock is fully exploited (Fargo 1999). Abundance in these regions declined slightly in , but estimates of catchper-unit-effort (CPUE) had stabilized, probably due to earlier quota restrictions (DFO 2002a). Therefore, the condition of Dover sole stocks is uncertain, but thought to be sustainable at the current harvest rate for both stocks (DFO 1999a). Rock sole Both northern and southern rock sole are found in BC waters, but the latter are more abundant. Four discrete populations of rock sole have been identified: two in Queen Charlotte Sound (Areas 5A/B), and two in Hecate Strait (Areas 5C/D). A biennial research survey is conducted in Hecate Strait, but assessments in Queen Charlotte Sound are based on fisheries-dependent data only. The latest assessment (1999) concluded that Hecate Strait rock sole biomass has increased significantly 29

31 since the late 1980s, though it declined from the mid 1990s to late 1990s, and is currently (1999) above the 50 year average (Fargo 1999). However, managers have allowed only conservative allowable catches for the last few years in response to low recruitment driven by adverse environmental conditions. Thus, although the stock is considered sustainable at the current fishing rate, the assessors suggested that remedial measures were needed to mitigate the low recruitment, and that a follow-up assessment should be carried out in 2001 (Fargo et al. 2000). To this date, no further assessment has been conducted. The 1999 assessment also concluded that the status of the Queen Charlotte stocks was unknown (DFO 1999b). English sole The largest discrete BC stock of English sole is in Hecate Strait, but smaller directed fisheries operate in Queen Charlotte Sound and off the West Coast of Vancouver Island. Only the Hecate Strait stock has been assessed, most recently in 1999 (DFO 1999c). That assessment concluded the stock biomass was above the 50 year average and stable. However, recruitment has declined since 1995, with 1998 and 1999 observing some of the lowest on record (Fargo et al. 2000). As with rock sole, assessors recommended remedial measures and the need for another detailed assessment for the species to be conducted in 2003 (Fargo et al. 2000). No further assessment has been conducted. Petrale sole Petrale sole in BC waters are thought to be of two stocks; however, assessments are carried out as though there is only a single stock. Assessments are conducted with both research survey and fisheries-dependent data, most recently in Biomass estimates from that assessment were fairly precise for the whole Vancouver region as a whole, though less so for estimates from solely Canadian or US waters. Estimates indicate generally increasing biomass for the entire Vancouver region (which included Washington and BC) and the Canadian side of the Vancouver region (the US-Vancouver subregion showed a less pronounced increase). The increases may not be statistically significant, however, and certainly show considerable variation from year to year and uncertainty within years, thus the population may have increased from the very low levels of the early to mid-1990s but is more likely stable now. It is also likely above B MSY ( %). As the estimated total fishing mortality rate is only slightly above the best estimate of natural mortality, the assessors conclude that the petrale sole stocks off the west coast of Canada are being fished sustainably (Starr and Fargo 2004). Other stocks No assessments of other flatfish species have been conducted, including rex sole, which was the fifth most commonly landed flatfish species in 2004 (not including Pacific halibut) (DFO 2005). The DFO has initiated an improved research survey system, expanding surveys to the Queen Charlotte Sound (Stanley et al. 2004) and examining the feasibility of multispecies groundfish bottom trawl surveys (Sinclair et al. 2003). Until these programs have been implemented and expanded, the biomass of many BC flatfish stocks will remain unknown. Concerns remain over the stock status of other BC flatfish fisheries either because assessments are several years old, because the suggested updates of those assessments have not been conducted, or because the stock has been recently identified as sustainably fished (petrale sole) but is caught with other flatfish species with less clear stock status. Stocks of other flatfishes are therefore overall of moderate conservation concern. 30

32 US West Coast Of the 12 flatfish species managed by the Pacific Fisheries Management Council (PFMC) (excluding halibut), four have been assessed: Dover sole, English sole, petrale sole, and starry flounder. These species account for the majority of groundfish landings along the US West Coast. All West Coast flatfish are managed under a B40% regime, with an overfished threshold of B25% and a target fishing mortality/overfishing threshold of F40%. Dover sole Dover sole in US waters between the Mexican and Canadian borders are assessed as a single stock (Sampson 2005). Both fisheries-dependent and research survey data were used in the most recent assessment, and new life history information was added. The assessment also separated the age and length composition data into two areas (north and south) (Sampson 2005). Biomass was at the lowest point in the fishery s history in the mid-1990s, at the management target of B40%. Since then it has continued increasing to well above that target today (B2005/B40%=189,000/120,000=1.57) (Figure 19). The drop in biomass in the mid-1990s was in concert with particularly heavy fishing pressure in the 1980s (F1985=9.3%), which dropped off to below overfishing levels by the mid-1990s, where it remains today (F2004north/F40%= 2.15/6.72=0.32; F2004south/F40%=1.40/6.72=0.2) (Figure 19). Thus the stock is not experiencing overfishing nor is it overfished. There is evidence that size at 50% maturity has decreased, as it has for both English sole and petrale sole on the West Coast, but these apparent changes may be due to changing oceanographic conditions or differences in sampling methods or maturity criteria rather than as a result of fishing (Sampson 2005). Stock status for Dover sole is therefore deemed of low conservation concern. Figure 19: Trends in Dover sole biomass and exploitation rate, including SB40% (46,912mt; dashed line) (Figures from Sampson 2005). English sole As with Dover sole, English sole off the US West Coast from the Mexican border to the Canadian border are assessed (modeled) as a single stock, although both fishery-dependent and research survey data are treated separately for two areas (north and south) (Stewart 2005). The latest assessment (2005) found that stock biomass was at near historical low levels (and overfished) during the mid 1990s due to a period of poor recruitment. Since that time, biomass has steadily increased to levels well above B40% in 2005 (SPB2005/SPB40%=31,379/13,725=2.29) (Figure 20). In all of these estimates there is fairly high uncertainty of absolute biomass, with a 95% confidence interval range of % estimated depletion in However, even the lowest estimate suggests the stock has been above B40% since 2001 (Stewart 2005). The stock is also only 31

33 lightly to moderately exploited, catches having been less than MSY since at least 1995 (2005 catches, including discards/msy=1,341/4,080=0.33) (Stewart 2005). Thus, the stock is not overfished nor experiencing overfishing, and is therefore of low conservation concern. Figure 20: Estimated spawning biomass of US West Coast English sole, including 95% confidence intervals (dotted lines), B40% (13,725mt; upper dashed line) and overfished threshold (8,578mt; lower dashed line) (Stewart 2005). Petrale sole Genetic information and stock structure are not well known for petrale sole off the US West Coast. In the latest assessment, northern (43 00 N latitude or roughly Cape Blanco, Oregon, north to the Canadian border) and southern (43 00 N latitude south to the Mexican border) areas are assessed separately, based on growth, CPUE, and geographical distribution data (Lai et al. 2005). Both fisheries-dependent and independent data were used. The estimated spawning stock biomass in the northern area reached a historical low in 1992 (8.8% of unfished spawning biomass, SPB0), and has increased steadily since then, to 34% of SPB0 in 2005 (Lai et al. 2005). In the southern area, the historical low was in 1986 (6% of SPB0). Spawning stock biomass then remained relatively stable until 1995 (8% of SPB0), and then rapidly increased to 29% of SPB0 in Thus, biomass in both areas is above the overfished threshold, but below the management target of B MSY. Managers use a coast-wide ABC for controlling petrale sole catch, but have traditionally split that into separate ABCs for the two areas, with the southern area receiving the largest portion of the ABC (55% in ). The coast-wide ABC has not been exceeded since at least 1995 (e.g., in 2004, catch, including estimated discards/abc=2,377mt/2,762mt=0.86). However, the ABC for the northern area has been exceeded every year since 2001 (e.g., in 2004, catch/abc= 1,850/1,262=1.47). As the ABC is set at the MSY proxy of F40%, which is also the overfishing threshold, the northern area has technically been experiencing overfishing for the last four years, although the southern area and coast-wide stock has not (Lai et al. 2005). However, according to the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Status of U.S. Fisheries 2007, no stock of petrale sole is experiencing overfishing (NMFS 2007). The majority of landings since 2000 have been from the northern area (78% in 2004). For these reasons, management has allotted a higher 32

34 proportion of the total coast-wide ABC to the northern area (75%) (Lai et al. 2005). The new ABC for the north is higher than the catch in any year from However, the projected total mortality through October 22, 2005, was 21mt higher than the coast-wide ABC, indicating the stock was being overfished (PFMC 2005c). In response, the PFMC has implemented several mitigation measures, including closing all directed petrale sole fishing for the remainder of the year, moving certain Rockfish Conservation Area boundaries (see management section), prohibiting retention in some areas at some times and limiting bi-monthly landings in other areas (PFMC 2005). The stock is deemed of moderate conservation concern by Seafood Watch. Figure 21: Trajectory of estimated spawning stock biomass of US West Coast petrale sole. SB MSY is 2,658mt for the northern assessment area, and 4,121mt for the southern (Lai et al. 2005). Starry flounder The starry flounder population is separated into a California area (southern) and an Oregon- Washington area (northern), based on differing population trends (Ralston 2005). The most recent (and only) assessment is based on fishery-dependent information only, as the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) survey trawls do not extend into waters shallow enough to catch this species. In addition, there were no discard or size/age composition data available, and there is considerable uncertainty over the natural mortality rate of the species (Ralston 2005). Biomass in both areas has shown a similar trajectory over the last 35 years (Figure 22). After a big jump in the late 1980s and early 1990s, biomass declined again until , increased slightly, and then dropped again to current levels. Biomass in the northern area is the lowest it has been since the mid-1980s and in the southern area remains higher than in 1996/1997 (Figure 22). It continues to decline in both areas. The base model biomass in both areas suggests spawning biomass is currently above the management target of SB40% (SB2005/SB40%=2,112/1,930=1.09 for the northern, and 1,445/934=1.55 for the southern), but the lower confidence limit for the northern area is below this level. However, even the lowest confidence interval is above the overfished threshold. Exploitation of both stocks is low, with recent landings being less than 20% of the ABC based on harvesting at an F40% rate. Neither area has been experiencing overfishing since at least 1994 (Ralston 2005). Given this information, Seafood Watch deems stock status to be of low conservation concern. 33

35 Figure 22: Trajectory of estimated spawning biomass for US West Coast starry flounder. SPB40% is 1,930mt for the northern assessment area, and 934mt for the southern (Ralston 2005). Other species No other flatfish species off the US West Coast have been assessed. Thus, the status of arrowtooth flounder (the second most landed flatfish species in 2004), rex sole, sand sole, butter sole, curlfin sole, flathead sole, rock sole, and Pacific sanddab is unknown. Rex sole and Pacific sanddab fisheries off California are both assumed to be sustainable by managers because of consistent and increasing landings (Quirollo 2001; Allen and Leos 2001). The stock status of these species is deemed of moderate concern by Seafood Watch. Synthesis The main commercially important flatfish stocks in Alaska appear to be in healthy condition, with generally high biomass and relatively low fishing pressure. The status of stocks of those species managed in complexes (BSAI other flatfish and GOA shallow water and deep water flatfish) are less certain, with undefined overfished thresholds. Although fishing pressure is likely low enough to ensure that overfishing of these stocks does not happen, the multispecies nature of these fisheries may mask declines in some species while biomass estimates for the complex as a whole appear stable or even increasing. Of particular concern in Alaska is that Greenland turbot in the BSAI has been on a declining trend for more than three decades. The biomass of the stock is still above the management target, however, and managers are implementing ever smaller quotas in an attempt to stabilize the population. The status of most Alaskan stocks that are assessed and managed as single species, including yellowfin sole, arrowtooth flounder, rock sole, flathead sole, Greenland turbot, and Alaska plaice in the BSAI, and arrowtooth flounder, Dover sole, and flathead sole in the GOA, are thus deemed healthy and of low conservation concern by Seafood Watch. The one exception is rex sole which is considered a moderate conservation concern due to unknown stock status. Those managed in complexes are deemed of moderate conservation concern. Assessments of flatfish in BC have only been conducted for a handful of stocks. The only stock assessments to have been conducted since 2000 are for petrale sole, arrowtooth flounder and rock sole. Those assessments concluded that the stocks were being fished sustainably at or below full exploitation. However, concern over low recruitment in the years leading up to the most recent assessments resulted in the assessors suggesting that follow-up assessments be conducted in the early 2000s. No follow-up assessments have been conducted as of this writing. In addition, many stocks in BC have not been assessed, especially in Queen Charlotte Sound. A research survey was 34

36 conducted in this area in 2003, leading to estimates of biomass for several species. These were highly uncertain, and are the first of several needed to get a true estimate of absolute biomass and biomass trends over time. Petrale sole are thought to have recovered from very low biomass levels in the mid 1990s to at or above B MSY levels today, and the stock is likely stable and being fished sustainably. The status of all BC flatfish stocks is thus of moderate conservation concern. Of the 12 flatfish species managed by the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) off the US West Coast, only four have been assessed. Dover sole and starry flounder stocks are healthy, having biomass above B40% and currently only being lightly to moderately exploited. Biomass trends for English and petrale sole are similar to each other, declining to record low (and overfished) levels in the early to mid-1990s, and increasing quickly since then. English sole are now thought to be well above B40%, while both petrale sole stocks are below that target, but above the overfishing threshold. These increases in biomass are in concert with lowered fishing mortality. English sole are currently only lightly exploited, while petrale sole coast-wide are close to maximally (sustainably) exploited. Indeed, in the northern area (the commercially most important area in terms of quantity of landings) catches have actually been above the ABC apportioned for that area. The stock status of US West coast stocks is generally therefore of moderate conservation concern, either because the status of the stock is unknown or the species co-occurs and is caught and landed with several other flatfish species of unknown stock status (e.g., English sole). The exceptions are Dover sole and starry flounder stocks, which are deemed to be in healthy condition and thus of low conservation concern. Conservation Concern: Status of Stocks All AK stocks managed as single species US West Coast Dover sole and Starry flounder All BC stocks All AK stocks managed in complexes All US West Coast stocks other than Dover sole and Starry flounder Low (Stock Healthy) Moderate (Stock Moderate) 35

37 Seafood Watch Pacific Flatfishes Report July 31, 2009 Table 3: SFW status of stock factors for commercially important Northeast Pacific flatfish. See Appendix 4 for more detail. Region Species Management classification status Current abundance (Bcurr/B MSY ) Current fishing mortality (Fcurr/F MSY ) Most recent assessment Long-term trend Shortterm trend Pop skewed? Conservation Concern BSAI Yellowfin sole Not OFD; Not OFG 1.9 (SPB) Up Down No Low Arrowtooth flounder Not OFD; Not OFG 2+ (SPB) Up Stable No Low Rock sole (northern) Not OFD; Not OFG 2+ (SPB) Up Down No Low Flathead sole Not OFD; Not OFG 1.74 (SPB) Up Down No Low Greenland turbot Not OFD; Not OFG 1.07 (SPB) Down Down Unknown Low Alaska plaice Not OFD; Not OFG 1.71 (SPB) Down Down No Low Other flatfish Undefined; Not OFG Undefined Varies see text 2004 Varies see text Varies see text Unknown Moderate GOA Arrowtooth flounder Not OFD; Not OFG 2.1 (SPB) /2004 Up Up No Low Dover sole** Not OFD; Not OFG 2.21 (SPB) /2004 Down Stable No Low Rex sole Unknown; Not OFG Not estimated Stable Stable No Moderate Flathead sole Not OFD; Not OFG 1.72 (SPB) /2004 Stable Stable No Low Shallow water flatfish Undefined; Not OFG Undefined 9% of ABC 2003/2004 Stable Stable Unknown Moderate Deep water flatfish, excl. Dover sole Undefined Undefined Greenland turbot=0.07; deepsea sole= /2004 Unknown Unknown Unknown Moderate 36

38 Region Species Management classification status Current abundance (Bcurr/B MSY ) Current fishing mortality (Fcurr/F MSY ) Most recent assessment Long-term trend Shortterm trend Pop skewed? Conservation Concern BC Arrowtooth flounder (turbot) Being fished at or below sustainable levels 2001 Stable Stable Moderate Dover sole Fully exploited Down Mod. Moderate Rock sole Sustainable Above 50 yr average English sole Not OFG Above 50 yr average Petrale sole Not OFD; Not OFG % of B MSY Up Mod. Moderate Stable Mod. Moderate < Up Mod. Moderate West Coast Dover sole Not OFD; Not OFG (south) 0.32 (north) 2005 Up Up Yes, but maybe not fishing Low Petrale sole Not OFD; Not OFG 0.85 (north) 0.73 (south) 0.86 (coast-wide) 2005 Down Up Yes, but maybe not fishing Moderate English sole Not OFD; Not OFG Stable Up Yes, but maybe not fishing Low Starry flounder Not OFD; Not OFG 1.09 (north) 1.55 (south) < Variable Down Unknown Low Rex sole, Dover sole, starry flounder, longhead sole, butter sole. ** Dover sole is part of the deep water flatfish complex in the GOA; the biomass of Greenland turbot and deepsea sole is unknown. Main stocks only, other unassessed see text. Main stocks only, other unassessed see text. 37

39 Seafood Watch Pacific Flatfishes Report July 31, 2009 Criterion 3: Nature and Extent of Bycatch 1 The US and Canadian Pacific groundfish fisheries experience a large amount of incidental catch for three reasons: 1) the multispecies nature of the fishery; 2) management measures implemented for a year-round fishery; and 3) almost 100% mortality of captured rockfish. Because rockfishes have a closed air bladder they suffer air embolism upon ascending and usually die at the surface. This creates a major problem for management in regulating the amount of marketable, non-target catch, and in the creation of daily or monthly trip limits, as the ability of vessels to catch fish often surpasses the allowable catch, resulting in wasteful discard (Steve Ralston, 2002, pers. comm., NMFS Tiburon Laboratory, Santa Cruz California). West Coast Until recently, there was no federal monitoring program to assess West Coast groundfish discards. The earliest information on discards came from a voluntary observer program conducted primarily off Oregon (Pikitch 1991). Researchers reported that the total discard from all causes was approximately 16% to 20% of the total catch for species regulated by a trip limit (NWFSC 2003). This level of discard was factored into groundfish quota determinations throughout the 1990s, even as groundfish regulations were modified, possibly altering discard rates (NWFSC 2003). Another study conducted by the Oregon Trawl Commission and Oregon State University in 1995 to 1999 found that the discard rate for rockfishes was about 27% of the total catch landed (discards/discards + retained catch) (Sampson 2002). More recently, the newly implemented (2001) West Coast Groundfish Observer Program (WCGOP) collects at-sea catch and discard data for the limited entry groundfish trawl and fixed gear fisheries as well as the open access nearshore, prawn and shrimp fleets (WCGOP 2005). The program also collects data on California and Oregon vessels fishing only in state waters. These data allow management to comply with yearly Total Allowable Catch (TAC) levels by providing a more accurate and timely discard estimate. For example, if the combination of landed and discarded catch of a certain species reaches or exceeds quota, the retention of that species may be prohibited for the remainder of the year if in-season adjustments are used, or the allowable catch reduced in the next season (PFMC 2003). Currently, the WCGOP coverage goal is to maintain a minimum of 20 percent observer coverage of the limited-entry trawl fleet and fixed gear fleets. The WCGOP has continued to expand its pilot project in the open access fisheries. In 2004, the limited-entry bottom trawl trips observed by the WCGOP accounted for 27 percent of the coast-wide tonnage landed on all bottom trawl trips (WGCOP trawl 2005). The data from the WCGOP is made available to the public in the form of annual reports 2. The reports contain only data from observed trips; the WCGOP does not extrapolate observed results to estimate discard quantity for the entire fishery (though the PFMC does). The reports also do not provide information on all species likely encountered by the groundfish fisheries, such as sharks, skates, ratfish, grenadiers, and all invertebrates. Nevertheless, they provide a useful minimum estimate of the proportion of the catch that is discarded in the different groundfish fisheries. 1 Bycatch is defined as species that are caught but subsequently discarded because they are of undesirable size, sex or species composition. Unobserved fishing mortality associated with fishing gear (e.g. animals passing through nets, breaking free of hooks or lines, ghost fishing, illegal harvest and under or misreporting) is also considered bycatch. Bycatch does not include incidental catch (non-targeted catch) if it is utilized, accounted for, or managed in some way

40 All groundfish trawls in federal waters are managed under the limited entry program. Total discards for the coast-wide groundfish trawl fishery, measured as a percentage of retained catch, were roughly 33% in 2004 (data from WCGOP 2005). However, the WCGOP data in the summary tables does not distinguish between mid-water and bottom trawls. A large proportion of these discards are of Pacific whiting (hake), a pelagic species not likely caught in great numbers in the demersal trawls targeting flatfish. Coast-wide discards excluding this species are roughly 20% of the retained catch (Table 4) (Figure 23). This is likely a closer approximation to the coast-wide discard rate in flatfish fisheries. However, other recent studies suggest the total discard rates may be substantially higher. Branch et al. (2004) directly compared the discard rates in BC and US West Coast fisheries, and report a discard to retained ratio of 74% in 2001/2002 and 45% in 2002/2003 for the US West Coast bottom trawl fishery only (i.e., excluding mid-water trawls and the Pacific hake fishery). Harrington et al. (2005) report a discard to retained ratio of 93% in 2002 in the groundfish trawl fishery (likely including some mid-water trawl component but excluding the Pacific hake fishery). There is clearly considerable difference in the total discard rate depending on the specific gears and years analyzed, but all fall into the 10-99% range considered of moderate concern by Seafood Watch (though lower rates are clearly better in absolute terms). According to the 2004 data from the WCGOP summaries, discard rates vary considerably between the northern and southern management areas (separated at N latitude), and between depths. With only two exceptions, discard rates, measured as a percentage of retained catch, fall between 16 and 36%. Discard rates are higher in the southern management area, especially in fisheries operating from 0-274m. Discards in the m fishery in the southern area discard more than they retain (a discard rate of 118%), but landings are very low from this depth range (Table 4) because most of it from the Mexican to the Canadian border is closed to groundfish trawling to protect depleted rockfish stocks (one of the Rockfish Conservation Areas or RCAs, this one closed from fathoms or m). 39

41 Table 4: Catch disposition of the US West Coast limited entry groundfish trawl fishery by region and depth, 2004 (data from WCGOP 2005). (Depth has been converted from fathoms.) Area Depth (m) Disposition of catch All species Excluding Pacific hake Discarded Retained Discards as % retained Discarded Retained Discards as % retained North ,658 1,535,167 60% 473,152 1,535,167 31% , ,237 33% 33, ,237 30% >275 1,596,905 5,856,026 27% 932,439 5,844,041 16% Total 2,552,574 7,502,428 34% 1,439,514 7,490,443 19% South ,585 65, % 45,406 64,906 70% ,489 7, % 8,599 72,64 118% > ,798 2,036,379 26% 414,719 2,036,284 20% Total 606,873 2,108,732 29% 468,725 2,108,453 22% Coast-wide ,243 1,600,257 62% 518,558 1,600,073 32% , ,501 46% 42, ,501 36% >275 2,120,703 7,892,405 27% 1,347,158 7,880,325 17% Total 3,159,447 9,611,160 33% 1,908,239 9,598,896 20% 140% 120% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 31% 30% % 19% 70% 118% >275 Total % 22% 32% 36% 17% 20% >275 Total >275 Total North South Coastwide Area/Depth (m) Figure 23: Discards as a percentage of retained catch for the US West Coast limited entry groundfish trawl fishery by region and depth, 2004 (data from WCGOP 2005), excluding Pacific hake. Flatfish made up the majority of the observed catch along the US West Coast in 2004 Dover sole (58%), arrowtooth flounder (13%) and petrale sole (12%) and were retained 95 percent of the 40

42 time. Of the roundfish caught in 2004, 75 percent of the sablefish caught (46% of the roundfish catch) was retained, and 99 percent of the Pacific hake caught (34% of the roundfish catch) was discarded, though it was excluded from the above calculations due to it being a pelagic species). The small quantities of halibut (nearly all Pacific halibut) and salmon caught along the US West Coast in 2004 were discarded (Figure 24) Retained Discarded Flatfish Halibut Rockfish Roundfish Salmon Flatfish Halibut Rockfish Roundfish Salmon Flatfish Halibut Rockfish Roundfish Salmon Flatfish Halibut Rockfish Roundfish Salmon > Total Trawl Limited Entry Figure 24: Observed catch disposition of the US West Coast limited entry trawl fishery by species group and depth, 2004 (data from WCGOP 2005). Of the finfish caught along the US West Coast, rockfish bycatch is probably the greatest concern, as seven species of rockfish are currently on rebuilding plans due to their overfished status. Severe restrictions have been placed on the entire US West Coast groundfish fishery by managers in an attempt to allow these species to rebuild (see management section, Criterion 5). Rockfish accounted for roughly 12 percent of the observed catch in the limited entry trawl fishery in Rockfish discards, measured as a percentage of retained rockfish catch, was roughly 32 percent. Slope species accounted for the majority (90-95%) of the catch, and were typically retained (thornyheads 85-90% retained, darkblotched and Pacific Ocean Perch 80% retained). Blackgill rockfish were all discarded. Approximately 60 percent of other slope rockfish were retained. Shelf species accounted for roughly 5 percent of the observed catch. Approximately 75% of yellowtail rockfish was retained, but all other species, including the overfished species (bocaccio, canary rockfish, cowcod and yelloweye rockfish), were discarded more often than not. Of the nearshore rockfish, only black rockfish was typically (85%) retained; 95 percent of other nearshore rockfish were discarded. Estimated discards are incorporated into stock assessments on the West Coast. 41

43 British Columbia Vessels in the groundfish trawl fleet in British Columbia are regulated according to where they choose to fish. A small fleet of 13 vessels fishes in nearshore waters primarily for rockfish and cabezon for the Vancouver live market (groundfish trawl Option B), while the rest of the fleet (Option A) fishes in outside waters for other species, including flatfish (DFO Trawl FMP 2005). The fishery has 100 percent observer coverage (for bottom trawls and most mid-water trawls) and 100 percent dockside monitoring, allowing all catch (landings plus discards) to be enumerated. No retention of Pacific halibut, salmon, Pacific herring, sturgeon, or wolf eel is permitted by the groundfish trawl fleet, and landings of all non-tac rockfish combined are limited to 15,000 pounds (lbs) per trip. Branch et al. (2004) reported discard rates of 17% in 2001/2002 and 23% in 2002/2003. The discard rate as calculated by the DFO is substantially lower, however, at approximately 10%, for years , and less than 7% for 2005 (Jeff Fargo, DFO, pers. comm.). Unfortunately, the data used to calculate these very low figures were not available to Seafood Watch (or any other private entity) because of confidentiality concerns (Jeff Fargo, pers. comm.), so they remain unvalidated. Until these data become available, Seafood Watch will assume a bycatch rate consistent with the data provided in the study by Branch et al. (2004). Flatfish and rockfish make up the majority of the bottom trawl catch; approximately 40 percent of flatfish are discarded. Discards vary considerably by species. In 2004, Dover, English, petrale and rock sole were rarely discarded, approximately 60% of arrowtooth flounder and rex sole were discarded, and other flatfish were discarded more often than not (DFO 2005). Of the other species caught in the bottom trawl fishery, spiny dogfish were typically discarded, while longnose and big skates were typically landed. Pacific hake and grenadiers were always discarded, as was Pacific halibut (retention disallowed by regulation). Rockfish were nearly all retained, however, with only 2-3 percent of both slope and shelf rockfish being discarded (Figure 25) % Rockfish Flatfish Other Total Figure 25: Discards as a percentage of retained catch in the BC groundfish trawl fishery, 2004 (data from DFO 2005). 42

44 Alaska With the exception of small vessels (<60 feet) and halibut vessels, all groundfish vessels in federal waters in the BSAI and GOA are required to carry observers, at their own expense, for at least some of the time. The largest vessels, generally over 125 feet, are generally required to carry observers 100 percent of the time. Combined with reporting and weighing requirements, the information collected by observers provides the foundation for in-season management and for tracking speciesspecific catch and bycatch amounts. The discard rate of finfish for the various directed Alaskan flatfish fisheries, measured as a percentage of the retained catch, is shown in Figure 26. These are minimum estimates of discard rate, as invertebrates are not included. Invertebrate bycatch can be considerable in trawl fisheries. For example, NMFS estimates an average of more than one million pounds of corals and sponges (approximately 80 percent sponges) were caught in commercial fishing gear in Alaskan waters annually between 1997 and 1999, 90 percent of which was bycatch in bottom trawl nets (NMFS 2001). As these organisms are typically found on hard bottom habitat, trawls for flatfish probably catch considerably less than those for some other species, notably rockfish and Atka mackerel. Discards for all directed Alaskan flatfish fisheries combined, measured as a percentage of the retained catch, is approximately 51%. Relative discard quantity varies by fishery and region. In the BSAI, discards are between 32% and 62% of the retained catch in the different fisheries, and 45% overall. In the GOA, discard rates are typically higher, from 52% to 201% in Both the rex sole and flathead sole fisheries discard more than they land (139% and 201%, respectively). The vast majority of discards in these fisheries (and all flatfish fisheries in the GOA) are of arrowtooth flounder. Landings of arrowtooth flounder have increased in recent years due to a market developing for them, so bycatch rates have probably been lower in years since For example, 2005 catch records available to the Alaska Fisheries Science Center (ASFC) indicate the discard rate in the Greenland turbot fishery was approximately 11%, while that in all BSAI flatfish fisheries combined declined from 30% in 2003 and 2004 to 23% in 2005 (Paul Spencer, AFSC, pers. comm.). Alaska plaice, arrowtooth flounder, and other flatfish are commonly discarded in the BSAI, though rock sole and yellowfin sole also make up a large part of the total discards in the region (FIS 2003). 43

45 201% 139% 39% 62% 75% 78% 47% 32% 45% 45% 52% 84% 51% 250% 200% 150% 100% 50% 0% Yellowfin sole Rock sole Flathead sole Greenland turbot Arrowtooth flounder Total Arrowtooth flounder Rex sole Shallow water flatfish Flathead sole Deepwater flatfish Total AK Total Target species Figure 26: Discards as a percentage of the retained catch for Alaskan flatfish fisheries, 2001 (data from FIS 2003). Columns in red are for the BSAI, those in blue are for the GOA. Endangered species and other species of concern Mammals and turtles NOAA Fisheries is obligated to categorize all US commercial fisheries (in federal waters) based upon the level of serious injury and mortality of marine mammals caught incidentally in those fisheries. This list of categorized fisheries is published annually, reflecting new knowledge and changes in the incidental injury or death rate of marine mammals. According to the 2004 list, all West Coast groundfish fisheries are in the lowest category (Tier 2, Category III), which means that although the fishery may interact with marine mammals, the rate of injury and death is less than one percent of the threshold at which the fishery would be jeopardizing the continued existence of the population 1. Marine mammal interactions with Alaskan flatfish fisheries are more of a concern, however. Both the BSAI flatfish trawl fishery and the BSAI Greenland turbot longline fishery were recently (January 4, 2006) moved from Category III to Category II, due to the incidental catch of endangered Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) from the western US stock in both fisheries as well as killer whales (Orcinus orca) from the eastern North Pacific resident and transient stocks. Seabirds Seabird bycatch in North Pacific bottom longline fisheries, including that for Greenland turbot in Alaska, is a major concern. This report summarizes the far more detailed analysis in the Seafood Watch Pacific cod report. In the longline fishery, seabirds are hooked on gear when they dive for bait as the lines are being deployed. The most common seabird species that occur on longline fishing grounds are blackfooted albatross (Phoebastria nigripes), northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), and shearwaters (Melvin et al. 2004). Laysan albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis) and short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) are also taken; Laysan albatross in the BSAI and GOA longline fisheries, and short-tailed albatross only in the BSAI longline fishery (NMFS 2004a). The most common seabird caught as bycatch in both the BSAI and the GOA is the northern fulmar (Livingston 2002)

46 The short-tailed albatross, considered one of the rarest species on earth (NMFS 2004a), is the only seabird species caught as bycatch in these fisheries that is listed as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act (ESA). However, several of the seabird species are listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, including the Laysan albatross (vulnerable), short-tailed albatross (vulnerable), and black-footed albatross (endangered) (IUCN 2004). Because the short-tailed albatross is protected under the ESA, several Biological Opinions (BiOps) have been issued to determine whether any federally managed fisheries have an adverse effect on this species. The 1989 Biological Opinion set the incidental take limit for the short-tailed albatross at four every two years in the hook-and-line groundfish fishery, and two every five years in the trawl fishery (NMFS 2004a). If the take limit is exceeded, the fishery faces possible modifications or closure (NMFS 2004a). The most recent BiOp, published in 2003, found that BSAI and GOA groundfish fisheries were not likely to jeopardize the continued existence or recovery of the short-tailed albatross (USFWS 2003). Prior to 1998, the BSAI longline fishery accounted for the majority of the seabird bycatch in Alaska. However, the bycatch rate for all seabird species in longline fisheries in both the BSAI and GOA has declined dramatically since 1998, and the total take of seabirds is now roughly equal in the GOA and BSAI. Furthermore, albatross bycatch in the GOA in 2003 was equivalent to that in the BSAI (178 birds and 177 birds, respectively). These declines are despite increased fishing effort over this period, and are largely due to the implementation of management measures requiring seabird mitigation devices. Longline fisheries occurring in state waters may be a relatively small contribution to albatross bycatch in the US-based fishery, although with no observer coverage this is difficult to quantify (NMFS 2004a). Bycatch rate (birds per 1,000 hooks) Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands Gulf of Alaska Year Figure 27: Bycatch rates of all seabird species in the BSAI and GOA, (NMFS 2005a). Seabirds exhibit life history characteristics that make them vulnerable to increased adult mortality, such as a long life span, late age at maturity, and low reproductive rates (Russell et al. 1999; Saether and Bakke 2000). Due to these life history characteristics, it may take years for a population decline to be detected, and subsequently for the population to show signs of recovery (Moloney et al. 1994). Globally, longline fishing is considered the most serious threat to certain seabird species such as albatrosses (Brothers et al. 1999). Due to a lack of published population data, there is some 45

47 uncertainty associated with the population consequences of seabird bycatch in the bottom longline fisheries of the BSAI and GOA. Recent population assessments suggest that the population of short tailed albatross may be increasing (Fitzgerald et al. 2004), that the number of breeding pairs of black footed albatross on the Hawaiian Islands has been stable since 1992 and increasing since 2003 (Flint 2005), and that after the number of breeding pairs of Laysan albatross on the Hawaiian Islands declined dramatically from 1997 to 2002 it has generally increased since 2002 (Flint 2005). Despite the trends observed at these nesting locations, general population trends for seabird colonies in Alaska show a predominantly negative trend in the southeast Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska (Figure 9) (Dragoo et al. 2003). Recent population declines for both the Laysan albatross and black-footed albatross have been attributed to the bycatch of these species in the longline fisheries of the North Pacific (BirdLife International 2004). The freezer longline Pacific cod fishery has been certified by the Marine Stewardship Council, an independent non-profit organization that evaluates the sustainability of a fishery before labeling the product, signifying environmentally responsible fishery management and practices (MSC 2004). They conclude that there is some uncertainty associated with the population consequences of seabird bycatch due to a lack of published population data, but the fishery is unlikely to be a major problem in this regard (MSC 2005) Frequency N Bering/ Chukchi SE Bering SW Bering Gulf of Alaska Southeast Negative trend No discernable trend Positive trend Figure 28: Seabird population trends for some colonies in Alaska, 2001 (Data from Dragoo et al. 2003). Seabirds are also caught in the BC groundfish longline fisheries (DFO 2005b). The DFO has made mandatory bycatch mitigation measures similar to those in use by the Alaska fisheries, but no empirical data are yet available on how effective these measures are. 46

48 Synthesis US and Canadian North Pacific fisheries have comprehensive observer programs in place to monitor and enumerate bycatch in the groundfish fisheries. The total catch, both retained and discarded, is used in stock assessments in all regions. Measured as a percentage of the retained catch, discards (not including invertebrates) in all US West Coast groundfish fisheries combined are approximately 20% (excluding Pacific hake, a pelagic species not likely caught in bottom trawls targeting flatfish), and in BC fisheries are approximately 29% (groundfish bottom trawls only). These are generalizations, however, as target species is not identified in the WCGOP summary data nor in the data the author received from DFO. In addition, other recent studies indicate discards may be substantially higher in the US West Coast fishery than found by Seafood Watch in the WCGOP data summaries for However, neither source reports that more of the catch is discarded than kept (Harrington et al. 2005; Branch et al. 2004). One report suggests that discards in the BC groundfish trawl fishery may be substantially lower than in the US West Coast fishery, perhaps by 50% or more (Branch et al. 2004). Discards clearly vary considerably between region and target species. For example, although the coast-wide combined discard rate for the US West Coast was about 20% in 2004, discards actually vary from less than 17% for the deep water (deeper than 275m) fisheries to more than the retained catch ( m depth range for the southern management area). The latter fishery accounts for little of the flatfish catch, as most of that depth zone is closed coast-wide to protect depleted rockfish. In addition, the estimates for the US West Coast should be considered minimums, as invertebrates are not included in the summary data. Thus, discards remain a moderate conservation concern in these fisheries. In Alaska, data for the directed flatfish fisheries were available, which indicates that the overall discard rate in these fisheries is approximately 51% of the retained catch. Again there is variation by region and target species, with discard rates generally lower in the BSAI than in the GOA. The only fisheries for which discards are greater than the retained catch (in quantity) are the rex sole and flathead sole fisheries in the GOA. Since these data were collected in 2001, a market has opened up for arrowtooth flounder which at that time accounted for the majority of discards in these fisheries. Thus, discards are assumed to be lower today than in 2001, and of moderate conservation concern for Alaskan groundfish trawl fisheries overall. The only flatfish species targeted and caught in large quantities by gears other than trawls is the Greenland turbot in the BSAI. This species is primarily (approximately 80% in 2004) caught by bottom longline. This fishery has relatively low bycatch rates (32% of the retained catch in 2001), but Alaskan bottom longline fisheries regularly catch protected seabirds (particularly black-footed and Laysan albatrosses). Although management measures have been successful at reducing this bycatch, concerns remain over its seabird population consequences. Thus this issue remains a moderate conservation concern. Seabirds caught in BC longline fisheries are also of moderate concern, though far less is known about total numbers of seabirds caught or the effectiveness of the management measures. Conservation Concern: Nature and Extent of Bycatch All fisheries Moderate (Bycatch Moderate) 47

49 Criterion 4: Effect of Fishing Practices on Habitats and Ecosystems Flatfish landed off the west coast of North America are almost entirely caught with bottom trawls, though a small percentage of Alaskan landings is caught by mid-water trawls (4 percent) and bottom longlines (2 percent) (Figure 29, 2004 data). When trawling, fishers tow a funnel shaped net or nets behind the fishing vessel. There are several types of trawl, but those that are used to catch flatfish off the Pacific Coast of North America are typically otter trawls, so-called because of the otter doors that are used to hold open the mouth of the net 1. A footrope and headrope form a framework to which the mouth of the net is attached. The headrope helps keep the top of the net at the required height, while the footrope has the dual purpose of separating the target species from the seabed and, in bottom trawls, raising the netting far enough off the seabed to prevent damage. Flatfish, being bottom dwellers, are typically caught with bottom trawls, though a small percentage is caught with mid-water trawls in Alaska (Figure 29). The footrope in a bottom trawl may be weighted with chain when targeting fish that live on soft bottoms like most flatfish, while rollers or rockhoppers may be strung along the footrope like beads when trawling for rockfish and other fish that live in rougher habitat. Thus, bottom trawls typically have several elements that are in contact with the seabed. According to the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC), bottom trawls are all that do not meet the requirements of a mid-water or pelagic trawl; namely that the footrope is unprotected and there are no bobbins or rollers on the net. According to this definition then, the otter doors of a mid-water trawl may still come into contact with the seabed (although they usually do not) (PFMC 2005b). However, trawls in Alaska cannot be considered pelagic unless the entire gear is off the seabed (NMFS/NPFMC 2005b). 100% 80% Landings (%) 60% 40% 20% Bottom longline Midwater trawl Bottom trawl 0% BSAI GOA OR CA WA BC AK West Coast BC Figure 29: Proportion of flatfish catch by region and gear, 2004 (data from PacFIN, ADFG, and DFO). DFO data did not specify mid-water trawls, so all trawls are assumed to be bottom trawls. 1 Apparently this gear is technically no longer called an otter trawl, but it is unclear what the new name is, and the name persists in the literature (PFMC 2005b). This report will thus continue to use the term otter trawl. 48

50 Bottom trawl configuration varies according to species targeted, fisher preference, and regulation, among other things. Thus, a variety of different bottom trawl configurations are used when targeting flatfish in Alaska, BC, and the US West Coast. All, however, including the special flatfish trawl (designed to reduce bycatch of rockfish) are in full contact with the seafloor (PFMC 2005b). A small quantity of Alaskan flatfish (primarily Greenland turbot) are landed using bottom longlines, which are essentially long fishing lines set horizontally along the seabed to which shorter lines with baited hooks are attached. The bottom longline is anchored to the seabed with weights (PFMC 2005b). Habitat Effects Large areas of the Pacific continental shelf are trawled each year by the groundfish and other fisheries. It has been estimated that during the mid 1990s, an average of 15% of California, 57% of Alaska (that was monitored), and 6% of Oregon and Washington shelf and slope areas fished were swept more than once a year; the remainder was swept less than once a year (NRC 2002). Bottom trawling gear used for catching groundfish has adverse effects on seafloor integrity, both physically and biologically. Bottom trawling impacts sea-floor communities by scraping of the ocean bottom causing 1) sediment re-suspension (turbidity) and smoothing, 2) removal of and/or damage to non-target species, and 3) destruction of three-dimensional habitat (biotic and abiotic) (Auster and Langton 1999). Research on the effect of bottom trawl gear deployed in the Bering Sea (off Alaska) has shown that gear can destroy slow-growing, long-lived gorgonian corals (Primnoa spp.), which provide complex habitat to demersal shelf rockfishes (Witherell and Coon 2000). These corals are extremely fragile (Risk et al. 1998), and are thus vulnerable to the physical disturbances caused by fishing. Damage and/or removal of these corals in the North Pacific may severely impact the ecosystem as a whole, including the maintenance of groundfish populations (Auster et al. 1996; Witherell and Coon 2000). Bottom trawl disturbance of the seabed is mainly a function of bottom type (rock, sand, mud, etc.) and gear type (dredge, beam, otter trawl, etc.). Some types of trawling gear cause less damage and some sediment types (and their associated ecosystems) are more resilient to disturbances caused by trawling. In a review of fishing effects, Collie (2000) found that fauna associated with sandy (coarser) sediments were less affected by disturbance than those in soft, muddy (biogenic) sediments. Recovery rate appears to be slower in muddy and structurally complex habitats, while mobile sandy sediment communities can withstand 2-3 trawl passes per year without significant (adverse) change (Collie et al. 2000). Otter trawling has been ranked as having less disturbance than other types of trawling, such as inter-tidal and scallop dredging (Collie et al. 2000), but it is probable that repetitive trawling in these areas causes significant and possibly adverse changes to seabed ecosystems along the West Coast. Numerous studies (Watling and Norse 1998; Auster and Langton 1999; NRC 2002; Collie 2000) have documented and summarized the effects of mobile tending gear such as bottom trawls on seafloor habitats and consistently recognize bottom trawls, including otter trawls, as one of the most damaging gear types in use. In a review of 22 studies of mobile gear on the structural components of habitat such as sand waves, emergent epifauna, sponges, and corals, Auster and Langton (1999) found similar impacts across a wide geographic range. These impacts were categorized as: 1) directly removing epifauna or damaging it and leading to mortality; 2) smoothing sedimentary 49

51 bedforms and reducing bottom roughness; and 3) removing taxa that produce structure (such as burrows and pits). The National Research Council noted that the effects of mobile bottomfishing gear on benthic habitats depend on the susceptibility of the habitat and on the type of gear used. They highlighted several generalities gleaned from various reviews of impact studies: 1) trawling and dredging reduce habitat complexity by crushing, burying, or exposing marine flora and fauna; 2) repeated trawling and dredging results in discernable changes in benthic communities, shifting them from dominance by species with relatively large adult body size, towards dominance by abundances of small-bodied organisms, and species richness can decline; 3) bottom trawling reduces the productivity of benthic habitats because of an overall loss of biomass; and 4) fauna that live in low natural disturbance regimes are generally more vulnerable to fishing gear disturbance (NRC 2002). Other reviews confirm that impacts of bottom trawls on habitat generally include alteration of physical structure, suspension of sediment, modifications in water and sediment chemistry, changes to the benthic community, and a reduction in habitat complexity (NEFMC 2003; NRC 2002). Although trawls are the gear most often cited as negatively impacting sensitive habitat, longlines, pots, and jigs also affect this sensitive bottom habitat (NMFS 2004a). Groundlines and hooks on bottom longlines snag large branches of corals, and also cause portions of hard corals to be broken off (Breeze et al. 1997; High 1998). Although bottom longlines have limited contact with the seafloor, both the hooks and lines may snag on bottom structure as the gear is set and retrieved (Chuenpagdee et al. 2003). For rougher habitats such as boulders with corals, fixed gear may have an impact, particularly because it is easier to fish fixed gear over rough habitat (NMFS 2004a). Resilience of flatfish habitats to fishing Yellowfin sole From overwintering grounds near the shelf/slope break at approximately 200m, adults move into separate nearshore spawning and feeding areas as the ice recedes in April or early May (Nichol 1997). Spawning is protracted and variable, and typically occurs in depths of less than 30m (Wilderbuer and Nichol 2002). After spawning, adults disperse widely over the continental shelf for feeding. Both spawning and feeding occurs over sandy habitat (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). The BSAI directed fishery takes place on the mid and inner shelf during ice-free conditions (typically spring through December), and there is particularly large effort directed at spawners in nearshore northern Bristol Bay (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; Wilderbuer and Nichol 2004). Arrowtooth flounder From overwintering grounds near the shelf margins and upper slope areas, adults migrate onto the middle and outer shelf with the onset of warmer water temperatures in April and May. Spawning is variable and protracted, and may range from as early as September through March (Rickey 1995). They typically occur over mixed substrate habitats of gravel, sand and mud (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Arrowtooth flounder are caught in bottom trawls usually targeting higher value species such as Pacific cod, bottom pollock, sablefish and other flatfish in Alaskan waters, and Dover sole and thornyheads (Sebastolobus spp.) off the US West Coast (NMFS/NPFMC 2005Ab). Rock sole Adult rock sole are demersal and occupy separate winter (spawning) and summer (feeding) distributions in the Eastern Bering Sea (EBS), where the majority of landings are made. After spawning, rock sole migrate into shallower waters, and disperse widely over the mid and inner shelf 50

52 (Alton and Sample 1976). Most of the population after spawning is in depths of 50 to 100m (Armistead and Nichol 1993), on sand and gravel substrate in Kachemak Bay in Alaska (Abookire and Norcross 1998) and on sand and sand/mud mixtures in the Bering Sea (McConnaughey and Smith 2000). Historically, the fishery has occurred throughout the mid and inner Bering Sea (BS) shelf during ice free conditions. Fishers also target spawning populations during the winter months for their high value roes (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Flathead sole Adult flathead sole overwinter near the shelf margins, and then migrate onto the outer and mid shelf for feeding as waters warm and the ice recedes. They are demersal, and typically inhabit soft (Eschmeyer et al. 1983), silty or muddy bottoms (Kramer et al. 1995). Flathead sole are caught in bottom trawls in a directed fishery in the BSAI and as bycatch in fisheries for Pacific cod, bottom pollock, and other flatfish species (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Alaska plaice Adult Alaska plaice migrate from their overwintering grounds near the shelf margins onto the central and northern shelf of the EBS, primarily at depths of less than 100m (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Spawning occurs in March and April on hard, sandy bottom (Zhang 1987), while summertime feeding takes place on sandy substrates (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Greenland turbot Adult Greenland turbot are generally demersal, and undergo seasonal shifts in depth distribution moving deeper in the winter to spawn (D yakov 1982). They are typically found on the continental slope from m, on muddy and sand-mud substrate. The fishery (both trawl and longline) operates on the continental shelf throughout the EBS and on both sides of the Aleutian Islands (AI) (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Rex sole Rex sole overwinter near the shelf margins, and migrate onto the mid and outer continental shelf in April and May each year. Adults are demersal and are generally found in water deeper than 300m (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Rex sole is probably the most widely distributed sole on the continental shelf and upper slope off Oregon (PFMC 2005A). Rex sole occur on fairly diverse substrates, including sand, mud, gravel (Love 1996; Eschermeyer et al. 1983) and complexes of mud and boulders (Love 1996). Dover sole Dover sole are a seasonally migratory species, moving from summer and fall feeding grounds in shallow water (50-225m) to spawning grounds in deep waters ( m) in late fall (Alton 1972; Barss and Demory 1988; Hunter et al. 1990). Barss and Demory (1988) reported that males tend to stay in waters deeper than 300m, suggesting only females and juveniles migrate inshore. The majority of the population inhabits waters deeper than 500m (Allen and Smith 1988; Hunter et al. 1990). Adults and juveniles are most often found over soft bottoms of silty sand and mud (Tissot et al., in review; Jacobsen et al. 2001; Jagielo et al. 2003). The species is a major target of the deep water trawl fishery (PFMC 2005A). 51

53 English sole English sole have separate feeding and spawning grounds, migrating north in the spring after spawning, to summer feeding grounds, and south in the fall (Garrison and Miller 1982). Adults typically occur on the inner continental shelf in the North Pacific (Allen and Smith 1988), but are found in deeper waters further south, from the sublittoral zone in Puget Sound through intermediate depths off Oregon and the outer shelf in Southern California (NMFS/NPFMC 2005a). Adults and juveniles most often occur over soft bottoms composed of fine sands and mud (Ketchen 1956; Emmet et al. 1991), but are also reported to occur in eelgrass habitats (Pearson and Owen 1992). The species is usually caught in relatively shallow water, less than 100m deep (PFMC 2005A). Petrale sole Petrale sole adults are demersal, and show migration from shallow feeding grounds in the summer to deeper spawning grounds in the winter (Garrison and Miller 1982; Hart 1973). The species is common on the outer shelf, and shows an affinity for sand, sandy mud and occasionally muddy substrata (PFMC 2005A). Most of the catch is made by deep-water bottom trawlers at depths of m (PFMC 2005A). Pacific sanddab Pacific sanddab migrations are poorly known, though they are thought to migrate between winter spawning grounds and summer feeding grounds in the same way many other flatfish species do (Pearcy 1978). Adults are found in estuaries and coastal waters as deep as 549m, but the highest abundance occurs in waters less than 150m deep (Hart 1973; Rackowski and Pikitch 1989). It is numerically the most abundant species on sandy bottom habitats less than 120m off Oregon and Washington (Pearcy 1978). Other species Sand sole and starry flounder both typically occur in fairly shallow shelf waters less than 150m (Garrison and Miller 1982; Allen and Smith 1988; Hart 1973; PFMC 2005A). Starry flounder is also found in estuaries as far as 120km upstream (PFMC 2005A). The two species appear to have different habitat affinities, with sand sole typically found on sandy and muddy substrata (Garrison and Miller 1982), and starry flounders more often occurring over sandy to coarse substrata, including gravel (Cailliet et al. 2000). 52

54 Table 5: Adult habitat preference and fishery distribution for commercially important Northeast Pacific flatfish. Fisheries for species in bold are considered to be in highly resilient habitats. Species Adult habitat preference (when fished) Fishery distribution and seasons Source Yellowfin sole Shallow (inner shelf) over sandy substrate Alaska only; directed, bycatch; large effort directed at spawners in nearshore Bristol Bay NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; Wilderbuer and Nichol 2004 Rock sole Widely dispersed over sand/mud, sand, or gravel at m BSAI only; directed, bycatch; also a winter fishery for roe NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; NMFS 2005a Alaska plaice Feeding in waters less than 100m over sandy substrate BSAI only; directed, bycatch; mainly bycatch in recent years NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; NMFS 2005a; Zhang 1987 Greenland turbot Continental shelf m on muddy and sand-mud substrate BSAI directed fishery, bycatch in other fisheries NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; NMFS 2005a Pacific sanddab Common in shallow waters less than 120m over sandy substrate West Coast; directed, bycatch PFMC 2005A Sand sole Less than 150m over sandy and muddy substrate Mainly landed in Oregon (2004) Garrison and Miller 1982; PacFIN 2005 Starry flounder Less than 150m over sandy to coarse substrate, including gravel Mainly landed in Oregon (2004) Garrison and Miller 1982; Cailliet et al. 2000; PacFIN 2005 Arrowtooth flounder Concentrations at m over gravel, sand and mud substrate Bycatch NMFS/NPFMC 2005a Flathead sole Mid and outer shelf for feeding over soft, silt, mud substrate Alaska only; directed, bycatch NMFS/NPFMC 2005a; NMFS 2005a; Eschmeyer et al. 1983; Kramer et al Rex sole Typically deeper than 300m over sand, mud, gravel substrate or mud-boulder complexes GOA, OR, CA; directed and as bycatch PFMC 2005A Dover sole Majority below 500m over soft bottom with sandy, silt, or mud substrate Coast-wide; directed, bycatch PFMC 2005A; Jagielo et al. 2003; Barss and Demory 1998 English sole Primarily shallow water less than 100m over soft-bottom marine and estuarine sediments, fine sand and mud substrate Coast-wide; directed, bycatch PFMC 2005A Petrale sole Common on the outer slope at around m over sand, sandy-mud, and mud substrate CA to the GOA; directed, bycatch PFMC 2005A 53

55 Ecosystem Effects Trawling in the waters off Alaska has had documented effects on both the physical and biogenic habitats associated with the seafloor, including changes to community structure and potential effects on prey (NMFS 2004a). The large amount of biomass removed from the Bering Sea may have an impact on community structure and be a contributing factor in the recent shift to a pelagic system dominated by pollock (NRC 1996). Fixed gear such as longlines and pots has also been shown to affect the benthos, but it is unlikely that these fisheries have resulted in widespread ecosystem effects (NMFS 2004a). Other potential ecosystem effects include the removal of species that are prey for seabirds (NMFS 2004a). Steller sea lions 1 Groundfish fisheries in the BSAI and GOA remove large quantities of fish from the ecosystem, thereby reducing the amount of prey available to Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus). More importantly, there may be population effects as a result of local depletion, particularly due to the small available biomass in certain locations (NMFS 2003). Steller sea lions are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA), as well as the US Endangered Species Act (ESA). In Alaska, the western population of Steller sea lions is listed as Endangered under the ESA, while the eastern population is listed as Threatened. Both top-down (e.g., increased predation by killer whales) and bottom-up (e.g., nutritional stress) factors have been hypothesized as playing a role in the decline of Steller sea lions. A comprehensive report published by the National Research Council in 2003 concluded that nutritional stress is unlikely to represent the primary threat to recovery of Steller sea lions but that there is insufficient evidence to fully exclude fisheries as a contributing factor to the continuing decline (NRC 2003). Flatfish make up a relatively large component of the exploitable biomass of BSAI groundfish, either to fisheries or to other (typically) high trophic level predators such as marine mammals (Figure 30). However, other species such as pollock, Atka mackerel, salmonids, and Pacific cod have been shown to be the most common prey items for Steller sea lions (Sinclair and Zeppelin 2002). 1 For a more detailed discussion of the Steller sea lion decline, please see the Seafood Watch Pollock Report at 54

56 Pollock AI 2% Pollock Bogoslof 1% Sablefish 0% Others 4% Atka mackeral 3% Rockfish 4% Pacific Cod 7% Pollock EBS 49% Flatfish 30% Figure 30: Exploitable biomass of BSAI groundfish, 2005 (DiCosimo 2005). Synthesis The impact on the seabed of a fishery is a function of the gear used and the resilience of the habitat over which fishing is occurring. Bottom trawl fisheries account for the vast majority of landings of Pacific flatfish by US and Canadian fishermen, although a small percentage is landed by bottom longline in Alaska (primarily Greenland turbot). Flatfish typically inhabit relatively soft bottom habitats such as mud and sand, from the coastline to the deep waters of the continental slope. Trawls that target species in shallow water with resilient habitats such as sand or gravel likely have moderate habitat impacts, while those in deep or shallow water mud habitats cause more severe effects. Fixed gear such as bottom longlines have less of an impact on the bottom habitat than bottom trawls but likely still have a moderate impact on deep water flatfish habitat (such as that for Greenland turbot). The ecosystem effects of removing large quantities of groundfish from the BSAI and GOA have been explored, although there is not sufficient evidence that this factor alone has resulted in the decline of Steller sea lions. Thus, the habitat impacts of trawling for yellowfin sole, rock sole, Alaska plaice, Pacific sanddab, sand sole, and starry flounder, and longline fishing for Greenland turbot is deemed of moderate conservation concern, while the impacts of trawling for arrowtooth flounder, flathead sole, rex sole, Dover sole, English sole, and petrale sole are deemed of serious conservation concern. 55

57 Conservation Concern: Habitat and Ecosystem Effects Bottom longlines Trawl-caught yellowfin sole, rock sole, Alaska plaice, Pacific sanddab, sand sole and starry flounder Moderate (Fishing Effects Moderate) Trawl-caught arrowtooth flounder, flathead sole, rex sole, Dover sole, English sole and petrale sole High (Fishing Effects Severe) Criterion 5: Effectiveness of The Management Regime US Flatfishes and their associated fisheries are managed by the respective states in waters out to three miles from shore. From 3 to 200 miles offshore, the US exclusive economic zone (EEZ), management of flatfish falls under the jurisdiction of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). In conjunction with NMFS, the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) regulates federal fisheries off California, Oregon and Washington, and the North Pacific Fishery Management Council (NPFMC) manages Alaska s federal flatfish resources. Generally, the state governments impose regulations consistent with the federal regulations (and sometimes stronger), as many stocks straddle the 3-mile boundary. When state regulations are in question they can be subjected to preemption by NMFS. Due to their nearshore distribution, recreational fishing and live-fish fisheries (primarily rockfish) most often fall under state management. US West Coast Flatfish comprise 12 of the 82 species managed by the PFMC under the Groundfish Fishery Management Plan (FMP). Under the FMP, species are generally managed using a number of measures including harvest guidelines, quotas, trip and landing limits, area restrictions, seasonal closures, and gear restrictions (such as minimum mesh size for nets and small trawl footrope requirements for landing shelf rockfish). The Groundfish FMP was implemented in 1982, and has been amended 17 times as of the writing of this document (November 2005). Amendments 18 and 19 were currently in draft form. Most commercial participation in the Pacific Coast groundfish fishery is managed through a limited entry system established by PFMC in 1994 (NMFS 1999). Catch is regulated by annual quotas (harvest guidelines), size limits, and species-to-species ratio restrictions. Catch rates are regulated by individual limits on catch, which have evolved from trip limits for some species, beginning in 1983, to cumulative period landings limits for each of several species today. These limits are reviewed in-season to keep the annual catch close to the annual quota while allowing year-round fishing opportunities. Other regulations, such as gear and area/season restrictions, are also used to reduce bycatch (NMFS 1999). The PFMC breaks the West Coast fishing regions geographically into two major management areas: Vancouver-Columbia port complexes in the north (i.e., north of N latitude), and Eureka- Monterey-Conception complexes in the south. All flatfish species other than Dover sole are managed as other flatfish ; these species, except for rex sole, do not have species-specific trip limits. Trip limits are set by region, month, and gear type, including specific and different trip 56

58 limits for small (<8 ) and large footrope trawls (Stewart 2005). Within this group, the four species that have been assessed Dover sole, English sole, petrale sole, and starry flounder have coastwide quotas based on Allowable Biological Catch (ABC) calculations, which are then apportioned between different areas in at least some cases (e.g., English sole, petrale sole) (Stewart 2005; Lai et al. 2005). Stock assessments Individual and multi-species quotas are imposed based on stock assessment and fishery evaluation reports, consisting of fishery-dependent and/or independent (NMFS surveys) data and published by the regional councils. Once an estimate of biomass is obtained, the ABC and harvest guidelines (HG) are set based upon existing harvest policies. However, stock assessments have only been carried out on the four most commercially-important species (Dover sole, English sole, petrale sole, and starry flounder); arrowtooth flounder, the second-most landed flatfish species on the US West Coast in 2004, has not been assessed. Rockfish conservation/rebuilding measures All seven species of rockfish that have been declared overfished are now on rebuilding plans, which are expected to take a half century or more for some species. Allowable landings of the overfished species have been drastically reduced (harvest reductions began long before the stocks were put onto rebuilding plans), and are now close to zero for most rockfish species (Figure 31). Overall groundfish harvest has been significantly reduced as well, to the point that the PFMC now recognizes the need for sharp reductions in fleet capacity across the entire industry (Groundfish Fishery Strategic Plan, Transition to Sustainability 1 ). Figure 31: Harvest reductions in overfished rockfish since 1997 (the year of implementation of the SFA) (Hastie, pers. comm., 2005). The PFMC has also created groundfish conservation areas, closed areas designed to restrict fishing in the areas that harbor most of the biomass of the overfished rockfish species (Figure 32). Since 2000, the entire shelf from 100 to 150 fathoms from the US-Mexico border to the US-Canada border has been closed to trawling, an area of roughly 5,500 square miles. Other trawl Rockfish Conservation Areas (RCAs) have extended from the shore to 250 fathoms in some periods. Both California and Washington have prohibited trawling for groundfish in state waters, and fishing for

59 groundfish with any gear is prohibited in state waters (0-3 nautical miles from shore) around California s Farallon Islands and Cordell Banks (Figure 32). Trawling for groundfish is also prohibited in a 5,300 square mile area off California designed to protect cowcod. Between 55% and 95% of biomass of the overfished species is found in areas that are now closed, according to trawl surveys in the 1990s (Figure 33). In addition, the PFMC has also prohibited footropes larger than 8 inches, restricted chafing gear in all waters on the landward side of the coast-wide RCA (150 fathoms), and restricted the use of fixed gear such as pots and longlines in some areas. To ensure compliance with area closures, there is an electronic Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) on all limited entry fishing vessels (including all trawl vessels targeting groundfish). Figure 32: Trawl closure areas off the US West Coast (Hastie, pers. comm. 2005). Trawling is now prohibited in California and Washington state waters, in the coast-wide continental shelf RCA (in red below) and the Cowcod Conservation Area off California. Trawl ground gear shoreward of the shelf RCA is limited to 8, that seaward of the RCA is unrestricted. 58