Data Support Scotland

Transcription

1 Data Support Scotland RED DEER IN SCOTLAND Compiled by Carol Inskipp This data support sheet is one of a series on environmental issues in Scotland which have been compiled as up-to-date resources for teachers. It provides material for use in Standard Grade Science, Geography and Biology, in Higher Grade Geography and Biology, and in Further Education. CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 2 2. CURRENT LEGISLATION AND MANAGEMENT Views on Effectiveness of Current Red Deer Management 4 3. RECENT POPULATION CHANGES Scottish Red Deer Population (estimated) 3.2 Red Deer Densities 5 4. CARRYING CAPACITY, SELF-REGULATION AND PERFORMANCE Examples of Density Dependent Responses in Deer 6 5. CULLING Welfare and Methods of Culling 8 6. RED DEER AS A RESOURCE Red Deer As Part of Upland Ecosystems Red Deer and Sport THREATS TO RED DEER Introductions Sika Deer Interactions with Sheep Deer Farms Loss of Wintering Habitat RED DEER AS A SOURCE OF CONFLICT Agriculture Forestry Natural Heritage Traditional Estate Management Muirburn Fencing Access and Recreation Road Accidents Local Communities Glenfeshie Case Study RED DEER MANAGEMENT Examples of Management for the Natural Heritage Management for Sport Auchlyne Estate Views on Deer Management Red Deer Management in Norway Hunt Report Recommendations for Scottish Deer Management 24 GLOSSARY 25 REFERENCES 25 USEFUL WEBSITES 27 LINKS WITH THE SYLLABUS 28 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 28 WWF WORKING IN SCOTLAND 28 * indicates inclusion in the glossary text in italics indicates points of view WWF Data Suport Sheet

2 1. INTRODUCTION The red deer Cervus elaphus is the largest wild mammal in Scotland and has been present since at least the end of the last Ice Age, 11,000 years BP*. It is an integral part of the upland ecosystems* which we see in Scotland today. At one time it shared the forests and hills with several other large mammal species which have since become extinct: the reindeer in 9,700 BP, although it was reintroduced recently and now occurs in small numbers in the Cairngorms; the elk 9,500 BP, the brown bear 1,500 BP, the wild boar 350 years ago and the wolf 250 years ago. Red deer were formerly abundant in the extensive woodlands which covered most of Scotland, but their range* began to contract c.5,000 years ago due to forest clearance by people. In the following centuries, historical evidence suggests that the red deer range* continued to contract due to forest clearance for agriculture, hunting and the introduction of sheep on hill grazings. The low point for red deer populations* in Scotland was probably reached in the mid to late 1700s. In the 19th century numbers increased as the stalking of deer* become a fashionable sport for the rich and laws were passed to give the owner of the land an exclusive right to kill them. Wealthy people from home and abroad bought large areas of land which were specifically used for deer stalking. These deer forests - managed ranges on open hills - nearly doubled in extent between 1883 and 1912, reaching a peak of over 1.5 m ha. Most red deer now live in open hill habitats* all year, although increasing numbers are inhabiting plantations. In recent years in the modified habitat of the Scottish Highlands, red deer numbers have increased so that today they are, in some areas, contributing to a marked deterioration in the quality of Scotland s upland environment*. Sources: Based on Callander and MacKenzie (1991), Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), WWF Scotland (1994). RED DEER DISTRIBUTION Source: Scottish Natural Heritage (1994). 2

3 2. CURRENT LEGISLATION AND MANAGEMENT Deer are wild animals and while they are alive, belong to no-one. However landowners have the exclusive right to shoot the deer on their land with some exceptions where deer cause damage on tenants land. Landowners therefore have the main responsibility for red deer management. DEER (SCOTLAND) ACT 1996 The Deer (Scotland) Act 1996 succeeds the original Deer (Scotland) Act 1959, which, with various amendments, provided the basic framework for the management of wild deer in Scotland. The 1996 Act marked an important milestone in the development of deer legislation. Among the provisions of the Act were the definition of close seasons* (also defined under the original Deer (Scotland) Act), and the establishment of the Deer Commission for Scotland which replaced the Red Deer Commission. DEER COMMISSION FOR SCOTLAND The Deer Commission for Scotland (DCS) has primary responsibilities to further the conservation, control and sustainable management of deer in Scotland and to keep under review all deer matters, including their welfare. The DCS has duties to take account of the size and density of the deer population and its impact on the natural heritage; the needs of agriculture and forestry, and the interests of owners and occupiers of land. The sustainable management of deer and the natural heritage are important responsibilities for the Commission. The Red Deer Commission only had powers to take action over agriculture and forestry interests. However under the 1996 legislation landowners could now be obliged to reduce deer numbers where high numbers of deer are damaging conservation* interests. In 2004, the Commission asked the Scottish Executive for a new power that would enable them to ensure that deer were culled when they were damaging the environment*. The Commission argued that the powers it has under 1996 Act are too complex. DEER MANAGEMENT GROUPS Deer Management Groups are voluntary organisations consisting of representatives of public and private owners of land. Each group acts as a forum to better inform landowners and managers and encourage more collaborative deer management. There are currently over 50 groups that cover some 90% of the open hill deer range. Each group covers an area which corresponds to the range of more or less distinct sub-populations of deer and aims to co-ordinate deer management policies in that area. The groups co-ordinated approach to red deer management is vital as the deer are not confined to estate boundaries. The work of the Deer Management Groups involve making annual counts, agreeing culling levels, 3

4 promoting information exchange, preventing local damage, developing deer management plans and carrying out habitat surveys. The Deer Commission for Scotland has invested considerable resources over the years to help set up Deer Management Groups and support their operation. Source: Based on Deer Commission for Scotland (1997a), Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), SCENES (1994, 2004a). DEER MANAGEMENT PLANS In order to encourage Deer Management Groups to become more involved in deer management, the Deer Commission Scotland produced a Guidelines for a Deer Management Plan in 1999 and together with Scottish Natural Heritage the Commission helped the Deer Management Groups to prepare Deer Management Plans for their areas. To date a minimum of seven plans have been produced and more are in preparation. BEST PRACTICE GUIDES The Deer Commission Scotland, in partnership with Forest Enterprise, the British Deer Society and others are involved in a major initiative to define standards of Best Practice for all aspects of deer management. These will be delivered in the form of guides based on current information and validated by industry groups. These guides are intended to become the standard to which all those involved in deer management should adhere. It is envisaged that these guides will be a management tool, providing a benchmark against which all management activities can be measured. Source: Association of Deer Management Groups website. Source: Hunt (2003). 2.1 VIEWS ON EFFECTIVENESS OF CURRENT RED DEER MANAGEMENT WWF/RSPB 2003 REPORT The Deer Commission for Scotland has limited powers and resources to achieve its statutory responsibilities. It has to rely largely on the voluntary principle to achieve responsible deer management and as a result has not been able to halt the rise in deer populations. There is general agreement that Deer Management Groups have been a very positive development helping to improve communication between members. However their effectiveness in achieving sound deer management and in resolving conflict situations is limited. For example less than half the groups have achieved cull targets advised by the Deer Commission for Scotland in recent years, despite the fact that these targets have been set on sporting rather than environmental grounds. Deer Management Plans are confidential documents, but indications to date are that they are variable in quality with generalised objectives and are limited in scope focussing mainly on the sporting requirements of the group members. Source: Hunt (2003) STUDY IN NATURE This study published in the scientific journal, Nature, says that claims that the number of deer in Scotland has reached crisis point because of poor management are exaggerated. Countryside managers should also look at the impact of sheep grazing on threatened ecosystems and their regeneration. The gradual rise in red deer numbers since 1970 may be due to changes in winter weather rather than a reduction in culling rate. Although there could be some environmental benefits to the mountain landscape from a reduction of deer numbers, there is an equal need to reduce the number of sheep. It is unlikely that recent increases in red deer numbers have been caused by a relaxation in management, as annual culls have been substantially higher since Source: Clutton-Brock et al. (2004), SCENES (2004b). 4

5 3. RECENT POPULATION CHANGES 3.1 SCOTTISH RED DEER POPULATION (ESTIMATED) 500, , ,000 Red Deer Population 350, , , , , ,000 50, Year Source: Figures taken from the Red Deer Commission (1989) and updated by Hunt (2003). Deer numbers are notoriously difficult to estimate and there is some disagreement over the current Scottish population. According to the Red Deer Commission estimates, the population doubled from c.150,000 in the early 1960s to c.300,000 by the late 1980s. The population is still rising. A 2003 WWF/RSPB report estimated that the current population is at record levels at over 400,000 deer and possibly significantly higher. A 2004 study in the journal, Nature, says that Scottish red deer numbers are not increasing as rapidly as has been claimed. A large part of the apparent increase is due to the apparent tripling of the estimated number of deer living in woodland, where they cannot be counted reliably. When figures are restricted to deer living on the open hill (where numbers can be estimated more reliably) our analysis indicates the increase has been much more gradual since The revised figure reduces the WWF/RSPB report estimate to 350,000 deer. The director of the Deer Commission for Scotland said, Nobody really knows how many there are and we don t particularly need to. What we do need to do is to look at impacts on the land, and that does have to take into account all grazing pressures. Sheep do need to be taken into account. A 1991 analysis of red deer populations in Red Deer Commission reports showed that the increase has been largely of hinds. Source: Callander and MacKenzie (1991), Based on Hunt (2003), Clutton-Brock et al. (2004), SCENES (2004b). 3.2 RED DEER DENSITIES In terms of their potential impact, densities of deer are a far more meaningful measure than absolute numbers. Densities are very variable ranging from 2.7 deer per 100 ha to 31.2 deer per 100 ha in Scotland. For most of the red deer range, animals are more concentrated during the winter when they are forced off the high ground by the weather. This means their range* in winter is reduced and their density is considerably higher than the above quoted figures. Source: Hunt (2003) using data from Deer Commission for Scotland reports. WHY HAS THE RED DEER POPULATION IN SCOTLAND INCREASED DURING THE LAST FORTY YEARS? Over this period, mild winters and dry summers, the increase in afforestation*, local declines in sheep numbers and under-culling of hinds are all factors that have probably helped the population increase. Another factor may be that through their browsing* and trampling which results in the replacement of heather by grasses, red deer may have increased the carrying capacity* of their habitat*, promoting an increase in numbers. Having a high density of deer on an estate improves the chances of seeing deer and finding deer to shoot and may therefore affect a landowner s enthusiasm for increasing a cull. From the point of view of management the critical factor is likely to have been the under-culling of hinds. Sources: Based on Clutton-Brock and Albon (1989), Watson (1989), Callander and MacKenzie (1991), Clutton-Brock (1999), Hunt (2003). 5

6 4. CARRYING CAPACITY, SELF-REGULATION AND PERFORMANCE It is not clear to what extent the population of wild red deer in Scotland is approaching the carrying capacity of its range. The extent to which further increases in population are possible is therefore unknown. The current population may be responding to the increasing pressures of population density, for instance through natural changes in fertility and juvenile survival, both of which decline as population density increases. This density dependence is a common feature of animal populations and has an important bearing on management for the sustainable harvesting* of deer. Source: Based on Scottish Natural Heritage (1994). 4.1 EXAMPLES OF DENSITY DEPENDENT RESPONSES IN DEER PERCENTAGE CHANGES IN MILK HINDS* % fecundity This graph shows percentage of milk hinds against rising density of hinds in the North Block of the island of Rum. In the graph % fecundity is the percentage of milk hinds which produced calves. The graph shows that as hind density increased the fecundity of milk hinds fell. No. of hinds using the study area Source: Clutton-Brock and Albon (1989). % juvenile mortality Male Female No. hinds using study area MORTALITY IN FIRST TWO YEARS OF LIFE This graph shows mortality among males and females in the red deer population* in North Block of Rum. It shows that mortality during the first and second winters of life increases with population density of hinds, especially in stag calves. The different survival rates of stag and hind calves perpetuates the imbalance between hind and stag numbers. Source: Based on Clutton-Brock and Albon (1989). 6

7 MEDIAN* WEIGHT OF SINGLE CAST ANTLERS Antler weight (g) This graph shows the weight of antlers of 7-year (ie adult) stags in the North Block of Rum in relation to the number of hinds using the study area. High population* densities inhibit growth. For example antler weight of stags decreases with increasing population density of hinds, see graph opposite. No. hinds using study area Forest living populations o Open hill populations FERTILITY OF YEARLING RED DEER % yearlings pregnant This graph show fertility in Scottish populations in relation to habitat. NB This is an example of the influence of habitat, not density on deer performances. The graph shows that for a given density, fertility rates are consistently higher in forest-living populations than in those inhabiting the open hill. Biomass of deer (kg km 2) Source: Clutton-Brock and Albon (1989). As well as superior reproductive performance, red deer in woodland habitat have also been shown to achieve higher growth rates, higher adult body weights and larger antlers compared with red deer on the open hill. Sources: Mitchell et al. (1977,1981), Clutton-Brock and Albon (1989) in Scottish Natural Heritage (1994). 7

8 5. CULLING Culling* of red deer is necessary to maintain the deer population at a level which is suitable for its habitat, other wildlife, the natural heritage*, the needs of farmers, foresters, stalkers and others, and many would argue for the good of the deer themselves. The loss of the deer s natural predators is also a factor contributing to the need for culling. There are currently three types of cull: sport (deer shooting for sport by owners, their guests and clients), protection (to protect agriculture and forestry interests) and management (the removal of sick and injured or generally poorly developed individuals). There is also a small illegal cull - poaching*. Natural mortality also occurs and this increases with deer density. Source: Based on Callander and MacKenzie (1991). Large populations of red deer can halt forest regeneration, and culling is the only solution. WWF-Canon/Paul GLENDELL 5.1 WELFARE AND METHODS OF CULLING When deer are at higher densities they are at greater risk of lingering death by starvation during a severe winter. Culling to maintain the population at a lower density will reduce this risk and the condition of the individual animals is likely to improve. Culling is usually carried out by traditional stalking. This entails locating individual animals on foot and reaching a position from which the quarry can be humanely shot. Hinds and stags are shot during the stalking seasons (21 October - 15 February and 1 July - 20 October respectively). The timing of the close season* and the need for a close season are debatable. There are welfare considerations, for example it is unacceptable to shoot hinds with young calves. However, there is growing interest in other methods of culling, including shooting at night when the animals can be approached for a closer shot. Live capture is also being developed by some estates. Deer are encouraged to feed in an open field over several weeks, then the gate is closed and the deer are herded into pens where they can be humanely killed. This method has many welfare advantages, including a reduction to disturbance of deer on the hill and the elimination of any risk of wounded animals escaping after a poor shot. 8

9 THE TOTAL ANNUAL CULL OF RED DEER IN SCOTLAND (PROPORTIONS TAKEN BY DIFFERENT INTERESTS) Source: Callander and MacKenzie (1991). The culling of deer is a significant factor in red deer ecology. Mainly as a result of traditional estate management, the number of hinds culled has often been lower than the rate of recruitment throughout much of Scotland. Cull figures have only exceeded recruitment in 1992/993 and in 1998/99. The total annual cull increased substantially from c.24,000 animals in 1973 to a peak of 72,281 in 1998/99. Since then the total cull has fallen and the 2002/03 cull (55,175 animals) was the lowest for six years, despite the continuing overall population increases. Reasons for the drop are under investigation. See graph of numbers of deer shot annually in Scotland. Culling rates will need to be maintained if the population growth is to be controlled. Sources: Based on Clutton-Brock and Albon (1989), Red Deer Commission (1993), Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), Deer Commission for Scotland (2003), Hunt (2003). NUMBERS OF RED DEER SHOT ANNUALLY IN SCOTLAND 80,000 No. of Red Deer shot annually 70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10, /74 77/78 82/83 87/88 92/93 96/97 98/99 00/01 Years 02/03 Source: Scottish Natural Heritage (1994) from estate returns; RDC annual reports, Deer Commission for Scotland reports, Hunt (2003). 9

10 6. RED DEER AS A RESOURCE 6.1 RED DEER AS PART OF UPLAND ECOSYSTEMS OPEN HABITATS The relationship between red deer and vegetation is unclear at present because the deer tend to eat the same plant species as sheep. However it is likely that red deer help to maintain open habitats of heather and grass which many people value as an important part of the uplands of Scotland. Such open habitats favour bird species of high conservation value, such as golden plover and dunlin. Source: Based on Scottish Natural Heritage (1994). WOODLAND HABITATS Woodlands in the uplands can benefit from light grazing by large herbivores* such as red deer. These animals can produce and maintain structural and species diversity* of both plant communities* and the woodland fauna* which depend on them. Ground disturbance by grazing animals also creates niches* for tree seedlings to become established. However, deer eat tree seedlings too, and in excessive numbers may prevent any from growing. Source: Based on Mitchell and Kirby (1990). RED DEER AS A SOURCE OF CARRION* Red deer corpses provide a source of food for a variety of upland vertebrates, for example the golden eagle. In winter the bird s diet over much of its range in Scotland is predominantly sheep and deer carrion. The amount of food available in winter, notably carrion, may be the single most important factor determining the number of pairs of eagle that a given area can support. Sources: Based on Watson et al. (1987) in Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), Watson et al. (1992). AESTHETICS Watching wild deer is an experience unique in the British Isles and one that is greatly enjoyed by visitors and stalkers alike. On the other hand, by contributing to the decline of native* woodlands, these same animals are promoting the loss of an important part of the upland landscapes from which people also gain considerable pleasure and economic benefit. Source: Scottish Natural Heritage (1994). 6.2 RED DEER AND SPORT Being large animals, red deer provide a great deal of highprotein, low-fat meat and have been a popular quarry for hunters since the colonisation of Scotland after the last Ice Age. During the medieval period large-scale deer drives were undertaken and up to 300 animals a day were killed. This method of hunting continued until the end of the 18th century and together with the loss of forest habitat and competition with sheep, contributed to the probable low red deer population in Scotland in the mid to late 1700s. Today s stalking methods originated in the mid 19th century. As a result of increased wealth (generated outside the Highlands), developments in sporting firearms and social fashion, estates were bought by wealthy individuals. In contrast to the hunting methods of previous centuries, in which deer were driven, stalking was, and continues to be, highly selective, with the emphasis almost entirely on stags that are culled selectively leaving the best to breed. Sources: Based on Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), WWF Scotland (1994). ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF STALKING Today, deer forests or sporting estates form the most extensive land use in the Highlands and cover c.1.5m ha (c.19% of the land area of Scotland). They are chiefly used for stalking deer, grouse shooting and salmon fishing. There have been few studies made of the economics of the red deer sporting industry and these suggest that sporting estates are seldom profitable. In 1990 employment totalled an estimated 300 full time job equivalents. The employment by estates for red deer management has been in decline for most of the last 100 years, despite the increase in deer numbers. Very few estate staff work full time on red deer because of the lack of management other than the annual cull. Conservation bodies, such as Scottish Natural Heritage and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds that have bought sporting estates do provide additional jobs related to habitat management, monitoring and visitor provision over and above the deer control. Jobs associated with deer are mainly in remote rural areas where other employment may be hard to find and they are therefore of particular value. However this employment is spread thinly over the deer range. 10

11 Various studies have looked at the economic benefits of country sports in Scotland, but not specifically at deer stalking. A working group recently developed a coordinated approach to the marketing of country sports in the country. This group established that the total value of all country sports in Scotland, including deer stalking is around 200 million per year. In addition deer are an integral part of tourism and an important attraction for tourists to Scotland. In 2003 expenditure from tourism in Scotland totalled 4.4 billion and employed around 200,000 people. Sources: Callander and MacKenzie (1991), Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), Hunt (2003), Visit Scotland (2004). ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF VENISON* Venison production from sporting estates increased since 1969 from c.1,500 tons per annum to c.2,500 tons in recent years. It is an important output from the management of deer and helps to offset some of the costs involved. Most venison is exported and the price is largely driven by factors outwith Scotland. The value of venison swings wildly from year to year, and has varied between 45p per kg and 2.30 per kg over the past ten years. This instability is extremely difficult for the industry. The price of venison influences the number of hinds culled and the fact that prices have generally been low in recent years has not helped to encourage estates to achieve their cull targets. On the other hand much progress has been made in increasing UK consumption and introducing quality assurance. Scottish Quality Wild Venison is a joint venture amongst Forest Enterprise, the Association of Deer Management Groups and others to raise standards. High quality at all stages in the process from stalking through to the market is needed if wild venison is to compete with farmed venison. Source: Based on Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), Hunt (2003). 7. THREATS TO RED DEER 7.1 INTRODUCTIONS Introductions of deer, particularly during the 19th century from England, Europe and North America undermined the genetic integrity of native* red deer. While these introductions were generally on a small scale, they were widespread geographically. In the absence of detailed genetic studies it is impossible to assess the extent of the effects of these introductions. 7.2 SIKA DEER Sika deer Cervus nippon also pose a serious threat to the genetic integrity of wild red deer stocks. Between 1879 and 1910 these Asiatic deer escaped from several Scottish deer parks and since 1930, Scottish sika populations have expanded their range considerably. Recent research suggests that sika have hybridised considerably with red deer on the Scottish mainland. It has been suggested that in time pure red deer may only survive on some islands in Scotland. Unlike red deer, sika are largely confined to woodland, typically occurring in thickly wooded habitats. The thicket stages of commercial forests provide a highly suitable environment*. Control and management of deer populations are very difficult, particularly for sika which is considered to make better use of cover than red deer. Sika is also a very prolific breeder and is therefore more difficult to control than red deer. A policy for sika deer in Scotland was agreed in 1997 to protect woodlands, agriculture and the natural heritage. A major effort is being made to remove sika from the open hill. Extremely high levels of shooting are needed to control numbers effectively, with annual culls as high as 30-35% needed. These culling levels are rarely thought to be achieved and current control measures are not believed to be halting the spread of sika. Refuges for red deer that are free of sikas have been established on some of the islands off the west coast to prevent the release not only of sika, but of red deer that may have interbred with sika in the past. Sources: Based on Ratcliffe (1987a), Maclean (1993) in Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), Deer Commission for Scotland (1997b), Pemberton et al. (1998), Hunt (2003). 11

12 DISTRIBUTION OF SIKA DEER 1972 DISTRIBUTION OF SIKA DEER 1998 Source: Ratcliffe (1987a). Source: British Deer Society website 7.3 INTERACTIONS WITH SHEEP Red deer are the dominant herbivores in certain parts of the Highlands, especially in the central Cairngorms where their impact is severe. Elsewhere red deer share much of their range with about 2.3 million sheep. Sheep are the most abundant large grazing animal in the Scottish uplands. They outnumber red deer by 8:1 and cattle by 14:1. Even when converted to standard grazing livestock equivalents, sheep still have the greatest ecological impact. A recent study showed that across large areas of Scotland the combined populations of herbivores are too high to sustain the natural heritage. In many areas sheep and deer are found together and it is very difficult to separate their relative impacts. However there are large areas of the Highlands where there are few or no sheep and the only significant impact is from deer. Sheep can be excluded by 1 m high fences. Deer can easily jump this height, so 2 m fences are required to exclude them from forests or crops. Source: Based on Milne et al. (1998), Hunt (2003). 7.4 DEER FARMS Escapes from deer farms, of which there are about 70 in Scotland, with a stock of c.18,500 animals, also threaten the genetic integrity and health of native wild stocks. Selective breeding is likely to alter the wild genotype* which may be harmful to native stocks in the event of the inevitable escapes. These escapes also provide a potential means by which disease could be introduced into the wild population. Sources: Based on Clutton-Brock and Albon (1989), Callander and MacKenzie (1991), Scottish Natural Heritage (1994). 7.5 LOSS OF WINTERING HABITAT In winter, red deer typically select areas of lower ground which offer both grazing and shelter. Much traditional deer wintering ground has been lost to afforestation during the last 30 years. However resident woodland populations have become established in many plantations. The improvements in reproductive performance associated with these woodland habitats may have balanced the loss of wintering habitat, at least in some areas. 12 Source: Based on Callander and MacKenzie (1991), Scottish Natural Heritage (1994).

13 8. RED DEER AS A SOURCE OF CONFLICT The management of wild red deer in Scotland has been a contentious issue for some 200 years although the main factors involved have changed during this period. 8.1 AGRICULTURE Red deer can cause very significant damage to crops. During the second half of the 19th century, when both the area of land covered by deer forests and the deer population were increasing, the conflict became a political issue. Changes in farming practices in the uplands in recent years, particularly in the Highlands and Islands, have led to a marked decline in arable farming in favour of hill sheep and this has partly removed one source of conflict. It seems likely that the proportion of the total cull of red deer shot for agricultural protection is now less than during the period 1976 to 1990 when it averaged around 12% of the cull. In most crofting areas red deer are present, often at high densities and this means that crofters and residents have to protect their crofting lands and gardens with fencing, which is an additional cost in what are marginal areas for agriculture. Sources: Callander and MacKenzie (1991), Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), Hunt (2003). 8.2 FORESTRY If numbers of red deer are too high they can cause serious damage to unfenced commercial plantations by browsing* and bark-stripping. The red deer/forestry conflict began with the establishment of the Forestry Commission and the associated expansion of plantation forestry in the uplands, although the problem did not become apparent until the 1950s. Red deer are now resident in most plantations throughout Scotland with the number of forest-dwelling deer estimated to be around 100,000 deer. High culling rates of c.25-30% are probably needed to stabilise woodland populations. The practical difficulties of controlling deer in plantation woodlands are considerable and large sums of money are spent in attempts to achieve this. While these costs are to some extent offset by income generated from venison, stalking and trophy charges, the cost of the protection cull is considered greatly to exceed income from shooting in all Scottish forests. The Forest Enterprise budget for 2003/2004 shows total expenditure on deer management in Scotland as 5.92 million (including fencing) and an income of 1.06 million from stalking and venison, giving a net cost for the year of 4.85 million. Sources: Ratcliffe (1987b), Stewart (1988) and Red Deer Commission (1990) in Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), Hunt (2003). PRINCIPAL ECOLOGICAL & MANAGEMENT FACTORS FOR RED DEER Source: Mitchell et al. (1977). 13

14 8.3 NATURAL HERITAGE Scotland s natural heritage embraces the land and all its wildlife resources. Red deer are an intrinsic part of that natural heritage and they depend for their survival upon the health of the habitats within the deer range. As the range condition improves so does the condition and productivity of the deer. However because of the very large increase in their numbers, grazing and browsing by red deer, together with much burning of habitat and heavy grazing by sheep, have contributed to a marked decline in the quality of Scotland s upland environment. Source: Based on Scottish Natural Heritage (1994). NATIVE WOODLANDS Deer are an important component of the woodland ecosystem and low intensity grazing can be beneficial by increasing structural and botanical diversity and by creating suitable conditions for natural regeneration. Densities in the range of 2-6 red deer/100 has are considered compatible with woodland conservation. However densities are often much higher than this and are bad news for native woodlands. A recent overview found that native woodlands now cover only 4% of Scotland. Their extent and diversity have been much reduced largely by grazing and browsing and there is evidence that red deer alone are preventing regeneration* in some areas. The decline of Scotland s remaining native Caledonian pinewoods is typical. They were once a widespread habitat in Scotland and are internationally recognised as being of prime conservation importance. Studies suggest that in many of these woodlands little or no regeneration has taken place, in some cases for over 200 years. Many of the remaining fragments are approaching the end of their lives. High densities of deer will eventually remove any woodland understorey and reduce botanical diversity leaving only those plants that are able to withstand heavy grazing. Factors other than deer density will influence regeneration, such as sheep grazing, dense ground cover, altitude, location of seed sources and soil conditions. Where enclosures have been established near seed sources however, trees often regenerate, demonstrating the overriding importance of grazing. There are also examples where reducing or keeping out red deer have been encouraging, such as in the Creag Meagaidh National Nature Reserve. Source: Based on Cummins and Millar (1982), Watson (1983), MacKenzie (1999), SNH (1994), Ramsay (1997), Hunt (2003). HEATHER MOORLAND AND MONTANE HABITATS The loss of heather moorland in Scotland is also causing widespread concern, with a 23% decline in area having been recorded between the 1940s and 1980s. The causes of this loss include afforestation and conversion to 14 grasslands. Given that heather tends to undergo succession* to rough grassland under medium to high grazing and burning pressure, this change to grasslands is perhaps a result of over-grazing. However it is difficult to separate the effects of sheep, red deer and burning. Evidence for red deer causing widespread heather loss is inconclusive, although they can promote localised losses. For example, heather decline in upper Deeside is largely attributed to overgrazing by deer. There is also concern about deer impacts on montane willow scrub and tall herb communities (largely confined by grazing pressure to inaccessible ledges). In some areas in the Cairngorms, the sheer numbers of sheep and/or deer are destroying nests of the dotterel, a rare montane bird in Scotland - as many as 20-25% of nests have been trampled in one season. Sources: Miles (1985), Watson (1989), Francis et al. (1991), Thompson and Whitfield (1993), Scottish Natural Heritage (1994), Mackey et al. (1998). SOIL EROSION Available evidence suggests that grazing and trampling by sheep and deer are important factors in causing soil erosion in upland Scotland, though there is little specific evidence relating solely to deer. Further studies of soil erosion in the uplands are needed. Source: Hunt (2003). NATURE RESERVES Deer have been a long standing problem on a number of privately owned National Nature Reserves (NNRs) which have been established by agreements in the past, but where Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) does not have the sporting rights or control over deer management. SNH has recently undertaken a thorough review of its NNRs to ensure they still qualify for this status. Where NNRs fail these tests, they are being de-notified even though they have been NNRs for many years, NNRs whose future is in doubt because of deer impacts and the inability of SNH to deal with them include Inverpolly, Inchnadamph in the north-west Highlands (one of the most important natural heritage sites in northern Scotland), and parts of the Cairngorms. Source: Hunt (2003). WATER CATCHMENTS Heavy grazing up to 30 m from a watercourse can adversely affect water quality as well as causing erosion of river banks. Reduction in deer numbers in affected areas would be desirable, although often that will need to be accompanied by sheep reductions. Implementation of the Water Framework Directive will require water courses to be maintained in favourable condition and may well have implications for the management of grazing. Source: Hunt (2003).

15 8.4 TRADITIONAL ESTATE MANAGEMENT Central to the philosophy of traditional estate management (i.e. according to conventionally accepted practices) is the maintenance of large mature stag numbers for sport. This emphasis on stags may also reflect the fact that estate capital values are traditionally based largely on the value of sport shooting, calculated on the number of stags, grouse and salmon shot or caught. Traditional estate management has lead to hinds being under-culled. High hind numbers on many estates have been encouraged, partly by default (the value of hinds as a sporting resource is limited to c. 150 each, compared with c. 275 for stags), and partly because high hind numbers are believed necessary to provide high numbers of stags. However, given the evidence that high hind densities suppress stag survival and condition, the under culling of hinds has contributed to the increasing, and female-biased, red deer population. Considerable efforts have been made by some estates in recent years to reduce the numbers of hinds. Traditional estate management has been unwittingly eroding the very resource it has been attempting to encourage i.e. stags with impressive antlers. Some aspects of past deer management practices were based on wrong assumptions, but these were the accepted wisdom at the time and were followed in good faith. The present red deer problem reflects a failure on the part of both estate managers and the scientific community. The latter has failed to communicate effectively the results of red deer research to land-owners and stalkers. For their part, some people involved in estate management have clung to tradition, however misguided. However some estate managers and scientists are now working very closely on projects which are endeavouring to provide a sound basis for decisions affecting the management of deer populations and the range which they occupy. Source: Based on Scottish Natural Heritage (1994). In the past the principal upland management objectives were usually either to maximise the sporting or the sheep - many new land management objectives exist today including landscape, general tourism/access, general conservation and commercial timber production. The British Deer Society tries to teach a balanced message, i.e. that deer should find a place in any land economy and that over concentration on any single objective to the detriment of the deer is usually a mistake. Source: Hugh Rose, Secretary, British Deer Society. 8.5 MUIRBURN Muirburn, in which a proportion of ground is burnt each year, is undertaken on many Highland deer forests to remove dead vegetation and to encourage young nutritious growth for grouse, sheep or deer. Burning of small strips on a rotational basis is encouraged to ensure the same patches of ground are not burned too frequently. The standard of muirburn on deer forest is however often poor and this can harm deer and other interests. For example, fires that burn too hot, at high altitudes or on steep slopes can slow down the regeneration of species that the deer like to eat and increase the risk of soil erosion. Muirburn is also incompatible with the regeneration of native woodland, with the possible exception of a single burn at the beginning to provide good conditions for seedlings. There appear to be no published figures assessing the scale of poor muirburn practice. Scottish Natural Heritage published a Muirburn Code in 1993 that provides advice on good practice and the law regarding muirburn. The code was last updated in 2002 and is currently being reviewed. Source: Based on Phillips et al. (1993), SNH (1994). 8.6 FENCING Deer fencing can, in some cases, serve a useful purpose for controlling deer, helping to achieve environmental objectives and preventing deer causing a public hazard. However the full range of options for controlling deer should be considered taking into account effectiveness for purpose and possible impacts on public safety, deer welfare, biodiversity, landscape, cultural heritage and recreation. Where fencing is considered appropriate, fences should be designed to minimise their impact on these interests. Fencing should be seen as part of a wider programme of deer management and fences should not be erected for longer than necessary. Deer fence (to exclude deer), with old growth and regeneration of the forest inside, but no regeneration outside. Glenfeshie. WWF-Canon/Paul GLENDELL 15

16 8.7 ACCESS AND RECREATION NUMBER OF RESCUES The number of rescues is considered one of the indices of the level of mountain recreation Source: Mackey et al. (2001). Year Those involved in deer management have long been concerned about unregulated public access on land occupied by deer. As outdoor recreation, such as hill walking, has increased and the deer range has extended these concerns have grown. A 1992 Scottish Natural Heritage study found there is no evidence that red deer populations are adversely affected by increased disturbance, although they will redistribute into other areas. The study also concluded that there was no evidence that culls were not being achieved because of visitor disturbance. For example the RSPB at Abernethy has been able to achieve high deer culls despite the area being well known and heavily visited by the public. However some estates have reported that the quality of stalking has declined because of regular disturbance and this has resulted in culls being less selective. Public access will continue to raise concerns with deer managers. Disturbance increases herding of deer that can make control more difficult. Welfare is an important consideration, and any stress before, or during calving, should be kept to a minimum. The main concern is during the stag stalking season. Recent access legislation formalises the public s right to large unrestricted access though that has been the situation in practice on the open hill for many years. The new Scottish Outdoor Access Code is being widely promoted to inform and educate the public on the correct behaviour regarding land uses such as stalking. The Hill Phones System has proved successful. Stalking estates leave an answerphone message about where they will be stalking, which hill walkers can then phone for information. It operates over a small, but increasing area of the Highlands each year. 8.8 ROAD ACCIDENTS Road traffic accidents are now considered a major concern affecting deer welfare and public safety. The accidents are being caused by increasing numbers of both deer and traffic. The number of accidents caused by deer in the UK area is estimated conservatively to be 20,000 to 42,000 per year. The proportion of these accidents taking place in Scotland is not known, but is likely to be significant in view of the high deer populations. It is estimated that a minimum of nine deaths and ten serious injuries were caused in Scotland during a five year period as a result of deer/ traffic accidents. The Deer Commission for Scotland is currently looking at a small number of black spots and possible mitigation measures. Source: Hunt (2003). 8.9 LOCAL COMMUNITIES Local communities have few opportunities at present to influence deer management in their area and have no formal representation on Deer Management Groups. However deer can have a considerable impact locally on gardens (in many villages these have to be fenced) and farmland, and in some areas road traffic accidents involving deer, are increasing. Red and roe deer numbers and distribution have increased in Skye and are now causing a nuisance in some parts of the island, for example. Source: Hunt (2003). Source: Based on Staines and Scott (1994) writing for Scottish Natural Heritage, Mountaineering Council for Scotland (1999), Hunt (2003). 16

17 HOW SCOTLAND S RURAL COMMUNITIES PERCEIVE DEER In 2004 a study was made to pilot a methodology that would record and describe how members of the public currently perceive Scotland s deer. The study concluded that although there is variation in how members of rural Scotland perceive deer, the results suggest a certain percentage regard them as a danger on roads, an expensive nuisance in gardens and a potential pest to crofting interests. However these comments are not against deer per se, indeed many say how much they like deer, rather they appear to be a response to a perception that deer numbers have increased and that there are currently too many deer. The key theme to emerge from this short study was the risk of deer collisions on highland roads; this was closely followed by the damage caused to gardens. Few respondents described any concern with the potential impacts of high deer numbers on the wider countryside; instead they related deer to private interests and personal health. The small data size of this study means it is necessary to carry out a more extensive and intensive method that would allow for a more conclusive picture. Source: Gardner (2004) GLEN FESHIE CASE STUDY Red deer with Caledonian pine forest behind; a source of problems on Glenfeshie estate, as the deer prevent natural regeneration of the forest through over-grazing. WWF-Canon/Paul GLENDELL SUMMARY OF EVENTS The Deer Commission Scotland took the unprecedented step of carrying out a cull of over 500 red deer on the 42,200 acre Glenfeshie Estate early in This controversial action was taken to protect areas of naturally regenerating native pinewoods under threat from red deer. An emergency cull of 79 deer was carried out in February when 300 hinds moved to lower ground. The Commission later helped the estate owner to cull another 460 deer to reduce the red deer population that was bigger than expected. Soon after almost 100 gamekeepers from 60 sporting estates across Scotland staged a protest against the cull. Following this, Scotland s Deputy Environment Minister ordered an enquiry into the deer cull. It was found that while the culls were justified to protect the native pinewoods, best practice guidelines were not followed for all culls and there was a lack of communication with some of the local people. Sources: Scottish Executive (2004), Ross (2004). 17

18 A representative from the Badenoch and Strathspey Conservation Group said, Glenfeshie is a jewel in the crown of the Cairngorms that has for too long been suffering from numbers of red deer that are unsustainable if the native woodland is to have the future it deserves. We fully support the Deer Commission for Scotland in working closely on deer management with the estate and in going to great lengths to patiently and honestly explain their role to members of the local community. When it comes to restoring native woodlands and natural tree lines, it is obvious that deer fencing is not the answer and I am sure, these days, many land managers and gamekeepers appreciate this. Source: SCENES (2004c). In startling scenes Deer Commission officials used legislation to call in helicopters and marksmen to slaughter 400 deer which were said to be threatening pine trees. The mass killing provoked a furious backlash from gamekeepers who later staged a demonstration on the estate owned by a Danish businessman. The keepers claimed the cull was much larger than officials said and complained it could lead to job losses and involved the shooting of heavily pregnant hinds. In an emotional statement, gamekeepers described the cull as a massacre. Countryside campaigners last night said they feared such massive culls could become widespread. The chairman of the Scottish Countryside Alliance said, We fully support the Deer Commission s role in controlling the number and movements of red deer. However from speaking to people living around Glenfeshie there was clearly a breakdown in communication not only on the estate itself, but also between the Commission and neighbouring estates and workers. This led to understandable and genuine concern among keepers and other estates over the impacts of the cull on their livelihood. It is likely that similar situations are going to happen again and we need to make sure they are done openly and transparently. Commercial deerstalking at Glenfeshie dates from 1812 when the cash-strapped Duke of Gordon allowed English hunters onto Glenfeshie and today hunters pay around 275 for a stag and 150 for a hind. But the contentious issue has split Highland lairds, who are divided over how best to manage the animals with claims that the stag has become embroiled in political arguments over land reform. In 2002 gamekeepers were ordered to shoot 2,300 stags, hinds and calves as an estate owner attempted to turn her 40,000 acre estate in the Monadhliath mountain range into a nature reserve for golden eagles, hill hares and capercaillie. A local landowner said, The environmentalist campaign to reduce the number of deer is in reality a class-based attack on the sporting estates. Those who blame erosion on excessive deer numbers want to return the Highlands to a pre-human condition. A rival laird and Dutch tycoon, who owns an 81,000 acre estate in Ross-shire has also criticised culling and called for the reintroduction of wolves, to reduce deer numbers. Research four years ago found 36% of people would support the wolf being released into the wild, with 20% undecided. However the percentage was lower in the Highlands. Meanwhile the Scottish Executive has faced repeated calls from wildlife campaigners and opposition Members of the Scottish Parliament to strengthen the Deer Commission s powers. Many environmental groups are hoping the Deer Commission for Scotland s season review will lead to a 50% rise in the number of animals killed, in an effort to limit the population. But the Scottish Gamekeepers Association insists hype surrounding deer figures is false, and that in some areas there has been a drop in numbers. The Association of Deer Management Groups, which represents many of the big sporting estates, also opposes any changes to the present [stalking] seasons. The secretary said, Land has been responsibly managed for many, many years and all estates work very hard towards maintaining sustainable numbers of deer. The Deer Commission, which has dismissed gamekeepers claims over events at Glenfeshie, said it was misleading to suggest herds of deer were over-running the country. The Director added, Glenfeshie was the first time we have had to use existing legislation to order an emergency cull, which was necessary to protect the area. This was not something we see happening more often and we are working with all concerned to address the issue of deer managemen. Source: Martin (2004) writing for The Sunday Express. 18