' FEEDING DEER AND ELK BY STATE GOVERNMENTS IN THE WESTERN U.S.A.

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1 FEEDING DEER AND ELK BY STATE GOVERNMENTS IN THE WESTERN U.S.A. RON DEAN,' Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Box 3488, Alpine, WY 83128, USA BRADLEY B. COMPTON, Idaho Fish and Game Department, Box 25, Boise, ID 83707, USA PHIL DOUGLAS, Utah Department of Natural Resources, 515 E 5300 S, South Ogden, UT 84405, USA JOHN ELLENBERGER, Colorado Division of Wildlife, 71 1 Independent Ave., Grand Junction, CO 81505, USA JOHN MCGOWAN, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, HWY 12, Naches, WA 98937, USA EDDIE MIQUEZ, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, North Powder, OR 97867, USA SCOTT WERBELOW, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Box 850, Pinedale, WY 82941, USA Abstract: State wildlife management agencies in several of the western states (Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Utah, and Wyoming) routinely feed mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus), Columbian black-tailed deer (0. h. colunzbianus,) white-tailed deer (0. virginianus virginianus), Roosevelt elk (Cewus elaphus roosevelti), and Rocky Mountain elk (C. e. nelsoni). This paper is a compilation of the status, magnitude, politics, benefits, associated problems, and future predictions regarding these programs. Government agencies have conducted supplemental feeding of wildlife for about 100 years in the western states. Records indicate elk were fed as early as 1907 near Pinedale, WY. Since that time, 93 permanent feeding sites have been established in the five states mentioned above. Approximately 29,400 elk and 5,500 deer are fed annually. In addition, 8,200 (free ranging) elk are fed at the National Elk Rekge in Jackson, Wyoming and the Deseret Land and Livestock in Utah. Some states also maintain alternate sites used for feeding during more severe winters. WESTERNSTATES AND PROVINCES DEER AND ELK WORKSHOP 52-9 Key words: Cewus elaphus nelsonii, C. e. rooseveltii, Columbian black-tailed deer, mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus, 0. h. columbianus, Rocky Mountain elk, supplemental feeding, Western North America, winter feeding As human populations grow, demands upon the land and wildlife resources increase. An associated problem is continuing loss or degradation of wildlife habitat. Land and wildlife managers have long recognized the interrelationship between development, loss of native ranges and diminished capacity to support wild populations. The term "wildlife management" infers man is manipulating various components of a natural system to affect the outcome. Degree of manipulation and techniques used depend on what is available and what is desired. At some point, attempts to alter a situation (habitat improvements, water developments, seeding, fire, fertilization, etc.) cannot provide sufficient habitat to support desired populations, alleviate depredation problems, and satis@ political concerns. In some cases, supplemental feeding becomes a management alternative to eliminating or reducing herds. Regardless of the reasons for feeding wildlife, or benefits obtained, many problems are associated with the practice. Feeding wildlife contradicts some of the most basic principals of maintaining natural systems. ' rdean@wgf.state.wy.us

2 Negative aspects of wildlife feeding have been known for many decades (Leopold, 1933, Carhart, 1943, Dasmann, 197 1). This paper provides information about circumstances under which deer and elk are fed in the western states and discusses status of these operations. The decision to feed deer or elk appears to be based more on local issues, land development patterns, availability of winter habitat, and laws rather than a difference in basic management philosophy. State wildlife agencies do not consider feeding a desirable option, however some have implemented feeding as a compromise to deal with difficult situations. Generally, states that feed oppose additional feeding sites as vigorously as the states that do not feed oppose feeding. The numbers of animals fed represent small portions of the ungulate populations within those states. Idaho feeds 1% of its elk and Oregon feeds about 2% of its elk and less than 2% of its deer. Utah feeds about 1% of its elk and Washington feeds about 13% of its elk. Wyoming feeds about 15% of its elk. These statistics illustrate feeding programs do not represent statewide philosophies but are associated more with local issues. History Feeding wild ungulates began around the turn of the 20~ century and has grown in relation to human encroachments upon native winter ranges, political regulations, damage problems, and a low public tolerance of starvation in wild animals. Brown (1947) reported the United States Forest Service and the State of Wyoming fed elk in In 1912, the National Elk Refuge was established in Jackson Hole, Wyoming to feed elk as human involvement with wintering elk increased. During the 1930's, Idaho and Wyoming began feeding elk in areas of deep winter snow where starvation was common. The Wyoming Game and Fish Department established several feeding sites (many temporary) during the 1940's in response to increasing damage problems. Utah also began an elk feeding operation at the Hardware Ranch in During the 1950's,,additional elk feedgrounds were established in Wyoming and near Yakima, Washington. Permanent feeding sites were established in the early 1960's in both Washington (elk) and Oregon (deer and elk). In the 1970's additional sites were established in Oregon and Wyoming. The last permanent feedground established by a state agency was Wyoming's Upper Greys River site, created in 1980 in response to low public acceptance of elk starvation on a winter range typified by deep snow. In 1983, the Deseret Land and Livestock Ranch in Utah, a private entity, began feeding fiee-ranging elk on its property. Occasionally, state wildlife agencies attempt to reduce mortalities during severe winters by implementing emergency feeding. Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming have conducted emergency winter-feeding operations at various times during the past 50 years. The most extensive took place during the winter of , when 39,950 deer and 27,760 elk were fed in Colorado. Political and Regulatory Encouragement to Feed Wildlife In some cases, (local or state) political entities have enacted laws and regulations that require or encourage wildlife management agencies to feed deer and elk. Other statutes can also affect decisions to manage or feed wildlife. In Wyoming, a state law requires the Game and Fish Department to pay for certain damages big and trophy game cause to private property. The Idaho legislature enacted a depredation/compensation law and earmarked money from deer, elk, and antelope license sales that can only be used for emergency feeding and prevention of depredation. In Oregon, the county in which the Elkhorn Wildlife Management Area is located

3 has enacted a comprehensive, land use plan that requires testing for 7 livestock diseases in up to 10% of the fed elk and deer. Current guidelines of the Oregon Department require animals that are trapped and relocated must also be tested for diseases. Another statute requires the Oregon Department to feed at the Elkhorn Wildlife Management Area to reduce conflicts with the private sector. In Oregon, legislative committees have considered several proposals requiring the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife to compensate landowners for damages caused by wildlife, although none have passed. Several statutes in Washington require the Department of Fish and Wildlife to reimburse property owners for certain damages caused by deer and elk. Another Washington law allows property owners to kill problem animals under certain circumstances. Both Colorado and Utah have laws that require the state to reimburse landowners for damage done by big game animals. However, neither state has resorted to permanent feedgrounds to mitigate damage problems, except establishment of the Hardware Ranch by Utah in Some state wildlife agencies have developed policies that provide direction regarding use of supplemental feeding as a management tool. In Colorado, feeding cannot be initiated to assist with damage prevention until other methods have failed and when the cost of damage would exceed cost of feeding. The Colorado policy allows feeding to reduce starvation losses only when 30% or more of the adult females would perish, based on estimates. The Colorado policy also prohibits feeding for any reason if chronic wasting disease (CWD) has been detected in the herd. The Wyoming Game and Fish Commission limits the number of elk fed at each site and has prohibited establishment of additional feeding sites. The Department employs additional practices to prevent damage, including use of eight-foot fences to exclude elk fiom private property, provision of fencing materials to landowners, hazing animals from damage situations, and administering depredation hunts. The Oregon Department's damage policy allows one or more of the following measures: the Department can provide landowners advice, fencing, seedlfertilizer, landowner hunting tags, landowner kill permits; or may remove problem animals by conducting depredation hunts or trapping and relocation operations. The Idaho Fish and Game Commission's policy authorizes winter-feeding if public safety or depredations cannot be resolved by other means or when excessive mortality could prevent recovery of the herd. Also, the Idaho Fish and Game Department, working with local advisory committees, has developed quantitative criteria that guide decisions on whether to initiate emergency feeding. These advisory committees serve as liaisons between public interests and the Department regarding feeding issues and public education. The policy of the Washington Department includes several strategies to deal with depredation issues: fencing, hazing, consultation with property owners, and various strategies for lethal control of problem animals. The Utah policy prohibits feeding unless needed to alleviate property damage, address public safety concerns (highways, urban interfaces), maintain parent stocks (prevent excessive losses), or relieve stress on big game populations dwing short-term emergencies. Positive Aspects of Feeding Maintenance of Herd Numbers, Reduced Starvation.-Feeding is generally done in areas where significant herd reductions would be necessary in the absence of feeding. These are commonly locations where native winter ranges have been impacted or depleted to the point they can no longer support desired numbers of animals without excessive land use conflicts or winter mortality the public may consider unacceptable. Such areas are commonly associated with deep snowfall and little accessible forage rather than political boundaries. Many areas that were once

4 important winter habitats or migration corridors have been in private ownership a long time. Human population growth and accompanying development of privately held parcels have diminished or eliminated extremely important habitats. Biologists in Wyoming estimate approximately 80% of the elk in herds supported by feeding would have to be eliminated if feeding were discontinued. Some herds in Oregon and Washington would also be eliminated or drastically reduced without feeding. Although supplemental feeding supports populations at elevated levels (based on available habitat), the practice enables managers to sustain stable populations as winter conditions fluctuate from mild to severe. The general public takes a negative view of starvation. Even though the public may not participate in discussions concerning feed ground issues, they tend to become very active and vocal when wild animals are seen starving. Reduced Competition.-Many winter ranges within the cwrent setting of land uses, are utilized at or near capacity. In some areas, feeding elk relieves pressure on nearby winter ranges used by fiee-ranging deer, elk and other species such as mountain sheep, moose, and pronghorn. Feeding may provide options for managing native ranges to sustain free ranging animals, while maintaining desired population levels above the existing capacity of the native ranges. Economic Considerations.-Feedgrounds have been operated 40 to 70 years in many areas of the West. As communities have grown and developed around them, feedgrounds and feedground elk have become directly or indirectly integrated into local and regional lifestyles and cultures. We estimate feedgrounds in western Wyoming generate more than 22 million dollars annually within local economies. The tourist industry has also benefited because tourists are attracted to view elk. The Utah Department maintains a visitor center and restaurant at the Hardware Ranch feeding site. Approximately 50,000 people visit the site each winter, affording the Utah Division of Wildlife an opportunity to educate the public about feeding and other wildlife management issues. The Washington Department estimates about 100,000 people view feedground elk in the Yakima area. About 90,000 people visit the Jewel1 Meadows Wildlife Area in northwest Oregon to view Roosevelt elk. The Elkhorn Wildlife Management Area receives an estimated 20,000 visitor-use days in northeast Oregon. The feedground near Alpine, Wyoming is a popular tourist attraction during winter and is promoted by the local chamber of commerce. Each winter, approximately 24,000 people view elk on the National Elk Refbge feedground in Jackson, Wyoming. Damage Prevention.-A principal reason why many feedgrounds exist is to prevent or reduce damage to private property. For approximately the past 80 years, agricultural operations have evolved with feedgrounds in many locations and, to a degree, have become dependent on them for protection from game damage. Feedgrounds help segregate deer and elk from private holdings. In some cases, livestock operations are located between summer and winter ranges or adjacent to native winter ranges. Activities associated with livestock operations (stored crops, standing crops, orchards, cattle feed lines, etc) can attract wintering wildlife. Feedgrounds have afforded a means to entice animals away from these operations, thereby reducing or eliminating conflicts. Also, residential developments on private lands have increased human populations within and adjacent to big game migration routes. Many subdivisions are fenced, 2-5 acre tracts with ornamental shrubs and landscaping, nearby golf courses, horses and other farm anirnas that are fed. All of these features can attract deer and elk, which area residents may not tolerate. Feedgrounds can assist in keeping animals away from these types of private holdings. Public Safety.-As elk and deer migrate to winter ranges at lower elevations, they commonly cross highways and enter urban interfaces where human safety becomes an issue. Feedgrounds

5 provide a means to limit the number of animals utilizing these locations, thereby reducing potentially hazardous circumstances. Disease.-The agriculture industry has become increasingly concerned about the possibility of disease transmission from wild elk to livestock. Feedgrounds help reduce the possibility of disease transmission fiom wildlife to livestock by keeping the 2 segregated. However, disease transmission can increase among wildlife that are concentrated on a feedground. Wildlife managers should be aware most diseases found in deer and elk today originated tom livestock. When wildlife and domestic animals commingle, the possibility of introducing additional diseases into wild populations always exists. Negative Aspects of Feeding Disease Considerations.-Disease issues associated with feedgrounds are the focus of increasing public and professional attention. Close contact among animals on feedgrounds greatly enhances the potential for the spread and perpetuation of diseases. These risks are a concern for wildlife managers, the general public, and the livestock industry. Livestock interests in Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Wyoming are concerned about the potential for transmission of brucellosis from feedground elk to cattle. Efforts by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to eliminate brucellosis are hampered, in part, by the existence of the disease within some feedground elk. Brucellosis is found in feedground elk in Wyoming and a small portion of eastern Idaho. The Wyoming Game and Fish Department is concerned new, more virulent diseases such as tuberculosis, could spread to feedgrounds fiom fiee-ranging elk that are exposed to game farm elk in Montana. Chronic wasting disease (CWD) exists in fieeranging elk and deer in eight states, and continues to spread. All states are concerned about potential impacts of the disease. Current predictions about the effects of CWD, should it reach elk feedgrounds, are speculative and varied. Although diseases are a substantial, biological problem associated with feedgrounds, persons who philosophically oppose feeding for reasons other than disease transmission also cite such concerns for political reasons. Perception that Habitat is Unimportant.- Individuals who would profit fiom developing winter ranges and reducing available habitats often consider artificial means of maintaining animal populations, for example by feeding, as a solution. Wildlife management agencies expend considerable time and money educating the public about the importance of intact habitats. Wildlife feeding can make it more difficult to convince laypeople that habitats are important. Loss of Migrations.-Not feeding animals on some winter ranges can have 2 possible outcomes: the animals will find sufficient forage to survive, or they will relocate to winter elsewhere. When animals are fed, winter mortality is reduced, but migration patterns are altered. Once feeding begins, the population may increase and become dependent on supplemental feed. Feeding hinders the ability of wildlife managers to preserve migrations and maintain populations in balance with the habitat. Migration patterns can be lost for several reasons. If winter ranges are developed, forage may no longer be available or accessible and migration routes as well as herds can be lost. Altered landscapes (ranches, orchards, fences, cultivated crops, ornamental plants) can attract and hold migrating animals. When animals are subsequently fed to reduce damage problems, migrations to winter ranges are stopped and presumably, migration memory is lost to future generations of animals. Migration routes can also be disrupted when animals are fed in areas of

6 deep snow to prevent starvation. Some wildlife managers in Oregon believe feeding big game may alter their return to summer ranges. Cost.-Costs of winter-feeding programs are considerable. Each state has a different system for reporting costs and this made it difficult to compile accurate comparisons. Costs in Oregon have averaged $230,000 annually. This estimate does not include associated costs such as equipment, vehicles, snow removal, maintenance, etc. Annual feeding costs in Idaho ranged fiom about $80,000 in 1995 to about $370,000 in 2002, and averaged about $157,000 over the past 10 years. The annual feeding budget in Washington ranged from $60,000 to $1 38,000 over the past 9 years, and averaged about $90,000. Feeding costs in Wyoming for the past 7 years ranged fiom $934,797 in 1999 to $1,368,987 in 1998, and averaged $1,109,273. The average cost is about $60 for each elk fed (including all direct and associated costs of feeding). Utah expends about $74,000 annually to feed elk. This does not include salaries of personnel. The total, average cost within the 5 states that routinely feed is about $1,600,000 per year. Obviously, feeding costs can differ greatly between years. Total costs estimated for all states have varied from $1,378,797 to $2,180,987 per year. Although the costs of feeding wildlife are considerable, costs of not feeding can also be significant. For example, during the winter of , damage caused by 200 elk near Big Piney, Wyoming exceeded the actual cost of feeding 400 elk on a nearby feedground. An analysis of feeding costs and economic benefits to communities would be informative but is not available. Status of Today's Feeding Programs Game management agencies in 5 western states maintain elk feeding sites and one state has permanent deer feeding sites. Two states have temporary sites for feeding deer (Table 1). The total number of elk fed by State agencies can be as high as 29,400. An additional 8,400 elk are routinely fed by the National Elk Refuge in Jackson, Wyoming and by the private sector (Deseret Land and Livestock in Utah). Collectively, the total number of elk fed by the states, elk refuge and private sector can total 37,800 (animals confined at private game farms are not included). Oregon is the only state that routinely feeds deer; about 5,500 mule, black-tailed and whitetailed deer are fed annually. Both Washington and Utah have temporary sites on which deer are fed during more severe winters. Deer are routinely fed at 38 specific sites and elk are fed at 60 locations by state wildlife management agencies (Table 1). Most of these locations are situated to attract and hold animals away fiom private property. Some sites in Idaho and Wyoming are located in areas of deep snow and are not associated with damage prevention. The purpose of these feedgrounds is to decrease naturally high winter mortality. The number of animals fed during a winter depends on severity of the winters and availability of forage on native ranges. Numbers at Oregon feed sites vary from 30 to 500 per site, depending on winter conditions. Likewise, the amount of hay fed in Washington has varied fiom none in 1966 and only 15 tons in 1976, to 5,100 tons during the hard winter of The same magnitude of variation is seen in Wyoming where only 4,964 elk were fed during the mild winter of This was 6000 less than the previous winter and 7000 less than the winter of In 1977, Elk were not present on 7 of 22 feedgrounds where they are normally fed. The number of elk fed in Utah varies fiom 250 to 700 animals annually, depending on winter conditions.

7 Table 1. Numbers of feed sites and numbers of deer and elk fed within various western states. Numbers represent averages per winter. Number Number State Feed Sites Animals Feed Sites Animals Idaho ,300 Oregon ,600 Utah Temporary Washington Temporary 9 9,000 Wyoming ,000 Other National Elk Refuge ,200 Private (Utah) ,000" Total 38 5, ,600 "Have fed as many as 1700 elk. Future of Feedgrounds As time changes, so do the issues and "rules of the game." The future of feedgrounds is difficult to predict. Some strong arguments can be made that they will either become more important or they will be phased out. In either case, conventional wisdom and professional consensus suggest feeding wild ungulates during winter months violates the most basic principles of population regulation within natural systems. In spite of this, many agencies have been unable to accommodate private sector expectations, adhere to regulations and statutes, and maintain viable, huntable herds in some areas without supplemental feeding of deer and elk. Release of the Canadian Wolf (Canis lupus) into the lower 48 states has potential to alter use of feedgrounds by ungulates. Wolves might afford a way to control elk populations in situations where hunting is not allowed (National Parks). At the same time, wolves could depress elk numbers below desirable levels in some areas outside national parks. Wolves can also chase elk off feedgrounds and onto private property, increasing risks of disease transmission to livestock and damage to property. The extent to which wolves are allowed to proliferate and expand their range will be politically determined. Until resulting wolf management plans are put into effect, wolf effects on feedgrounds will be speculative. Interactions of wolves and ungulates on feedgrounds warrant further study. Sociopolitical objectives will play a major role in deciding how the disease issue will affect feedground management in the future. While feeding animals can greatly increase the potential for spreading diseases, it is also an opportunity to test, monitor, and treat diseases that do not exist in fiee ranging animals, for example brucellosis. Some people speculate if CWD reaches feedgrounds in Wyoming, feeding will be terminated in the state. Others believe feedgrounds will have to continue until elk numbers are reduced to the point native ranges can support the remaining animals. Outfitters and hunters are likely to oppose significant reductions in elk if CWD is found at feedgrounds, and this will pose a serious dilemma to the Wyoming Game and Fish Department. On the other hand, encouraging feedground elk to range fieely (either by reducing or eliminating feedgrounds), without reducing numbers, will increase elk contact with

8 livestock. This could evoke considerable resistance from the agriculture industry, which is more concerned about brucellosis than CWD. Demands for hunting opportunities will also affect feeding programs in the future. Feedgrounds afford a means to sustain game populations above natural carrying capacities and provide more animals for harvest by hunters. Hunting has an enormous, positive effect on local economies. Another issue that could be a wild card in determining the future of feedgrounds is the public perception of wildlife agencies' roles in animal welfare and prevention of starvation. It is not difficult to sell the concept that starvation is normal in wild systems, but when the public sees wild animals starve, tolerance decreases and tremendous political pressure is exerted to feed the animals. In many areas of the west, free-ranging big game populations depend upon winter ranges on privately owned lands. Efforts to protect these areas are being made through conservation easements and programs that maintain open space for wildlife. However, private lands are continuously being developed and converted from native wildlife habitat to intensive uses. Most western state wildlife agencies will continue to face circumstances in which they must decide whether to reduce animal populations or provide.supplemental feed to sustain them. Commonly, the decision to reduce animals or feed them is based more on social considerations than biology. It appears political issues related to land development, damage management, disease issues, hunting opportunities, and starvation, will be the driving force in establishing the future role of feedgrounds. As long as feedgrounds are operated, agencies will also continue employing management practices such as habitat improvements, translocation to suitable ranges, and maintaining populations at levels consistent with the capacity of native habitats, all in an effort to mitigate the negative effects of feeding. LITERATURE CITED BROWN, R.C The Jackson Hole Elk Herd. Wyoming Wildlife XI(12):4-11, CARHART, A.H Fallacies of Winter Feeding of Deer. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 8: DASMANN, W If Deer Are to Survive. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA. 128 pp. LEOPOLD, A Game Management. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 481 pp. Reviewer: L.H. Carpenter

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