Honey Bee Maladies, Disorders, Pests and Nest Invaders Rick Thompson, Surry County Beekeeper, March 18, 2013

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1 Honey Bee Maladies, Disorders, Pests and Nest Invaders Rick Thompson, Surry County Beekeeper, March 18, 2013

2 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Methods of keeping Pests at or below an acceptable level. Typically do not involve chemicals Require vigilance to determine pest levels Anticipate the life cycle of the pest Help optimize the colony s ability to manage the pest

Common Methods Maintain the hive at optimum population levels which allows the hive to control many pests themselves Hive location in full sun to minimize Small Hive Beetles and Wax Moths Screen

3 Common Methods Maintain the hive at optimum population levels which allows the hive to control many pests themselves Hive location in full sun to minimize Small Hive Beetles and Wax Moths Screen Bottom Board improves ventilation and may assist in controlling Varroa Mites Drone Frames allow for the disruption on the Varroa Mite breeding cycle Control or reduce upper hive entrances and cracks to minimize Wax Moths

4 Breed Selection Honey Bee breeds have different traits and because of this should be selected to fit into your overall goals in keeping healthy productive bees.

Selection of Honeybee Breed You should consider the Breed traits when selecting type of bees you plan to raise. A high quality selection of the desired stock is very important.

5 Selection of Honeybee Breed You should consider the Breed traits when selecting type of bees you plan to raise. A high quality selection of the desired stock is very important. Honeybees are not all the same, each race and colony has different traits. If a queen has the good traits that you want she should be selected. There is a large set of inheritable traits in the honeybee colony that the beekeeper should consider when making the breed selection decision. It is impossible in beekeeping to get all these characteristics at the same time, however, 3 or 4 items on this list can be achieved. Some of the desired traits in selecting bees are:

Positive Traits Gentleness High honey production Early spring build up in population Non or low level of swarming tendency Disease and varroa mite resistance Quite on the frame Good frame builders

6 Positive Traits Gentleness High honey production Early spring build up in population Non or low level of swarming tendency Disease and varroa mite resistance Quite on the frame Good frame builders Ripens honey rapidly Honey frame cappings are white Non or low propolis producers Good wintering quality Bees do not follow the beekeeper when leaving the apiary Economical brood raising when nectar flow is low or stopped. Bees that fly out at lower temperatures

7 Drone Brood Studies have proven that Varroa prefer Drone brood. Increasing drone brood production and removing it prior to emergence can help reduce Varroa population.

Diseases and Viruses American Foul Brood Irregular Brood Pattern Healthy larva are white, diseased are light to dark brown Dead larva become gluey or ropy Cappings sink in and may be punctured

8 Diseases and Viruses American Foul Brood Irregular Brood Pattern Healthy larva are white, diseased are light to dark brown Dead larva become gluey or ropy Cappings sink in and may be punctured Capping surface is moist rather than dry Some dead pupae, shrunken into scales have their tongues protruding at right angles Treatment - Terramycin European Foul Brood Larva die in irregular twisted positions Larva may change from light cream to grayish brown as the larva dries up Sour odor may be present in the hive Dead larvae are not ropy as AFB larvae Treatment - Terramycin

9 Diseases and Viruses Chalkbrood Mummified bodies of brood in cells, on bottom board or at hive entrance Very rare condition There is no recommended chemical treatment for chalkbrood; often symptoms seem to clear up by themselves. Good hygienic behavior by a colony, that is, quick removal of the mummies, appears to aid in clearing up the symptoms. Sacbrood virus infection Usually seen in the first half of the season. Dead larvae are scattered among healthy brood. Their cappings are dark and may be punctured. Some of the larva develop into a sac-like form containing liquid. This is the reason why this disease is called `sac brood'. As the dead larva decomposes, the outer skin becomes hard and turns black. The dead larvae can be removed more easily from their cells than live larvae. No prescribed treatment

Diseases and Viruses Nosema (Apis) (Dysentery) Nosema Ceranae has virtually displaced this form of Nosema Flying is impaired Trembling and Quivering, colony is restless Feces on combs, bottom boards

10 Diseases and Viruses Nosema (Apis) (Dysentery) Nosema Ceranae has virtually displaced this form of Nosema Flying is impaired Trembling and Quivering, colony is restless Feces on combs, bottom boards and outside walls of hive Crawling on bottom boards and legs paralyzed Wings positioned awkwardly Swollen abdomen Treatment No recommended treatment Fumagilin-B is no longer recommended as it has been shown to worsen the problem Maintain a strong hive to help prevent this disease

Diseases and Viruses Nosema (Ceranae) Is a microscopic fungus that suppresses a bees immune system There are relatively no visible symptoms A seemingly healthy hive can die out in a about 8 days

11 Diseases and Viruses Nosema (Ceranae) Is a microscopic fungus that suppresses a bees immune system There are relatively no visible symptoms A seemingly healthy hive can die out in a about 8 days Infected forager bees go out but are too weak to return thus leaving the hive weaker until it fails Diagnosis involves bee abdomens, preparing a slide of the crushed bees, and viewing them under a microscope. Counting the Nosema cells will give you a final diagnosis. Treatment No treatment is currently recommended Fumagilin is not recommended as it may worsen the problem Maintain a strong hive to help prevent this disease

12 Diseases and Viruses Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) Phenomenon where worker bees abruptly disappear Affected areas reported significant colony losses as high as 50% Symptoms include Presence of capped brood Bees normally will not abandon a hive with live brood Presence of food stores, both honey and pollen Which are not immediately robbed by other bees Wax moth and Hive beetles delay attacks Presence of Queen bee If queen is not present, the hive died because it was queenless, which is not considered CCD Pre-collapse symptoms Insufficient worker bees to maintain brood Worker bees are mostly young adult bees Colony refuses to eat sugar syrup or pollen supplement Possible causes Include viruses, malnutrition, pesticides, pathogens, immunodeficiency's, mites, fungus, poor beekeeping practices, long-distance bee transportation and electromagnetic radiation. Basically the experts do not know the cause but continue to study the disorder. Management If you notice CCD symptoms Do not combine collapsing colony with a strong colony When a collapsed colony is found, store the equipment where bees can not get to it If you feed syrup, use Fumagilin If you are experiencing CCD and see a secondary infection, such a European Foulbrood, treat the colonies with Terramycin

Suffering colonies have dwindling populations, do not cluster well, and often die in the winter, frequently leaving behind large amounts of honey.

13 Tracheal Mites Honey bees in most of the U.S. have developed a level of natural resistance to tracheal mites. Tracheal mites are microscopic parasites that live in the breathing tubes of adult honey bees where they feed on bee blood. Suffering colonies have dwindling populations, do not cluster well, and often die in the winter, frequently leaving behind large amounts of honey. Infested adults may act irritated or disoriented and exhibit deformed (K) wings. Weak adults may be found crawling aimlessly near the entrance of the hive. Unfortunately, tracheal mites cannot be positively identified without dissecting the bees under a microscope. Two materials, vegetable oil patties and menthol, may be useful in suppressing tracheal mite populations. Eradicating mite populations is not practical. Since any material only suppresses mite populations temporarily, beekeepers should be aware of them but treatment is not typically recommended. Maintain a strong hive to help control these pests. Menthol 50/50 mix of Menthol & Vegetable Shorting grease patties

Varroa Mites Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite that attacks the honey bees Apis cerana (Asiatic or Eastern honey bee) and Apis mellifera (Western or European honey bee).

In this process, RNA viruses such as the deformed wing virus (DWV) spread to bees.

The Varroa mite is the parasite with the most pronounced economic impact on the beekeeping industry.

14 Varroa Mites Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite that attacks the honey bees Apis cerana (Asiatic or Eastern honey bee) and Apis mellifera (Western or European honey bee). The disease caused by the mites is called varroatosis. Varroa destructor can only reproduce in a honey bee colony. It attaches to the body of the bee and weakens the bee by sucking hemolymph. In this process, RNA viruses such as the deformed wing virus (DWV) spread to bees. A significant mite infestation will lead to the death of a honey bee colony, usually in the late autumn through early spring. The Varroa mite is the parasite with the most pronounced economic impact on the beekeeping industry. It may be a contributing factor to colony collapse disorder, as research shows it is the main factor for collapsed colonies in Ontario, Canada and Hawaii, USA. Varroa mites are one of the leading causes of colony deaths in winter. We strongly urge all beekeepers to monitor the mite levels in all colonies in April-May, in late August, and again in late September. If you choose not to treat your colony for Varroa mites, there is a 90% chance your colony will die during the second winter. New treatments were approved in late 2012 to control mites, and some of them are considered organic as they are based on natural, rather than synthetic compounds. We recommend you sample for mites in late August and treat if necessary during September. It is very, very important to sample for mites 1-2 weeks AFTER treatment to ensure the treatment was effective. If it was not, you may need to use a different product.

15 Varroa Monitoring On brood - worker - drone On bees - ether roll - powdered sugar - alcohol wash In colony - Sticky board

Varroa Threshold Sticky Board Spring/summer (April or May or Mid-June) Sticky boards over 5-10 Adult bees over 3-4 Brood over 5% Exceeding threshold means additional control may be useful

17 Varroa Threshold Sticky Board Spring/summer (April or May or Mid-June) Sticky boards over 5-10 Adult bees over 3-4 Brood over 5% Exceeding threshold means additional control may be useful Pre-fall (mid-august, Sept too late!) Sticky boards over means additional control Adult bees over Brood over 5-10% Exceeding threshold means additional (chemical) control needed

18 Sugar Roll or Shake Method Collecting a sample of adult bees (1/2 cup or approximately 300) from the brood area and then vigorously shaking the sample with 1-2 Tbsp powdered sugar (for 1 minute) causes the majority of mites (>90%) to dislodge from their hosts. We can then shake out the mites onto a light colored collecting dish and count the mites if we know the number of bees in our sample we then know # Mites/Bee

19 Sampling Equipment Measuring cup (marked at ½ cup) tablespoon Powdered sugar Powdered sugar tablespoon White [mite] counting dish Wide mouth quart Mason jar w/ modified lid (8 mesh screen) Colony to sample for powdered sugar sampling

20 Varroa Threshold Sugar Roll When was sample taken? Before supering April/May Treat when levels are 2-3 mites/sample ( mites/bee) Mid flow (optional) June/July Remove crop and treat when 10 or more mites/sample (0.05 mites/ bee) Post honey flow before final fall brood rearing Aug/Sept Treat when levels are mites/sample (>0.05 mites/bee) These thresholds assume normal size colonies with brood

21 Varroa Mite Numbers Increase Seasonally High mite yr Low mite yr

22 Varroa Mites cultural control Apiary site location Comb culling Small-sized cell base Re-queening w/ Resistant (tolerant) stock Hygienic queen stock SMR (supressed mite resistance) Russian stock From Martin: In Mites of the Honey Bee

Varroa Mites physical control Screened bottom boards (season long) Drone brood trapping (1X to 8X) Queen isolation to break brood cycle (Mid Summer) Several chemicals are effective against Varroa and

23 Varroa Mites physical control Screened bottom boards (season long) Drone brood trapping (1X to 8X) Queen isolation to break brood cycle (Mid Summer) Several chemicals are effective against Varroa and should be used with care. Apiguard: thymol (oil of thyme) Api-Life-Var: thymol + menthol + eucalyptol + camphor Mite Away Quick Strips: formic acid Hopguard (Potassium salt of Hop Beta Acids) Apivar (Amitraz plus inert ingredients)

24 Break Time!

25 Hive Scavengers Wax Moths Small Hive Beetles

Wax Moths Most wax moths are seen in early summer in our area, and we see them under the overhang of hive roofs, out of the daylight, when the hive is disturbed they take off

Preferring to work in the dark the moths enter the hive through top entrances left unscreened and unguarded by the bees, perhaps a sudden cold snap making the bees cluster, and

26 Wax Moths Most wax moths are seen in early summer in our area, and we see them under the overhang of hive roofs, out of the daylight, when the hive is disturbed they take off quickly and disappear into the trees. Preferring to work in the dark the moths enter the hive through top entrances left unscreened and unguarded by the bees, perhaps a sudden cold snap making the bees cluster, and lay eggs in cracks unavailable to the bees. These hatch in due course and the grey larvae begin feeding on wax and hive debris, tunneling just under the cell caps and feeding on the discarded cocoons left by the bees, leaving behind an extremely sticky white web, similar to spiders web but almost impossible to pull apart.

27 Wax Moth Intervention They say that an ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure. Keeping the hive population at strong levels helps them control wax moths. Sealing cracks or using screening to prevent wax moths from entering the hive top. Using a trap to draw the moths away from the hive area can also help. There are, to my knowledge, no commercial wax moth traps, but there is a country cure which works extremely well. Take a 2 liter plastic pop bottle and drill a 1 inch hole just below the slope on the neck, then add 1 cup water, 1 cup sugar, 1 half cup vinegar and finally 1 banana peel. Wait a few days till it starts to ferment, then tie it into a tree close to the hives. This trap will draw the wax moth, they enter the hole can't get out and drown in the liquid, this will even draw in and kill the bald faced hornet. Affected supers can be frozen for 24 hrs to kill the eggs and larva, after thawing the bees will clean out any dead larvae. Before storing Supers or Hive Bodies for the winter they can be frozen for 24 hrs then bagged with Para Dichlorobenzene crystals. They must be aired out before re-using Contrary to public opinion wax moth can be controlled, but I stress that prevention is better than cure, and the simplest way is to prevent wax moth from getting into the hive through gaps and spaces.

Small Hive Beetle Adults and larvae of the small hive beetle are found in active bee hives and stored bee equipment where they feed on honey and pollen.

They move rapidly across comb and are difficult to pick up. The larvae look like wax moth larvae, but the legs of beetle larvae are larger, more pronounced, and restricted to near the head.

28 Small Hive Beetle Adults and larvae of the small hive beetle are found in active bee hives and stored bee equipment where they feed on honey and pollen. Adults are broad, flattened beetles about ¼ inch long and dark brown to nearly black in color. Adults are red just after pupation and soon become blackish. They move rapidly across comb and are difficult to pick up. The larvae look like wax moth larvae, but the legs of beetle larvae are larger, more pronounced, and restricted to near the head. Beetle larvae do not spin webs or cocoons in the bee hive but rather pupate in the soil outside the hive. Beetle larvae tunnel through combs, killing bee brood and ruining combs. Larvae can heavily damage delicate, newly drawn-out comb; however, old sturdy brood comb seems to withstand heavy larval infestation without disintegrating.

29 Small Hive Beetle Do s maintain healthy, strong colonies to promote high beetocomb ratio monitor colonies for beetle infestation levels trap beetles using one or more of the trapping devices presently marketed physically kill or remove beetles when inspecting a colony, but do not leave equipment exposed for long periods of time which may lead to robbing remove weak colonies from an apiary when infested with beetle larvae and treat the soil extract honey from supers within 2 days of hive removal maintain good sanitary conditions inside and outside the honey house treat soil with Gard Star, if beetle larvae are present in the hive use Check Mite + in the hive as a last resort Don t s do not place colonies in shady, damp locations do not overmanipulate colonies when beetles are present do not leave colonies exposed during extended hive inspections do not oversuper colonies when beetles are present do not hesitate to move colonies to a new location away from an old apiary which has a history of beetle problems do not use pesticides that are not registered for SHB control

30 Small Hive Beetle Beetle Traps are also effective against SHB Bait: Mix ¼ cup soy flour, 2 tablespoons of boric acid, 3 tablespoons of peanut oil and 1/8 cup of water into Pie Dough consistency. Put a little of the bait into the CD trap

hive. Robbing The Strong prey on the Weak Robbing is worse during hot dry times when bees have little else to do Limit hive access

31 Other Bee Problems Queenlessness The hive must have a queen Replace missing queen ASAP Insert frame with fresh eggs if none are present and the hive can raise a new queen If it is too late in the season consider combining the queenless hive with a queen-right hive. Robbing The Strong prey on the Weak Robbing is worse during hot dry times when bees have little else to do Limit hive access during low nectar periods Use entrance reducers on weaker hives Place Feeders inside the hive body Minimize honey, syrup or sugar spills

Events Tall, unbalanced, hives can be blown over Trees and limbs can also cause serious damage Pesticides Honey Bees forage up to 5 miles so exposure to pesticides is an unavoidable fact.

32 Other Bee Problems Bears and Skunks Electric fences can deter bears but if they want in they will usually get in. Bears eat brood, Yogi eats honey Skunks can be deterred with a nail board below the hive entrance Ants More of a nuisance than a problem Cedar branch in the top cover may help, some Wind and Natural Events Tall, unbalanced, hives can be blown over Trees and limbs can also cause serious damage Pesticides Honey Bees forage up to 5 miles so exposure to pesticides is an unavoidable fact. Seven dust can kill a hive since bees pick it up from the crops and take it back to the hive where it is mixed into the honey and pollen and eaten, use liquid Seven applied in the evenings if you must use this pesticide. Become familiar with your local environment and get to know farmers and potential users of pesticides. Education is a good method of limiting the pesticide problem.

33 Review Pest and Disease Treatments Varroa Mites: (Varroa Destructor) Signs: Infested capped drone brood Disfigured adult bees, deformed legs or wings Bees discarding larvae and pupae Pale or dark reddish brown spots on otherwise white pupae Visible on the outside of the bee Spotty brood pattern Treatments: Apiguard: thymol (oil of thyme) Api-Life-Var: thymol + menthol + eucalyptol + camphor Mite Away Quick Strips: formic acid Hopguard (Potassium salt of Hop Beta Acids) Apivar (Amitraz plus inert ingredients) European Foulbrood: Signs: Larvae die in irregular twisted positions Larvae color may change from light to cream to grayish brown, darkening as the dead larvae dry up Sour odor may be present Dead larvae are not ropy as in American Foulbrood Treatment: Terramycin

34 Review American Foulbrood: Signs: Brood pattern is irregular rather than compact Healthy larvae are glistening white; diseased ones turn from light brown to dark brown and are upright, not twisted in cells Larvae long dead develop the consistency of glue and are difficult for bees to remove Cappings become concave and some will be punctured by bees attempting to remove the dead brood Surface of cappings will be moist or wet rather than dry Some dead pupae, shrunken into scales have their tongues protruding at right angle to their scale or straight up. This may be the only recognizable characteristic Treatment: Terramycin Chalkbrood: Signs: Mummified bodies of brood can often be seen in cells, on bottom boards or at hive entrance Very rare Treatment: No chemical treatments available

35 Review Nosema: (Nosema Apis) Signs: Virtually replaced by Nosema (Ceranae) Flying is impaired Trembling & quivering, colony is restless Feces on combs, bottom boards and outside walls of hive Crawling aimlessly on bottom boards, paralyzation of their legs Wings positioned awkwardly (K-Wing) Swollen abdomen When dissected, mid-gut is swollen, dull grayish white and circular construction of gut are not apparent Treatment: Maintain a strong hive Fumagilin-B is no longer recommended as a treatment Nosema: (Ceranae) Signs: Is a microscopic fungus that suppresses a bees immune system There are relatively no visible symptoms A seemingly healthy hive can die out in a about 8 days Infected forager bees go out but are too weak to return thus leaving the hive weaker until it fails Diagnosis involves bee abdomens, preparing a slide of the crushed bees, and viewing them under a microscope. Counting the Nosema cells will give you a final diagnosis Treatment: Maintain a strong hive Fumagilin-B is no longer recommended as a treatment

36 Review Tracheal Mite: Signs: Very hard to detect without dissection. If you notice bees disappearing from your hive you may want a State Inspector to test your bees for this mite Treatments: Menthol 50/50 mix of Menthol & Vegetable Shorting grease patties Wax Moths: (Galleria Mellonella) Signs: Tunnels in combs Silk Trails, crisscrossing one another over combs Small dark objects (excrement of wax moth larvae) in the silk trails in a hive Silk cocoons attached to wooden parts Destroyed comb, piles of debris on bottom board Strong hive usually controls moths without assistance Treatment: Para dichlorobenzene Freezing frames 24 hrs kills eggs Place hives in full sun to help deter wax moths Small Hive Beetle: (Aethina Tumida) Signs: White egg masses deposited by the adult female into crevices within the hive Larvae tunnel through combs, killing brood and ruining newly drawn comb Cream-colored Larvae feed on pollen and honey for days before exiting the hive to pupate in the soil around the hive Winged adults emerge from the soil in 2-3 weeks, reenter the hive to feed and reproduce Lifespan up to 6 months Treatment: Checkmite+ Strips Place hives in full sun to help deter wax moths

37 Honeybee Maladies Quick Reference Problem Symptoms Treatment Brood Diseases Bacteria - Spores American Foulbrood Affects Brood less than 53 hrs old, Destroy hive (Fire) Only Spore stage is infectious not Adult Bees Sunken punctured cappings, State Gas Chamber for woodenware salvage During brood season Ropy larva, Scales showing pupal tongue Terramycin - delays the spread but is not a cure European Foulbrood Larva change from white to brown to grey Re-Queen colony, strong queen, No spores Larva appear twisted in cell break in brood cycle. During brood season Terramycin also used Viruses Sacbrood Dead brood scattered among healthy brood Strong colony, Re-queening During 1st half of brood season Punctured cappings, dead brood appear No treatment available sac-like. Brood change from white to yellow to grey to black Parasitic Mite Syndrome (PMS) Symptoms look like a cross between foulbrood Control Varroa Mites Early Fall colony collapse and sacbrood, associated with Varroa Mites Fumagilin Brood appear deflated may have grey or brown spots Fungal Chalkbrood Dead brood are chalky white, appear fluffy may Re-queen with resistant stock Spore forming Fungus have black or brown spots No treatment available During brood season Stonebrood Mummification of dead brood, hard and solid No treatment available, rarely seen Adult Diseases Spore-Forming Protozoan Nosema Apis Bee poop on front of hive No recommended treatment Common in Spring Reduces Queen egg laying, shortens Maintain strong hive worker's lifespan Fungal Nosema Ceranae Microscopic fungus that suppresses a bees No recommended treatment immune system Relatively no visible symptoms, Maintain strong hive sudden hive days Diagnosis requires viewing prepared slide under microscope

38 Honeybee Maladies Quick Reference Problem Symptoms Treatment Undetermined Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) Sudden disappearance of nearly all bees, Do not combine affected colony with strong colony May be caused by viruses, Capped Brood present, honey and pollen Store affected equipment away from bee access malnutrition, pesticides, pathogens present, Queen is present. and any number of things. This is still Pre-collapse symptoms: Insufficient workers to maintain brood, Worker bees are mostly Treat secondary infections such as European Foulbrood being researched. accordingly young adult bees Colony refuses to eat sugar syrup or pollen supplement Viruses Paralysis Uncontrolled trembling, unable to fly, No treatment available Chronic Bee Paralysis (CBPV) lose hair appear shiny or greasy, Add a frame or two of capped brood to build up Acute Bee Paralysis (ABPV) large numbers found on hive front porch colony Excessive water Dysentery Too much water in bee's body Proper hive ventilation, early fall feeding to allow Bee poop everywhere, on comb, hive entrance bees to properly ripen stores before winter Parasitic Mites Varroa Destructor Adult mites feed on adult bees, mite larvae Drone brood removal, comb culling, feed on bee larvae. Test for mite count: Mite Resistant Breed Sticky board, Sugar roll, Ether roll. Chemicals Determine mite level then act Tracheal Mites Crawling bees unable to fly, K-Wing, colony Menthol, grease patties, Mite Resistant Breed reduces in size Pests Small Hive Beetle Adult beetles visible running on top frames, Checkmite+, Strong colony, remove unused larvae tunnel through combs causing damage equipment, destroy beetles ASAP Ants Visible in hive, Strong hive, Raise hive off ground, keep vegetation cut down around hive Bee Lice Prefer nurse bees, larva burrow into cell cappings Varroa treatment kills Lice Wax Moths Cocoons, damaged frames, silk everywhere Para Dichlorobenzene flakes in unused supers, hive bodies kills adult and larva but not eggs freeze frames to kill eggs Mice Nests from fall to spring Reduce entrance size Skunks, Opossums, RaccoonsDamaged hive, Brood eaten Tack board, Raised Hive, reduce entrance size Bears Destroyed hive, Brood eaten Electric Fence

39 Any Questions? Thank You

Enemies of the Hive. First Lessons in Beekeeping by Keith S. Delaplane Chapter 8 Honey Bee Disorders, Parasites, Predators and Nest Invaders

Enemies of the Hive. First Lessons in Beekeeping by Keith S. Delaplane Chapter 8 Honey Bee Disorders, Parasites, Predators and Nest Invaders Enemies of the Hive First Lessons in Beekeeping by Keith S. Delaplane Chapter 8 Honey Bee Disorders, Parasites, Predators and Nest Invaders This Powerpoint Presentation prepared by Charles Heatherly US