OLYMPISM: A Dead Ideal and a Western Product?

Transcription

1 OLYMPISM: A Dead Ideal and a Western Product? Leo Hsu* Introduction In 1993, after I had attended the 33rd session of the international Olympic Academy in ancient Olympia, one of my Taiwanese professors told me that Olympism is a western product. It is the product of western imperialism. It is nonsense! He then questioned me What is Olympism? Since I had just come back from the Academy. I replied to him what I had just learned there. I said to him that Olympism includes fair play, friendship, mutual respect, peace, and so on. For him, these elements are all merely ideals since we found non-amateurs, cases of cheating, violence, and boycotts in previous Olympic Games. Moreover, he claimed that the Modern Olympic Games include very little Eastern or Asian sports events and are, therefore, western oriented games. I assume what he meant by the word western covers Western Europe and North America. His challenge and strong criticism is the major motivation for me to write this paper. I am going to argue that although the ideas of Olympism were derived from the Ancient Olympic Games and adopted by the founder of the Modern Olympic Games, the Frenchman Pierre De Coubertin, it should not be seen as an alien product in non-western societies such as in Asia or Africa. To this end, this paper is not just going to conclude with the simple answer Yes or No. Instead, it tends to seek the future possibility of Olympism in our future global village. I have divided this paper into three sections: Interpretation of Olympism in the past Interpretation of Olympism in the present Olympism in the future Interpretation of Olympism in the past Olympism in Ancient Greece Most sports historians would agree that the Olympic spirit was already in existence in the ancient Olympic Games. Even though the term Olympism did not appear until much later, the tradition and spirit of the ancient Olympic Games in Greece were combined with the 19th century English public school conception of sport to be firmly embedded in Pierre de Coubertin s mind. For example, the rites of the Modern Olympic Games can be traced back to the genesis of Olympic Ceremonies, such as: Rhythm (Olympiad): The Games are held every four years. Olympic Flame Ceremonial Ritual And the spirit of Ancient Olympic Games included: Truce (Peace and temporary cessation of quarrels, disputes and misunderstandings); Honour and honesty (being athletes); Beauty (physical); Healthy body (physical training) towards healthy mind (character development); An (sculpture, music, poetry, etc); Fair play; * Leo Hsu is at the University of Leeds, School of Philosophy, Great Britian. Bridging Three Centuries Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research pp

2 250 Bridging Three Centuries Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research Pursuit of excellence; Kalos Kagathia-a concept that denoted the successful integration of moral, artistic, intellectual, and physical creativity. If we look at Coubertin s concept of Modern Olympism, it is hard to ignore that many of his ideas for Olympism are fundamentally based on the tradition and spirit of the Ancient Olympic Games. Pierre de Coubertin s Modern Olympism The concept of modern Olympism was conceived by Pierre de Coubertin. Some (Simri, 1986: ) might point out that a universally acceptable definition of Olympism does not exist, because no efforts were made by Coubertin and the co-founders of the lnternational Olympic Committee to define the terms Olympic Idea or Olympism. According to Simri s research (1986: 199), what Coubertin has said in his life about Olympism is fragmented: 1896 a potent factor in securing international peace a concept of strong physical culture --based on a spirit of chivalry and aesthetic sensitivity a doctrine based on a philosophical and religious theory a school of nobility, moral purity, endurance and physical energy a religion-a religio athletae. It includes religious emotions aggrandized by humanity and democracy. It seems that Coubertin himself never tried to define those terms unequivocally. Nevertheless, from Coubertin s previous discourses and essays, one can find that Coubertin did make a clear statement about some characteristics of Olympism. For example, in a letter an the 22nd November 1918, he writes: Olympism is nor a system; it is a state of mind. The most diverse educational forms may be penetrated by it, and no one race or epoch can claim an exclusive monopoly of it (Coubertin, 1918: 55). In 1935, his mature articles The Philosophic Foundation of Modern Olympism, composed the eight essential characteristics of Olympism. These characteristics, according to Coubertin, are the same as ancient Olympism. (1) A religion of sport (the religio athletae ); By chiselling his body with exercise as a sculptor chisels a statue the athlete of antiquity was honouring the gods. In doing likewise the modern athlete exalts his country, his race, his flag. I therefore think I was right to create from the outset, around the renewed Olympism, a religious sentiment transformed and widened by the Internationalism and Democracy which distinguish the present age...this is the origin of all the rites which go to make the ceremonies of the modern Games (Coubertin, 1935: 131). However, this is not to say that there is any new religion based on his thoughts. As Nikolaos Nissiotis (1981) says: I have the impression that Coubertin was a special kind of christian in the sense that he went beyond the limits of an institutionalised church, a particular denomination. He wanted through sport, to keep young people looking towards the infinite, that which is dazzling and gives to life its supreme spiritual meaning. He wanted modern youth, thus armed, to be able to go beyond the mechanics and sciences of the modern era, re-establishing religion in a realistic dimension (p. 169). For Nissiotis, Olympism is not a religion, but an ideology, which contains hidden religious elements and can possibly cooperate with religion because of a common goal: love and fraternity among people, and promotion of world peace. (2) An aristocracy, an elite (but egalitarian and meritocratic); (3) Chivalry (comradeship and rivalry-suspension of exclusively national sentiments); (4) Truce (the temporary cessation of quarrels, disputes and misunderstandings); (5) Rhythm (the Olympiad); (6) The Young Adult Male Individual; Women could also take part here if it is judged necessary. I personally do not approve of the participation of women in public competitions, which is not to say that they must abstain from practising a great number of sports, provided they do not make a public spectacle of themselves. In the Olympic Games, as in the contests of former times, their primary role should be to crown the victors (Coubertin, 1935: 133). Even though he never approved of women competing in the Olympic Games, Coubertin fought for what he considered to be the larger ideals of Olympism.

3 Olympism: A Dead Ideal and a Western Product? 251 (7) Beauty (art) No doubt Mind dominates; muscle must remain its vassal, but on condition that the most elevated forms of artistic and literary creation are engaged, and not the inferior forms which an ever-increasing licence has permitted to multiply nowadays, to the great detriment of civilisation, truth, and human dignity, as well as of international relations (Coubertin, 1935: 134). (8) Peace, promoted by mutual respect based on mutual understanding: To ask the peoples of the world to love one another is merely a form of childishness. To ask them to respect one another is not in the least utopian, but in order to respect one another it is first necessary to know one another (Coubertin, 1935: 134). Sports philosopher Jim Parry (1998: 158) adds one more characteristic: (9) Participation and competition, since Coubertin once said in London at the close of the 1908 Games: Last Sunday, in the course of the ceremony organized at St. Paul s in honour of the athletes, the bishop of Pennsylvania recalled this in felicitous words: the important thing in these Olympiads is less to win than to take part in them. Gentlemen, let us bear this potent word in mind. It extends across every domain to form the basis of a serene and healthy philosophy. The important thing in life is not victory but struggle; the essential is not to have won but to have fought well (Coubertin, 1908: 19-20). Avery Brundage s Olympism The former President of the IOC ( ), Avery Brundage played an important role in his entire presidency of defending amateurism in the Modern Olympic Games. He said: The first and most important of these rules, for good reasons, was that the Games must be amateur. They are not a commercial enterprise and no one, promoters, managers, coaches, participants, individuals or nations, is permitted to use them for profit (Brundage, 1963: 34). Besides this, as a disciple of Coubertin, Brundage interpreted Coubertin s idea of the Olympics Games as follows: 1. bring to the attention of the world the fact that a national program of physical training and competitive sport will not only develop stronger and healthier boys and girls but also, and perhaps more important, will make better citizens through the character building that follows participation in properly administered amateur sport; 2. demonstrate the principles of fair play and good sportsmanship, which could be adopted with great advantage in many other spheres of activity; 3. stimulate interest in the fine arts through exhibition and demonstrations, and thus contribute to a broader and more well rounded life; 4. teach that sport is play of fun and enjoyment and not to make money, and that with devotion to the task at hand the reward will take care of itself; the philosophy of amateurism as contrasted to that of materialism; 5. create international amity and good will, thus leading to a happier and more peaceful world (Brundage, 1963: 39). Lord Killanin s Olympism Killanin was the IOC president from 1972 to During his presidency, he gave several speeches, most during the sessions of the IOC and the Olympic Congresses. In 1973, he gave a speech for the Xth Olympic Congress in Varna. According to him, the first two rules of the International Olympic Committee in its fundamental principles (in 1973) were not definite or clear enough to constitute a definition of Olympism. He gave his personal view as follows: My personal views is that whilst the peak of the Olympic Movement must be at the Olympic Games, we have a responsibility throughout the four years to co-operate and co-ordinate with the International Federations, with the National Olympic Committees and with all bodies with similar interests, to assist in improving the world for

4 252 Bridging Three Centuries Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research mankind, in many countries there is increasing time for leisure and if leisure time is not properly used then troubles may arise. I therefore see the Olympic Movement having a dual responsibility; one, in the development of high-performance sports and two, contributing in any way it can to the promotion of sport from the schoolroom to old age...my own view and interest in the Olympic Movement is that it finds common denominators among all people of the world. One common denominator is an effort to produce the perfect man or woman, which includes not only physical prowess but also intellectual development. Another common denominator is the liking for different sports and recreations to encourage friendly rivalry between individuals who, once a battle has been won or lost, return with increased international friendship to their homes (Killanin, 1973: 18-9). Olympism in the present Has modern Olympism changed from the ancient Olympic spirit, and the Olympic ideas of Coubertin and other IOC presidents so far? Besides the fact that some issues are no longer stressed (such as amateur status and women s participation), we see no dramatic changes in Olympism. While in recent decades there have been many interpretations or notions of Olympism, they are still mostly based on Coubertin s thoughts. Let us examine some important views in order to explain the above. Jeffrey O. Segrave s (1988) interpretation: Ideal of universal worth For Segrave (1988: ), Olympism may be conceived as a set of specific goals or aspirations that provide the blueprint for the conduct of the Olympic Games in particular, and for the conduct of sport in general. There are seven aspirations listed in Segrave s works. (1) For Education: a. Training and competition: as a preparation, a subsequent career. b. Olympic creed: Participation is more important than winning. c. Transmitted through the Olympic Scientific Congress, the Olympic Solidarity Commission, and the international Olympic Academy. (2) For International Understanding: a. Esperanto of the races. b. Foster patriotism without nationalism. c. Mutual respect. d. Generosity, tolerance. (3) For Equal Opportunity: Egalitarian aspiration. (4) For Fair and Equal Competition: a. Honesty and sportsmanlike unselfishness. b. The spirit of chivalry and the joy of effort (5) For Cultural Expression: Kalos Kagathia. (6) For the independence of Sport: Separating sport and politics (7) For Excellence: a. To celebrate physical excellence, intellectual excellence and spiritual excellence. b. Mens sana in corpore sano mens fervida in corpore lacertoso (an impassioned mind in a vigorous body). Segrave found that Coubertin never fully resolved the contradictions between a.) Sports for all vs. Elitism; b.) Politics vs. Purity and c.) Patriotism vs. Hatred. However, these unresolved conflicts do not change the positive side of the ideals. As Segrave (1988) says: But at its best, Olympism presents a noble and honorable vision of sport dedicated to ideals of universal worth. As in ancient times, Olympism is the manifestation of a fundamental dialectic between body and soul, existence and essence, individual and group, and competition and cooperation. By seeking to assuage conflict and enhance harmony, Olympism places sport in the service of an enlightened humanity (p. 159).

5 Olympism: A Dead Deal and a Western Product? 253 Contemporary Official Sources and Jim Parry s (1999) interpretation: Values for Life The first words of the Olympic Charter (1997) state simply the nature and goal of Olympism. Fundamental Principal 2 says: Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy found in effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles (p. 8). Fundamental Principle 6 says: The goal of the Olympic Movement is to contribute to building a peaceful and better world by educating youth through sport practised without discrimination of any kind and in the Olympic spirit, which requires mutual understanding with a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play (p. 9). The definition of Olympism from the Olympic Chatter is still basically based on Coubertin s ideas. Wigmore (1999: 2) identifies the following issues in the above two quotes: Table 1: Wigmore (1999: 2) Tolerance Solidarity Respect for others Fair Play Taking part Equality Friendship Non-discrimination Character development Parry (1998) has argued more persuasively that the concept of Olympism can be at a high level of generality. It will find different expressions in time and place, history and geography. That is to say, there will be different conceptions of Olympism, which will interpret the general concept in such a way as to bring it to real life in a particular context. With all the different views and interpretations of Olympism, my personal view is that Olympism can basically be divided into two parts, that is individual development and international development. For the former, it is for an individual to demonstrate all good human values towards an ideal human being. Therefore, it is a philosophy of life and it contains a wide variety of ethical values. For the latter, it is for international society to reach a better mutual understanding, and a peaceful and ideal world. The way to achieve these values is via sport. On one hand, those good values can be ideals that may not easily be achieved. On the other hand, however, they should exist in our mind all the time so that human beings can always look forward to reaching an even better stage. This philosophy echoes exactly Coubertin s thinking, which is that Life is struggle and struggle is beautiful! as long as it is a positive struggle. Olympism in the future Whether Olympism must survive or be defended in the future depends on its permanent status at the most general level in our global human societies. A few phrases about the values, aims, goals or principles of Olympism are perhaps not enough to meet the changes dynamic world. They are less supportive than seeking its permanent status. Only this way can we be sure that Olympism is definitely not a western product. Perhaps we can adopt the view of philosophical anthropology to defend the necessary and permanent status of Olympism for an ideal human being. Jim Parry (1998) thinks that the status of Olympism as a social, political and educational ideology necessarily appeals to a philosophical anthropology which he refers to as- an idealized conception of the human being towards which the ideology strives in its attempted social reproduction of the individual (p. 159). He suggests that the philosophical anthropology of Olympism promotes the ideals of: individual all round harmonious human development; towards excellence and achievement; through effort in competitive sporting activity; under conditions of mutual respect, fairness, justice and equality; with a view to creating lasting personal human relationships of friendship; international relationships of peace, toleration and understanding; cultural alliances with the arts (Parry, 1998: 160-1). In the future, based on the essential root of the universal ideas of Olympism, we still need to work on some practical matters which must be improved or solved.

6 254 Bridging Three Centuries Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research (1) Unethical behaviour should be fought continually. This does not only include the corrupt behaviour of IOC members, but also the cheating, violence and other unethical behaviour of athletes, coaches, referees, sports administrators and other relevant agents in the Olympic Movement. (2) Over-commercialization in the Olympic Movement should be avoided at all times. The Olympic Movement should not be seen as a money-oriented business since it has an educational mission. From the historical point of view, we all know that over-commercialization would end the survival of the Olympic Games. It is also against the ideals of Olympism. (3) IOC membership should be chosen more reasonably and widely. At present, IOC members are not spread proportionately according to each country or state which has its own NOC. Not every NOC has its own IOC member and most IOC members are spread in Europe and North America. In order to promote Olympism well in this global village, the IOC should consider the proportionate distribution of membership in other regions such as Africa, Asia, and Latin America (4) The site of the Olympic Games should be considered widely. Of course, in selecting the site of the Olympic Games one should consider the hosting country s capability. However, in the past, the summer Olympic Games (23 times in total) were almost all held in Europe (15 times) and America (6 times). In the future, the IOC should consider other areas such as African or Asian countries which are willing to hold the Games. (5) IOC should consider inclusion of more non-western originated sports in the Olympic Games. The summer Olympic Games has included some Asian sports such as Judo (Japan), and Taikwendo (Korea). Perhaps they can also consider some sports such as Tai-chi-chuan (China) and other traditional sports from different cultures such as Africa. (6) Peace and mutual understanding should be continually promoted. Unfortunately, even at the end of the twentieth century, war and racial prejudice still goes on in this world. Our task is to promote a peaceful world and mutual understanding between people. (7) Olympic Education should be promoted in the wider sense. Physical education should be seen not only as sports education in our school system but also as Olympic education. As Olympism surpasses sports. Olympic education should focus more on moral education. The reality is: Many PE teachers may know how to teach sports skill or technique, yet many might not know the meaning of Olympism and not even know that they share responsibilities as moral educators. According to Parry (1998), the practice of sports offers a context and a routine for PE teachers to achieve a number of important aims relating to moral education: a. to further their traditional concern for the whole person whilst working at the levels both of activity and of ideas (because the practical work can be seen as a kind of laboratory for value experiments); b. to show coherence between approaches to practical and theoretical work (because the physical activity is designed as an example and exemplar of the ideas in practice): c. to explore in upper years ideas implicit in work in lower years (because the practical work encapsulating the values and ideas can be taught well before the children are old enough to grasp the full intellectual content of the ideas) (p. 165). There is a general crisis of physical education in our global education system. If physical education is justified because of Olympic education, then physical education should not be reduced or curtailed at present and in future times. We must vehemently fight a reduction of PE at school. Moreover, we should work on more teacher training courses for Olympic education for all school typ es. As Clark (1975) concludes: Conclusion The educational imperatives of the Olympic Movement are many and varied, yet they have two basic foundations. First, they are predicated on the idea that sport serves as a means of shaping the human personality. Second, and of equal significance, is the conception that education is incomplete if it is predicated purely upon intellectual education (p. 164). Although the ideas of Olympism were derived from an interpretation of the ancient Olympic Games and adopted by the Frenchman Pierre De Coubertin, it should not be seen as an alien product in other non-western societies. While in recent decades there have been many interpretations or notions of Olympism, they are still mostly based on Coubertin s thoughts. In addition, the term Olympism has been justified and instilled with a deeper positive meaning. Different conceptions of Olympism will interpret the general concept in such a way as to bring it to life in a particular context. Thus, Olympism will not be destroyed by the poor behaviour of some athletes and the IOC members. The spirit of Olympism is still vivid. The future chances of the Olympic Movement depend on the survival of Olympism. It must have a permanent status at the

7 Olympism: A Dead Ideal and a Western Product? 255 most general level in our global human societies. A few phrases about values, aims, goals or principles of Olympism perhaps are not enough to confront the fast-changing and dynamic world. However, Olympism definitely should not be seen as a purely western product. Perhaps adopting the view of philosophical anthropology is the way to defend the necessary and permanent status of Olympism for an ideal human being. In the future, we still need to work on some practical matters, which must be improved or solved. References: Brundage, A. (1963). The Olympic Philosophy. IOA Proceedings, pp Clark, S. J. (1975). Amateurism, Olympism, and Pedagogy: Cornerstones of the Modern Olympic Movement. Standford University. De Coubertin, P. (1908). The Trustees of the Olympic Idea. The Olympic Idea: Discourses and Essays. Carl-Diem-Institut, ed, 1966, pp De Coubertin, P. (1918). Olympic Letters. The Olympic Idea: Discourses and Essays. Carl-Diem-lnstitut, ed, 1966, pp De Coubertin, P. (1935). The Philosophic Foundation of Modern Olympism. The Olympic Idea: Discourses and Essays. Carl- Diem-lnstitut, ed, 1966, pp De Coubertin, P. (1979). Olympic Memoirs. International Olympic Committee. Lausanne. Durantez, (1993). Olympism. Olympic Review, September, No Pp Hsiung, D.Y. (1993). Olympism. Journal of Physical Education and Science, 1993, No. Nanjing, pp IOC (1994). The Olympic Charter. Lausanne: IOC. Muller, N. (eds.) (1987). The Relevance of Pierre de Coubertin Today. Schors-Verlag Niedernhausen/Taunus. Nissiotis, N. (1987). Pierre De Coubertin s relevance from the philosophical point of view and the problem of the religio athletae. The Relevance of Pierre de Coubertin Today. Edited by Prof. Norbert Mueller. Schors-Verlag Niedernhausen/Taunus. pp Parry, J. (1998). Physical Education as Olympic Education. European Physical Education Review, Volume 4 No. 2 (1998), pp Segrave, J. (1988). Toward a Definition of Olympism. Segrave, J. & Chu, D. (eds). Olympic Games in Transition. Champaign: Human Kinetics, pp Simri, U. (1986). The Variety of Interpretations of Olympism and the Olympic Idea. In Kroee, M. L. and Jaeger. E. M. (eds). Comparative Physical Education and Sport. V. 3. Proceedings of the Third International Seminar on Comparative Physical Education and Sport. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota. (July 2I-24, 1982). Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers. pp Wigmore, S. (1999). Olympism-Values for life. National Olympic Academy, March, 1999, Sheffield. Unpublished paper, pp. 1-6.

8 256 Bridging Three Centuries Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research