HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES

Transcription

1 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES

2 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Available through

3 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES BASIC AIRCRAFT CONTROL Robert Reser, Publisher Tempe, Arizona

4 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Copyright by Robert Reser All rights reserved. Copyright laws of the United States and International treaties protect this book. This book is intended as a supplement to usual initial flight instruction. No content supersedes official FAA procedures or regulations. There are some changed procedures and techniques of flight control from those normally taught. Robert Reser assumes no responsibility for errors or omissions or liability for use of this information. Reproduction of this book, not to be sold, is allowed for individual or classroom use if printed with this copyright notice. Printed in United States of America ISBN-13: Revised Edition Go to

5 CONTENTS CONTENTS... I DIAGRAMS... VI PREFACE... VII INTRODUCTION... VIII Let s Review Real Life... viii Real Life Flight... ix CHAPTER PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT... 1 Flight... 1 Flight Forces... 1 Force Vectors... 3 Component-Forces... 5 V-Speeds... 6 Aerodynamic Lift Newton and Bernoulli/Coanda... 7 Aerodynamic Lift... 8 Angle-of-Attack Aircraft Balance Moment, Moment Arms, and Torque Center of Pressure Point of Balance Energy and Energy Sources Thrust Gravity Component-Thrust for Sustaining Lift Engine Thrust Component-Lift Engine Performance Thrust Available Thrust Required Gravity Gravity Component-Thrust Drag Forces Aircraft Attitude Effective Axes Dimensional Axes Stability Minimum Safe Indicated-Airspeed Flight and Descents g Forces/Load Factor Glide Indicated-Airspeed True Airspeed and Groundspeed Lift Pressure and Wing Loading Ground-effect Estimating Wind Components CHAPTER FLIGHT MANEUVERING How Does An Airplane Fly? Control Transfer Of Energy (Energy Management) Now What Is Going To Happen? Flight Controls Ailerons Rudder Elevator Elevator and Horizontal Stabilizer Trim Throttle and Mixture Control i

6 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Engine Mounting and Control Engine Thrust Components (tractor-engine) Maneuvering Flap Configuration Attitude Pitch Pitch Angle Pitch Control Elevator-Pitch Rudder-Pitch Descent-Pitch Maneuvering is Attitude Change Maneuvering in Level Flight Maneuvering with Excess Thrust (turns) Maneuvering with Excess Thrust (Climb) Maneuvering in Descending Flight Maneuvering with Gravity (Engine Out) Gravity Effects Zoom and Dive CHAPTER VISUAL FLIGHT CONTROL Directed-Course Visual Flight Control Vertical Pitch Attitude Visual Flight Attitudes Takeoff Attitude Climb Attitude Cruise Attitude Turn Attitude Descent attitude Approach Descent Attitude Roundout Attitude Flare Attitude Landing/Ground Roll Collision Course CHAPTER VISUAL APPROACH AND GO-AROUND Descent Maneuvering Approach Maneuvering Slow Flight Base Leg to Final Approach Base Leg to Final Turn Overshoot Visual Approach The Normal Approach Idle-Power Approach Straight-in Idle-Power Approaches Crosswind Landing Approach Approach Over an Obstacle Ground-Effect The Go-Around Preparing for Go-Around Initiating a Go-Around Go-Around Situation Go-Around Procedure When to Go-Around Go-Around at or After Touchdown The Mindset ii

7 CHAPTER TAKEOFFS Taxi Normal Takeoff Crosswind Takeoff Short-Field Takeoff Soft-Field/Rough-Field Takeoff Obstacle Clearing Takeoff CHAPTER LANDINGS Considerations Accuracy of the Landing Point Forward-Slip Side Slip Roundout and Flare Landing Normal Landings Touchdown Soft-Field Landing Short-Field Landing Landing over an obstacle Crosswind Landings Crosswind Landing Touchdown Crosswind Landing Control Crosswind Landing Rollout Crosswind and Tailwind Landing Considerations Extreme Crosswind Landing Situations Emergency Crosswind Landing High Wind Taxi Operations Landing With One Brake Inoperative CHAPTER HIGH ALTITUDE FLIGHT AND THE ATMOSPHERE High-Altitude Flight Atmosphere Motion through the Atmosphere Air Density and Your Aircraft Air Density and the Engine Air Density and the Airport Air Density and You! High Density Atmosphere Engine Power and Engine Power Rating Engine Fuel/Air-Induction Small Aircraft Thrust Performance CHAPTER STALLS Stall Elevator-Pitched Critical Angle-of-attack Aircraft Pitch Control What happens when reducing thrust? Power Stall Stalling Stall Situations Common Stall Scenarios Elevator Trim Stall! Accelerated and Secondary Stall Disturbed Air Encounter iii

8 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Upset Microburst Wake Turbulence and Avoidance Practice Stalls Stall Training Stall Recovery High-Altitude Stall High-Speed Recovery CHAPTER EMERGENCY LANDINGS Acceptance Select a Site Control the Aircraft The Approach Preparation for Off-field Landing The Mental Anxiety What is Experience? Technique Landing vs. Crashing Continuing the Approach Landing Extreme Landing Surface Landing on Relatively Smooth Surface Touchdown Landing Roll Survival Staying Conscious Time After Stopping What do you think just happened? Flight into IMC and Visual Disorientation Take-off Load Shift CHAPTER LET S GO FLY Purpose Taxi for Takeoff Takeoff Flight Climbing Flight Level Flight Turning Flight Maximum Performance Turn (wing-over) Climb Leveling from Climb Descent Leveling from Descent Descending Flight to a Destination Approach Landing Crosswind Landings Emergency Landings Loss of Visual Conditions 180-degree Turn So, How Are Airplanes Controlled? Indicated-Airspeed Control: Acceleration and Deceleration: Climb Control: Directional Control: iv

9 Descent Control: Landing Control: All Flight: APPENDIX PHYSIOLOGY OF MANUAL FLIGHT CONTROL Stall Trim Perception Avoiding Stall APPENDIX RECIPROCATING ENGINES Operating the Machine Flight Preparation Airplane Limitations Power System Ignition System Engine Fuel Supply Fuel/Air Mixture Carburetor Butterfly Valve Mixture Control Throttle Accelerator Pump Carburetor Ice Carburetor Heat Oil Temperature and Pressure Engine Cranking and Starting Ignition Starting Fuel Accelerator Pump Engine Fire While Starting Fuel Conditions for Starting Conditions for Starting Summary GLOSSARY INDEX v

10 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES DIAGRAMS Figure Page 1-1 Aircraft Lift and Load in Wings Level climbing Component-Vectors of Right Triangles Vectors and Component-Vectors V y Airmass Encounter and Displacement Volume Frontal-Plate Area Frontal Area/Air Mass Displacement Area Slow Flight Frontal Area/Air Mass Displacement Area High Speed Angle-of-Attack Moments, Moment Arms, and Torque Engine and Aerodynamic Lift Forces Balance Thrust Component-Lift Thrust for Idle Power V y Drag and Component Drag Forces Aircraft Axis, Three Dimensions of Rotation Ground-Effect Practical Uses of Vectors and Vector-Components Small Aircraft Empennage Aileron Control Elevator Trim (pitch nose-up) Engine Mounting Thrust Effect Wing Flap Configuration Which Way is Up? Sustained Climbing Flight Turns Lift and Component Vertical and Horizontal Forces Directed-Course Visual Flight, Cruise, Level Directed-Course Visual Flight, Wings Level Climb Directed-Course Visual Flight, 22-degree Level Turn Visual Descent to a Destination Directed-Course Visual Descent to Destination Directed-Course Visual Approach to Runway Collision Course Standard Left Hand Visual Traffic Pattern Steep Banked Descending Turn to final Directed-Course Visual Flight, Landing Approach High-Altitude Turns High-Altitude High Indicated-Airspeed Stall Recovery Engine Failure Landings vi

11 PREFACE There has always been the argument that in flight, the more one knows about how and why the machine operates, the better or safer one can fly. It s hard to disagree, but when actually operating, it is too late to wonder how they built the thing. I have never heard of anyone worrying about that in flight. Attempts at making flight safer by teaching the technical aspects of design theory have evolved over the past forty-fifty years. The typical manager and regulator have become more and more intellectually sophisticated. Their focus has been increased knowledge of why, but the airplane is still the same machine as always. There is increased complexity of modern machines and added instrumentation in attempts to improve the ability to do more with them. The problem is they are still the same machines. The first five to ten hours of training should teach all the control needed. After that, it s what to do with the machine. Yes, the more sophisticated instrumentation and power systems allow flying faster and further in conditions that are more complicated; however, the control of the machine remains the same. I cannot find a book that correctly explains all the basics of aircraft control. I need to write it down How to Fly an Airplane! For all Pilots, I have placed additional general information and papers that I have written on my website at You can t change the why s, the engineers figured out and built the machine to do its thing. You must understand what the controls do and just go fly the machine. Is this enough? How does one tell the aviation training industry to question what is currently going on? Before solving or changing anything, they need to first define the problem control! Any significant change can only come from acceptance of supervising authorities. vii

12 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Let s Review Real Life INTRODUCTION Pilots make different kinds of emergency landings. The accident reports often describe the incident having ended with the aircraft either stalling and crashing or landing with excess energy. An emergency touchdown resulting from the aircraft stalling is not a landing but a crash. A stall leads to the aircraft falling. It is not flying during the period of stall. Gravity is a huge acceleration factor even when falling a few feet. The most common attitude of an inadvertent stall is landing or crashing on one wing first. Landing with excess energy means the approach indicated-airspeed was too fast to allow a normal touchdown. Almost three-fourths of emergency off-field landings have approached with excess energy, and then float to or beyond one-half the length of the chosen landing area. What is going on that these same kinds of incidents continue to happen week after week, year after year in spite of all the concern? 1. Initial training is a significant part. Most pilot training does not include complete use of aircraft controls for directing flight. Few pilots are prepared to identify and fly a gliding approach for touchdown at a specific area. 2. Though private pilots are the ones flying most of the single-engine aircraft there is no licensing requirement for private pilots in the U.S. to demonstrate proficiency in idle-power spot landings. This is the approach required to make engine-out off-field landings. The emergency landing training currently demonstrated is an idlepower approach to a chosen field with a go-around five hundred feet above the ground. This does not teach final approach to touchdown procedures. 3. Glide control proficiency is not required for extending glide distance in ground-effect. 4. There is seldom teaching of visual Directed-Course approach technique (flying collision courses to a point), to enable judgment of touchdown for all landings. 5. The accident doesn t occur until touchdown! There has never been any suggestion of how to survive touchdown to stop, and that is the most exciting part. 6. Non-instrument rated pilots flying into weather, often become visually disorientated allowing the aircraft to enter extreme attitudes so lose control and crash. There is little training of technique for flight with minimum input to the ailerons and elevator for prevention of entering extreme attitude. viii

13 Real Life Flight In this book, the emphasis is on how to control aircraft. From the study of proper control, pilots can better understand the input and response required for their flight. There is little reference to aircraft design theory. The pilot must deal with each aircraft as built. All aircraft operate in the same manner; the same principles of physics apply to all. The methods of flight control apply to all aircraft and are the answer of basic questions about aircraft control for any level of piloting. When in flight you aren t going to think about how they built the thing. You just act and react according to what it takes. The important thing is what does it take? In this book, there is an explanation of what and why. It may help if you know why since it gives you a way to plan and expectation of the different reactions to control inputs. All professions have their language. Pilots should be familiar with the same terminology of flight. In this book, there is emphasis on use of correct terminology, such as pitch and indicated-airspeed, as well as less common terms such as Direction of Motion, Directed-Course for visual control, sustained thrust, excess thrust, and component-forces. All terminology is in the expanded Glossary Index. Consistent and regular use of terms ensures understanding. There are certain terms used interchangeably. For motion, the term indicatedairspeed instead of speed or airspeed, the latter two are measurements of distance over time. The terms indicated-airspeed, pressure-speed, or indicated pressure-speed are used by the pilot for control of flight maneuvering and structural limitations. In this book, primary reference to flight-control functions and related technique regarding an aircraft is with tractor thrust acting forward of the center of mass. From this starting point, we will discuss how to utilize the flight controls, engine and gravity component-thrusts with stabilizer/elevator pitch trim. The discussions of flight control throughout the book will cover all realms of flight. The design and construction of an aircraft is to fly, the pilot only controls. Though how aircraft fly is the realm of Engineers and Designers, knowing why the aircraft flies helps understanding what is going on and what to expect when controlling. A perspective to manual control found in Appendix 1, Physiology of Manual Flight Control is an important reference to learning the mental aspects of manual flight control input. ix

14 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Chapter-1 evolves the principles and terminology of how aircraft fly. Chapter-2 introduces pilot input as it relates to the function of the controls in different flight conditions and scenarios. Chapter-3 and Chapter-4 discuss visual control for maneuvering, approaches, landings, and go-arounds. Chapter-5 and Chapter-6 present takeoff and landings in different conditions. Chapter-7 presents air-density, its effect, and limitations on engine performance and related maneuvering control. Chapter-8 is about stalls, the cause, avoidance, and recovery from stalls. Chapter-9 presents various aspects of emergency landings, from an initial incident through maneuvering to a landing site, the landing, and survival of the landing; it is about controlling the machine when power is lost. Chapter-10 is a review of flight control illustrating a short flight through the different scenarios and recommendation as the initial flight for every Student; start of taxi, takeoff, climb, maneuvering, descent, and landing. Appendix 1 is about the Physiology of Manual Flight Control. This is an explanation of the human factors causing over controlling when flying manually and a technique for attaining proper elevator trim for an indicated-airspeed. Appendix 2 reviews basic Reciprocating Engine Operation. The combined Glossary Index is important for the reader to consult for understanding terminology if questioning the use of any term. There may be a few differences in the use of some common terminology. x

15 Chapter PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT This chapter discusses how aircraft fly. The design of an airplane is to fly; if started and turned loose they can fly by themselves. Pilots can t control the design but should understand what causes the aircraft to fly. There is mention of some basic terms of math and physics. If you aren t conversant in this, don t worry about it. It mostly justifies the arrows pointing to show direction of the different pressure forces causing lift, load, thrust, motion, and drag. Flight There are high-powered machines that can fly vertically with only engine generated motion through thrust lifting, however most airplanes use much less power by utilizing forward motion to create aerodynamic lifting forces from reaction to displacement of the mass-of-the-air. This enables flight that is more economical. Any change of attitude or altitude will require an increase or decrease of thrust. Sustaining any maneuver in level or climbing flight will always require increased engine thrust to cause the climb, turn, or increased indicated-airspeed, and in descending flight, gravity component-thrust does the same while sustaining the flight. Engine mounting can be forward of the center of pressure causing its thrust to pull the aircraft, as a tractor engine; or it can be a mounting aft resulting in a pusher engine with its thrust acting from behind this center. There are some important differences in required control depending upon where the thrust acts on the machine. Flight Forces Aircraft fly and are controlled with application of forces and change of forces. Flight training typically discusses the balance of forces acting in steady state flight as weight versus lift and thrust versus drag. This is a simplification of all the forces involved and considered by many as sufficient for demonstration or understanding. The reality is; if not distinguishing all the forces involved, it does not allow complete understanding of airplane control. In constant indicated-airspeed flight, the balance of forces include all the vertical component-forces of aerodynamic and engine thrust component-lift equal to and opposite the mass-weight of gravity plus added loading such as the aerodynamic loading from stabilizer and elevator, and any acceleration g forces of maneuvering. The fore/aft balance for constant indicated-airspeed flight is the component of thrust in the direction of motion, opposite and equal to 1

16 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES the retarding pressure of mass displacement and friction forces from the airflow plus rearward component-vectors from aerodynamic lifting and gravity, all acting together as drag. Aircraft Lift and Load in Wings Level Climbing Flight Direction of Thrust Lift-component Drag Thrust Component-Lift Total Lift acting from Center of Pressure Wing Aerodynamic Lift (2) Direction of Motion Thrust Component- Direction of Motion Drag Gravity-Component Drag Total Load acting from Center of Pressure Effective Center of Gravity Center-of-Pressure Weight = Load due to Gravity Elevator Aerodynamic Load due to Elevator Control input. Fig. 1-1 The inflight balance of vertical forces are the vertical components of lift from the wings, body, and engine thrust component-lift away from the top of the machine and the opposing the gravity force directed to the earth from the aircraft mass plus any aerodynamic component g force and stabilizer aerodynamic loading directed away from the bottom of the machine. These different forces are the total of the component forces acting out the top, bottom, front, and rear of the aircraft as related to a current direction of motion (attitude). Note that most flight is close to horizontal so it makes it seem these forces may be relative to the ground. However, they are not relative to the ground but to the current aircraft orientation. Only gravity is always toward the surface. 2

17 Vectors The numerous forces involved in flight makes it difficult to generalize them if wanting to understand how they affect flight control. In the operation of a flight, a pilot never needs to know the actual value of any specific force, but should always understand how control input affects the forces acting on the aircraft. The reactive forces involved in flight result from encounter and displacement of the airmass (mass-of-the-air) relative the aircraft velocity of motion. The acceleration of airmass (mass-of-the-air) by the engine and propeller is causing thrust. The reaction to motion when passing through an air mass is causing the aerodynamic lift. For simplicity in this text, we will call mass-of-the-air, airmass. The term an air mass will refer to the portion of the atmosphere in which the aircraft is operating. Note there are five different directional forces. These are thrust, drag, lift, load, and weight (gravity) forces. Knowing how all these different forces act on the aircraft requires consideration of vectors and the direction of related component-vectors. Engine thrust is parallel to the dimensional longitudinal axis. The reactive force components at the engine attachment are one forward sustaining the direction of motion, and one outward as lift. Wing aerodynamic lift is considered acting from an area approximately one-quarter back from the leading edge of each wing and the body aerodynamic lift through some point out of the top of the fuselage. The stabilizer/elevator aerodynamic load is away from the bottom at its attachment and the maneuvering g loading is away at a center of pressure. Gravity acts from the center-of-mass, always directed toward the earth. Force Vectors The following description of forces is a basic review of how Vectorcomponents relate to those forces. A vector is force in a direction. Forces act from different areas on an aircraft and their reactions are a combination as if each were two smaller component-forces acting 90 degrees from the other at that point. Seldom are there forces reacting in the exact direction applied, so almost always will have these directional component-forces. In aviation, it is usual to discuss different forces by a name. Thrust forces pull or push to cause forward motion of the aircraft as the mass reaction to blasting air pushing at its attachment and, in descent, gravity component-thrust pulling from the aircraft center-of-mass. Drag forces acting opposite the direction of motion are the airmass pressures resisting displacement, the frictions from flow around the 3

18 Sine 25 =.4 Sine 30 =.5 Sine 45 =.7 Sine 60 =.87 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES surfaces, and small rearward components of both gravity and aerodynamic lift. The direction of the aerodynamic and engine thrust component-lift forces are out the top of the aircraft while aerodynamic loading forces act out the bottom of the aircraft. The aircraft weight by gravity acts against the vertical components of aerodynamic lift and engine thrust component-lift, directed away from the center-of-mass toward the earth, no matter the attitude of the machine. All these forces are acting in different directions though not necessarily exactly opposite each other. When changing attitude, direction of lift forces relative the earth change so the vertical component-vectors of lift that sustain the flight change. When maneuvering at constant indicated-airspeed flight, aerodynamic lifting is constant because the aircraft angle of airstream encounter does not change. It then requires coordination of thrust for its related thrust component-lift to maintain the vertical lift components supporting the aircraft weight. If engine component-lift is not sufficient to maintain constant vertical component-lift, the aircraft will descend using gravity component-thrust to maintain the constant indicated-airspeed COMPONENT-VECTORS 60 Cosine 60 =.5 Cosine 45 =.7 Vectors have reaction componentvectors from an original direction and its extent. The extent of reaction is always relative to the direction and easily calculated with trigonometric functions Cosine 30 = Cosine 25 =.9 25 O Origin of Force Fig Sine 12 =.2 Cosine 12 =.99 Sine 6 =.1 Cosine 6 =.995 4

19 VECTORS AND VECTOR COMPONENTS Level Flight Engine Lifting Right Triangles have specific constant relationships of the vector direction, its extent, and that of the related component legs. The component vectors are always ninety-degrees from each other. The two included angles always add to ninety degrees. 6 Sustaining Thrust Component-Direction of Motion Cosine 6 =.9945 Thrust Component-Lift Force Sine 6 =.1 Level flight horizontal motion with six-degree nose up angle of the aircraft attitude (ANGLE-OF-ATTACK) encountering the airmass. Two hundred pounds of engine thrust will have 199 pounds (200 x.9945) of horizontal thrust into the free stream air and 20 pounds of lift at the nose (200 x.1). A resulting Vy (65 kts.) indicated-airspeed causes approximately one-pound forward resistance per square inch of frontal area. Fig. 1-3 Component-Forces There are related component forces of an applied force at any time the reaction to that force is not exactly the opposite direction of that applied force. The understanding of these forces and the related component forces helps understanding flight control and control inputs required, however this is only good for understanding the cause of flight, as a pilot in flight, you merely control, visually directing the aircraft toward a distant point. Maneuvering is a change from the equilibrium of constant altitude, constant indicated-airspeed, with constant thrust. This means change of attitude of the aircraft is steering by input of control causing related directional changes of the forces. The quantities of these component forces relate trigonometrically. If knowing an angle of encounter or reaction and a force, it is possible to calculate the reacting force and its direction. This is not something a pilot does, but the study allows understanding of what to expect when inputting control forces. With a body attitude angled above the direction of motion, the engine thrust has a large sustaining thrust component in the direction-ofmotion and a small lifting component-force 90 degrees away from that direction of motion, all acting at the engine attachment. 5

20 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES V-Speeds There are different operational indicated-airspeeds designated as V- speeds. V y is an optimum rate of climb indicated-airspeed for time and distance and V x is an indicated-airspeed optimum climb angle for attaining maximum altitude at the aircraft current weight and configuration. V y and V x flight is often slower than most in-flight operations but used here for demonstration purpose. Reference will be made to a speed V me (maximum endurance), an indicated-airspeed that gives most time in the air without regard to range. This then is the most efficient indicated-airspeed for current conditions. In addition to V x and V y, there are other operational pressure speeds. Best-glide (V bg or V mr ) indicated airspeed attains maximum range, being the most efficient engine out pressure speed for an aircraft and used for engine out operation. For the wing, when generating lift, a typical condition might be V y indicated-airspeed flight that will be a wing and body air-encountering angle of 6-8 degrees above the direction of motion. The sine of 6-degrees is.1, and the cosine is.99. This means.1 (onetenth) of this total thrust is considered acting in a direction ninety degrees from the other.99 of that total force. The pressure from encountering airmass at knots is approximately one pound per square inch. At V y, the airflow encountering the angled aircraft travel is being deflected under the wing with an upward reaction (.1 times 1 lb./sq. in. =.1 lb./sq. in.) and is the aerodynamic component-lift force of the airmass displacement at that velocity under the wing. The airflow in the direction of motion, deflects slightly away as it passes around the wing, slowing slightly (.99 x 65 kts. = 64.5 knots/hr.), and there is a small deflection of 6.5 knots/hr. away (.1 x 65 = 6.5 knots). What happens in the eyes of pilots; they can t see any of it. It is just airflow always deflecting slightly away as the wing passes through. The displacement away causes a small reaction force under and over the wing creating lift. The airmass passing over the top of the curved wing surface travels along the upper surface with a small downward changed direction and increased velocity resulting from the reduced pressure across the top surface as part of the reactive displacement lifting from below. The wings of this small aircraft will have approximately 16,000 sq. in. of bottom surface, so the lift component (16,000 sq. in. x.1 x 1 lb./sq. in. = 1600) will be 1600 lbs, the weight of the airplane. This is a 6

21 simplification of the lifting but it s kind of how it happens. You can see it always requires motion (mass encountering pressure), called indicted-airspeed pressure, to make this all happen. The pilot controls that motion of the aircraft. Aerodynamic Lift Newton and Bernoulli/Coanda The explanation of aerodynamic lift generation is nice to know. The engineers have designed the wing, the pilot just flies. Most of the natural laws of physics defining the cause of lift were first defined by these different scientists: Newton ( ): There is a force around the wing causing lift as a reaction to the displacing mass-of-the-air. A simplified statement of Newton s Laws of Motion; 1. A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will remain at the same speed and direction unless acted on by an outside force. 2. Acceleration occurs when an outside force acts upon a moveable object. 3. For any applied force there is an equal and opposite resisting force. Bernoulli ( ): There is associated lift allowed by that portion of air passing over the top curved surface of the wing. The deflected mass over the top must flow further in its attempt to replace that deflected over the wing. The increased velocity as this mass passes over the wing simultaneously results in reduced pressure allowing the resulting lift. This is the Bernoulli Effect, and is the relationship between the changed velocity of airmass flow and its related pressure. When the speed of the flow over the wing increases, the pressure simultaneously decreases. The reduced pressure in this mass flow of the air allows the resultant aerodynamic lifting force under the wing. Coanda ( ): Coanda Effect is the tendency of the mass of liquid and gas flow to attach itself to a surface and to remain attached even as the surface curves away from the initial direction of encounter. This effect changes the direction of that mass flow. Airmass flow, when deflected over the upper curved wing surface, will attempt maintaining that flow along the curved surface due to the Coanda effect, resulting in a changed flow direction. The partial voiding behind the upper wing surface allows the acceleration of the air with its changed direction as it attempts to replace that voiding. 7

22 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Aerodynamic Lift The generation of aerodynamic forces comes from the motion of a structure passing through the mass-of-the-air. An aircraft design is such a structure. The angular attitude of the aircraft above the direction of travel forms a frontal area of the machine that meets and diverts the air. The formed wings and body of the aircraft at an angle of encounter divert the airflow of motion under and over their large surfaces. This angled encounter produces a reaction of an equivalent mass weight of air as downwash around the structure equal to the mass weight of the aircraft resulting in reactive lift forces out the top. The arrangement of the aircraft meeting the oncoming air at a small upward angle, called angle-of-attack, creates a frontal-plate area meeting and dividing the displacing volume under and over the body and wings. For an increased angle of travel in slowed flight, there becomes increased volume under the wing, which slows slightly and travels further in its diversion away from the wing while passing under the structure (Newtonian Effect). Vy Optimum Air Mass Encounter and Displacement Volume Wing encounter of free stream air at Vy, six-eight degree wing angle of attack. Encounter pressure at knots is one pound per square inch. Air Mass Volume passing over the wing Air Mass Volume passing under the wing At Vy indicated-airspeed, Airmass over the wing equals airmass under the wing. Bernoulli/Coanda Lifting over the wing approximately equals Newton Lifting under the wing. Airflow over the wing travels further and with increased velocity into partial vacuum. Airflow under the wing is slowed slightly by encountering previous downward displaced air. Fig. 1-4 The displaced volume of air over the top of the wing flows along the curved path (Coanda Effect) of the upper wing surface with an increased velocity (Bernoulli Effect) into the voided back of the wing 8

23 accelerating the displaced airmass into a downward motion. We call this movement of airmass, downwash of the air. There is always this reduced reactive pressure (partial vacuum) outward from the partial voiding of airflow over the top of the wings flowing back down toward the back of the wing surface. The mechanics of this splitting of mass under and over the wing, the dynamic diversion of mass, creates unbalanced pressures between the top and bottom of the wing with resulting reactive pressure outward from the top of the wing form. This is aerodynamic lift. A small aircraft will require an approximate ratio of only one pound of thrust to sustain ten to twelve pounds (1:10-12) of aircraft mass. A typical small 1600-pound aircraft sustains optimum flight with approximately 160 pounds of airmass as thrust. The primary aerodynamic lift comes from the wings, and depending on the shape and attitude, there is also some lift generated in the same manner from the fuselage. The depictions of airflow are relative to rapid motion. That is, the aircraft is moving rapidly away as displacement takes place so, though a displaced particle of air merely moves upward or downward relative the wing, the flow relative to the pilot would appear that the air is moving away. FRONTAL-PLATE AREA Vy INDICATED-AIRSPEED 6 Degree Angle of Attack The Frontal-Plate Area is the equivalent flat plate area that encounters the airstream. It consists of wings, fuselage and elevator. The Frontal Plate Area varies with the angle (Angle of Attack) at which the aircraft encounters the air mass. Large frontal areas require less pressure per square inch to provide required vertical lift so allow slower indicated-airspeeds. High indicated-airspeeds provide higher pressures so require less angle of attack. Body Frontal- Plate Area Wing Frontal-Plate Area Relative Wind from motion into the Free Airstream at knots will cause encountering pressure of approximately 1-pound per square inch frontal area. Fig. 1-5 Motion through the atmosphere aerodynamically creating lift in this manner is the usual method to cause flight. This requires significantly less power for causing the required lift and is thus more efficient for flight within the atmosphere. 9

24 4.2 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES The development of aerodynamic lift requires that the aircraft wing must always divert airmass under the wing and accelerate airmass over the top of the wing. The result is at high indicated-airspeeds, there is increased rate of mass encounter from displaced air over the wing with primary lift from the Bernoulli Effect of accelerated mass flow. At slower indicatedairspeeds, it requires increased wing and body angle to increase the mass of airstream encounter, there becomes a greater proportion of mass flow under the surfaces. The resulting increased volume of displacing air is greater than the volume of the machine itself. Frontal Area/Air Mass Displacement Area SLOW FLIGHT Larger Volume of Airmass Displacement Under the Wing Reduced Bernoulli/Coanda Effect (increased induced drag) 12 angle of attack Increased Newtonian Effect 4 angle of attack Fig. 1-6 Frontal Area/Air Mass Displacement Area HIGH SPEED 3 Angle of Attack Fig

25 The amount of aerodynamic lift force relates to the velocity of airflow, the mass of displaced air, and the distance the displaced airmass must move around the surfaces. The pitched angle of the wing and body attitude into the direction of motion creates the size of the frontal area that meets and displaces this air. Frontal areas from changed angles of encounter cause change of the volume of air displacement so require different velocities to maintain sufficient airmass displacement to cause a constant aerodynamic lift force of the aircraft load. The greater the frontal angle of travel, the greater the mass displacement, the less the encountering pressure per square inch required. Coordination of the aircraft s frontal area (angle-of-attack) meeting and displacing the airmass, determines the indicated-airspeed and attitude flown. This means the slower you want to go, the greater the angle-of-attack, so the nose attitude angle will be pitched higher relative the direction of motion, and the faster you go, the nose will be pitched at a lower angle. At the same time, for any given indicated-airspeed, there must always be coordinated engine power/thrust to sustain the flight, no matter where you are going in climb, level, or turn. A pilot can do nothing about the design or the physics; it is just how things work. Elevator input changes the attitude pitch setting for a different angle-of-attack, allowing change of indicated-airspeed. Coordinated engine thrust component-forward or gravity componentthrust causes the resulting indicated-airspeed. Angle-of-Attack Angle-of-attack is the aircraft body angle of the dimensional longitudinal axis pitched above the direction of motion. The elevatorpitch control sets the angle-of-attack of the aircraft to the encountering air (relative-wind of motion). Reference is often in regard to wing angle-of-attack, but it is the total airplane, fuselage, wings, and tail encountering the airflow. It is common to have the wing attachment to the fuselage at a slight angle above the longitudinal axis as an angle of incidence allowing the fuselage to travel level in cruise with the wings at a slight angle-ofattack. The pilot has no need to consider this fixed wing attachment, as there is no way to measure an angle of incidence or its effect. By definition, wing angle-of-attack is the frontal profile angle of airflow encounter between the wing chord and direction of motion. If the wing has no attachment angle, its wing chord being parallel with the dimensional longitudinal axis, the wing angle-of-attack will also be the body angle-of-attack. 11

26 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES All wing forms have a maximum angle-of-attack at which the Coanda effect changing airflow direction over the top surface will be able to conform the flow near the upper wing surface. Exceeding the angle at which airflow can conform to the upper wing surface (laminar flow) resulting in loss of lift is a stalled condition. This is wing critical angle-of-attack. Aft elevator-pitch input causing an attitude exceeding the wing critical angle-of-attack in a positive stable aircraft is by the pilot manually pulling the elevator the pilot increasing and holding pitch is always the cause of stall. A specific wing design has a specific critical angle-of-attack. This does not change with aircraft loading. The heavier an aircraft the greater the angle-of-attack required for lifting its load. Heavily loaded (mass and g s) aircraft then always operate closer to the critical angle-ofattack. Aircraft Normal Cruise Level Flight Angle of Inclination and Body Angle Direction of Motion Vertical Component Lift Aerodynamic Center of Lift Effective Total Lift Lift Induced Drag ¼ Chord Point Aircraft Longitudinal Axis HORIZON Center of Pressure Elevator Aerodynamic Load Static Center of Mass Relative Wind Load = Mass, Aerodynamic Load plus g forces Pitch Angle (Horizon to Aircraft Longitudinal Axis)= 3 Climb/Descent Angle (Horizon to Relative Wind)= 0 Angle of Attack (Relative wind to Longitudinal Axis 3 plus Incidence Angle 3 )= 6 Fig. 1-8 Setting an aircraft angle-of-attack is by coordination of elevatorpitched aerodynamic loading at the tail balancing the aircraft longitudinal attitude. Engine thrust component-lift, acting from its attachment along the fuselage or on the wings at some moment arm, can also affect the setting of angle-of-attack so is incorporated as part of the coordination of elevator input. Changed thrust and its related changed propellerblast can affect the aerodynamic load across the elevator of some aircraft also causing angle-of-attack change. 12

27 Aircraft Balance All forces have moments acting through their moment arms to the current center of pressure point of rotation. Flight control is adjusting these forces for the balance to cause desired motion. Our example aircraft at its optimum V y indicated-airspeed and 160 pounds of thrust will be in motion at an air-encountering angle of at least 6 degrees angle-of-attack, so will have a continuous 16 or more pounds of thrust component-lift at the engine (sine 6 =.1) contributing to the total lifting forces. This engine-lift acts along the fuselage as its moment arm to the center of pressure. Coordinated with the elevator aerodynamic loading, this total lift or load maintains the balance at an angle-of-attack for a specific indicated-airspeed. The difference with inflight balance in an aircraft is that all forces act at fixed positions. The engine lifting is at the attachment of the engine, and the elevator and horizontal stabilizer aerodynamic lift or load acting at their structural placement on the empennage. The center of mass acts at its current location forward of the center of lift. Change of any one balancing force in these locations causes a change of the fulcrum position near the aerodynamic center of lift, moving it slightly forward or aft and becoming a new center of pressure. Acting at their attachment, elevator aerodynamic load combined with engine thrust component-lift set the balance for a specific indicated-airspeed angle-of-attack. The basis of static loading is the designed aerodynamic load/lift limits of the stabilizer and elevator control. Loading is critical and not maintaining the loading limits could lead to loss of aircraft control. Manufacturer published tables and charts enable loading an aircraft within its balance limits. Moment, Moment Arms, and Torque A body in flight is free to rotate and will always turn about its current center of pressure. A moment is the arm of a force from a distance that tends to rotate the system. That distance (length) is the moment arm of the lever acting from the related force. Aircraft control is by pilot input to the flight and engine controls. Input to the elevator, engine, or rudders cause small directional forces acting on the fuselage over their moment arms. In an aircraft, the inputs of control for balancing forces are always at the same points so this requires the fulcrum to change with any change of force. The changed fulcrum becomes the center of pressure of all forces. 13

28 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Moments, Moment Arms, and Torque A force acting on a lever causing torque (rotational tendency) creates a moment over the moment arm. Lift Lift Moment (ft. lbs.) = Arm (ft.) x Force (lbs.) A moment is the tendency to produce rotation (torque) about a fulcrum. The dimensions of a moment is distance along the arm from the force to the fulcrum times the force. (i.e. foot-pounds) Wing Aerodynamic Lift (2) Thrust Component-Lift Moment Arm Center of Pressure Center of Lift and Load Center of Rotation Moment Arm Stabilizer Aerodynamic Load Fig. 1-9 Engine and Aerodynamic Lift Forces and Their Moment Arms Aerodynamic Component-Lift 800 ft. lbs. ea. Engine Thrust Component Engine and Elevator Moment Arms Total Lift Moment Arms Center of Mass Total Load Center of Pressure Center of Lift Center of Load Center of Rotation Stabilizer/Elevator Aerodynamic Load At Vy indicated-airspeed, 1600 lb. Aircraft with 160 lbs. thrust at 6-Degree Wing Angle of Attack Wing Moment Arms 8 ft. each, Engine Moment Arm 10 ft., Elevator Moment Arm 20 ft. Fig

29 Center of Pressure Point of Balance There is a significant difference in the forces on an aircraft between sitting on the ground and being airborne. The center of pressure is the airborne equivalent of a center of gravity. The aircraft reacts to the sums of all forces acting on it. On the surface, there are no forces other than the mass weight as load and force through the wheels as lift. When airborne, different lift and load forces are involved, therefore an equivalent center of gravity is actually a center of pressure located at the neutral point of all applied forces. This becomes the center of rotation for maneuvering, moving slightly with any change of a force. The notion that all things be correct makes it necessary to come up with some way of having standardized terminology. I first thought effective center of gravity was one way to describe the center of rotation. In retrospect that does not really change the idea that center of gravity, the mass load is something on the airplane when in flight. Perhaps center of load is more appropriate to relate it as a force out the bottom of the machine and opposite center of lift ; then again, it all occurs at the center of pressure, also the center of rotation. Aircraft Static Balancing of Mass and its Gravity Force Balance Aircraft In-Flight Balancing around total of all Forces Center of Load, Center of Mass Center of Pressure Center of Gravity Wing/Body Aerodynamic Lift Thrust Component-of Motion Vertical Aerodynamic Component-Lift Thrust Component-Lift Center of Lift, Total of Lift Forces Motion Center of Mass Center of Gravity Fig 1-11 Center of Pressure Center of Load Total of Aerodynamic and Mass Load Forces Elevator Aerodynamic Load Gravity effect on the mass is one of the many forces acting on the system. The momentum of the machine per Newton, relates to the mass involved. 15 Drag

30 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Center of Gravity is always a significant factor when preparing for and conducting flight as it relates to the design control forces for balance. In flight, the gravity force is just one of the load forces involved. Note that as mass changes in flight so too the center of mass changes. Again, it is one of the load forces so affects the center of pressure as any other load change. Though there is a significant difference in the forces on an aircraft between sitting on the ground and being airborne, this is of minimum significance to a Pilot controlling an aircraft, but since the beginning of flight, it has been the fashion to use center of gravity as a generic term relating to maneuvering. When relating to gravitational effect, it is only one force acting at the center of mass and always toward the surface. Gravity effect on the mass is one of the many forces acting on the system. When considering energy factors, the momentum of the machine relates to the mass involved. Energy and Energy Sources Energy is the ability of a source to cause work (force times distance) and comes from position, heat, or chemistry as potential energy, and from motion of mass as kinetic energy. You cannot create or destroy energy, but only convert it from one form to another. Potential energy transforms to kinetic energy and kinetic energy transforms to potential energy. In usual conditions, there are significant energy losses as friction and heat from inefficiencies in operation. Aircraft kinetic energy in flight becomes potential energy of altitude (climbing or zooming up), and again becomes kinetic energy through descent acceleration (diving). This is a simplification of the mechanics of energy used for discussion of flight performance. These manifestations of energy, motion and position, allow understanding the response when maneuvering an aircraft. For flight, reference is to an arbitrary aircraft attitude controlled above the surface. Gravity is the natural attraction of earth s huge mass to the aircraft s mass so is a force always directed toward the surface of the earth. Kinetic energy is mass in motion, as the reaction from the thrust forces. The momentum of your airplane s mass is its kinetic energy. Engines develop thrust force by burning fuel to extract the potential energy. The resulting energy of burning fuel is expansion of gases pushing a piston, turning a crankshaft and propeller to accelerate the mass-of-the-air. The acceleration of mass-of-the-air (blasting air) causes a reactive thrust force creating aircraft motion, kinetic energy. This all occurs with large heat energy losses that dissipate into the air. 16

31 Similarly, the jet engine develops thrust force by burning fuel. The resulting energy is expansion of gases turning a turbine and compressor, accelerating the mass-of-the-air. Thrust is the reaction to accelerating this mass-of-air toward the rear (blasting air). Engine thrust is a force directed to push (pusher) or pull (tractor) transforming into kinetic energy of the machine s motion. All aircraft have engines for developing the power to generate thrust directed to cause motion (kinetic energy). Your aircraft at altitude is a source of potential energy. The aircraft weight as affected by gravity and directed by the flight controls produces gravity component-thrust from descent or gravity componentdrag in climb. Velocity of the aircraft mass is its kinetic energy. The resistance of airmass displacement and friction of flow to aircraft momentum is a decelerating thrust-effect, which causes slowing as drag force. Flight control is energy management directing the conversion of the energy from one state to the other. Think rollercoaster, zooming up and coasting down. Pilots use this energy exchanging in many ways for maneuvering. There is an equivalent available thrust by gravity (almost four times maximum engine thrust) from the aircraft mass for going down (burning altitude). That is a lot of available thrust. Thrust Engine power provides the primary motivational thrust for sustaining flight. Engine generated thrust is always in the forward direction the aircraft is facing and acting from its attachment. However, anytime the aircraft is at an attitude away from the direction of motion there will always be a small thrust component-lift acting at the point of engine attachment. Gravity acting from the center-of-mass is causing the weight of the aircraft. However, for assuring positive stability, the aircraft mass loading is forward of the aerodynamic center of lift, so depending on aircraft attitude, there becomes a small gravity component-thrust or component-drag affecting the aircraft. Descent angles below level flight directs this as gravity componentthrust while attitude angles above level (cruise and climb), directs this aft as gravity component-drag. In steep angled descent, the gravity component-thrust can quickly become extreme. Gravity Component-Thrust for Sustaining Lift A 1600-pound aircraft in engine-failure optimum Vy glide, to prevent falling, requires the continued 160 pounds of thrust to sustain the indicated-airspeed for generation of its aerodynamic lift. In engine-out 17

32 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES descent, there becomes a forward gravity component-thrust from the aircraft s 1600 pounds of vertical gravity force. Controlling to a six-degree descending glide angle (sine 6 =.1, 1600 lbs. x.1 = 160 lbs.) will sustain the aircraft lift for the V y knot (Best Glide) indicated-airspeed. Engine Thrust Component-Lift Anytime the direction of thrust alignment from the engine is not in the direction of motion because of mounting location and/or a pitched angle above motion, there becomes a component-vector of that thrust outward at the engine attachment as lift. Thrust Component-Lift Thrust Component-Lift Thrust Component-Motion Slow Indicated-Airspeed Flight Direction of Motion Thrust Component-Lift Vy Indicated-Airspeed Flight Thrust Component-Motion Direction of Motion High Indicated-Airspeed Flight Thrust Component-Lift Thrust Component-Motion Direction of Motion Fig Engine Performance Reciprocating engine ratings do not measure the thrust available so seldom is actual thrust considered in teaching or learning small aircraft control. The various kinds of propellers and their efficiencies when developing thrust make it difficult to determine the actual thrust an engine can produce. The usual consideration of reciprocating engine performance is a generalization that power must increase or decrease to get desired performance. Obtaining expected performance is available only with use of tables in the Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) or, recommended, actual flight-testing of your specific aircraft. Engine power available decreases with increased altitude, temperature, and humidity due to reduced density of the air, so 18

33 available thrust will reduce with an increase of these factors. Pilots must carefully consider the performance possible. There is always limited thrust available when operating at high-altitude airports for takeoffs, landings, and airborne maneuvering. Jet engines do not have propellers involved, so thrust is the measure of their performance. The jet engines compress air for burning so allow much greater altitude performance. Still the mass of the air affects their performance in a similar manner as the reciprocating engines. Thrust Available As a pilot, you must always be aware there is considerable reduced power and related thrust when operating in the higher altitude low airdensity conditions. That is why an aircraft has a maximum altitude it can reach. There will always be much reduced power available for maneuvering at the higher altitudes of low-density air. For this book, some generalized numbers for thrust available demonstrate the effect of thrust for operation at higher altitudes. This example and related numbers do not necessarily reflect a particular aircraft. The actual thrust required for any aircraft varies considerably depending on the designed aerodynamic form. A small aircraft sustains flight at approximately one pound of engine thrust for each pounds of weight (1:10 to 1:12 ratio). A 1600-pound aircraft will then require approximately 160 pounds of engine thrust to sustain itself at its optimum Vy level indicated-airspeed. The design rating of each engine and propeller limits the available thrust. A typical manufacturer rating for a small aircraft engine will range from horsepower attained when operating at sea level standard atmospheric conditions. For this example problem, assume a 110 horsepower engine on a pound aircraft, and expect 460 pounds of thrust at full manufacturer rated power with this particular fixed-pitch propeller-generated thrust at the sea level standard conditions. The optimum indicated-airspeed (V y ) for this flight is 65 knots. The 1:10 thrust to weight ratio to sustain this aircraft in flight at this indicated-airspeed will then require 160 pounds of thrust. At the sea level liftoff, there will be 300 pounds of excess thrust (460 lbs.-160 lbs. = 300 lbs.) above the 160 pounds required to sustain the flight at that airspeed. This allows sufficient excess thrust for positive low altitude climb rate and maneuvering capability. Engines must burn a certain amount of fuel to attain their maximum rated thrust. The engine fuel/air induction piping is a fixed size so the maximum volume of air intake is constant at full open throttle. 19

34 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES As altitude increases, the air becomes less dense so the oxygen mass content per unit volume of air decreases, the amount of fuel the engine can burn then also decreases, causing the power available to decrease. Maintaining a proper fuel/air mixture requires gradual pilot control of the mixture control, reducing the fuel (leaning the mixture) to maintain a proper ratio of fuel and oxygen that will allow efficient burning. The effect is as if gradually closing the throttle. Every engine has this limitation. The availability of oxygen to burn fuel limits the performance of all engines. When flying this little airplane, it will only go up to 15,000 feet. Now at 15,000 feet, there is only the 160 pounds of thrust from the engine sustaining the aircraft at its optimum indicated-airspeed of 65 knots. What has happened? The lower half of the atmospheric mass occurs under eighteen-thousand feet so the reduction of pressure density is approximately linear. That means there is gradual reduced elemental oxygen in each volume of air available for burning in the engine. This occurs continually throughout the climb. There has been a loss of twenty pounds of possible thrust for each thousand feet climbed. At 5,000 feet, there was 200 pounds excess thrust available for climb or maneuvering, at 10,000 feet, 100 pounds of excess thrust for climb or maneuvering, and finally at the 15,000- foot level there is no excess. Only the 160 pounds of sustaining thrust remains, and there is no excess for climb or maneuvering. Thrust Required In the previous section, we determined it took 160 pounds of sustaining thrust to maintain our example aircraft in level, constant Vy indicatedairspeed flight. This is the thrust required to maintain this aircraft in this condition of sufficient airmass encountering pressure to generate the constant lift supporting itself in the air. Any maneuvering away from this condition with climb or level turn changes the direction of all the lift forces so requires added thrust to sustain the vertical-component forces needed to maintain the constant lift opposing gravity effect. The reduced excess thrust available in low air density (high-density altitude) conditions limits this maneuvering. Throughout any maneuver at this constant angle-of-attack, the related indicated-airspeed requires constant sustaining thrust plus some excess thrust to cause and maintain changed attitude. All flight requires sustaining thrust from the engine or gravity component-thrust, and for maneuvering of attitude, it requires some excess thrust be available to cause and sustain change. 20

35 Common operation is at indicated-airspeeds substantially greater than the V y optimum so allows some use of elevator-pitched changed angleof-attack to maneuver. This is using the momentum of the aircraft, as an energy exchange, using deceleration by induced drag or climb to cause attitude change. Normal initiation of small altitude corrections in flight is in this manner. Most texts profess using elevator-pitch for added lift to maintain level turns. The limit of this technique is the deceleration allowed before reducing to unsafe operating indicated-airspeeds, so if a turn is prolonged, it still requires added thrust to sustain the flight or result in possible stall. The range of indicated-airspeeds between V y angle-of-attack and wing critical angle-of-attack is relatively small. When operating near or below V y indicated-airspeed, elevator-pitch input in level turns is not a recommended procedure as it allows slowing and can quickly become dangerous. In addition, if operating at high altitude low-density conditions, you may not have much excess power available so minimum-banked level turns may be all that are possible without descent for use of gravity component-thrust. Note, using elevator-pitch with increasing angle-of-attack will never allow a constant indicated-airspeed level turn. Gravity Gravity is a force vector always directed from the center-of-mass toward the earth, no matter the aircraft attitude. The potential energy of altitude is from gravity, so is available only when airborne. Continued flight requires that in some manner there be opposite directed constant vertical lift forces to balance the gravitational loading effect. For all flight, there is a specific velocity at a given wing angle-of-attack causing sufficient airmass displacement to cause the required aerodynamic lift. This information is available in the aircraft POH or by flight test. When airborne, it is not possible to stop, so reducing engine thrust below level flight sustaining thrust, or maneuvering the attitude in any way that reduces the vertical component-lift, there will be descent caused by the gravity force. Gravity will always continue the motion, by sustaining the flight with elevator pitch controlled gravity componentthrust in gradual descent, or if stalled, uncontrolled falling. Reducing engine thrust lessens its thrust component-lift allowing negative climb (descent) with a nose lowered longitudinal attitude allowing the addition of gravity component-thrust. This is gliding or partial gliding to sustain the aircraft lift. 21

36 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Attitude change with elevator control is pitch steering by setting an angle-of-attack pitch for attaining gravity component-thrust (gliding or reduced engine thrust partial gliding). While sustaining an indicatedairspeed with elevator pitch, the ailerons and rudder maintain the directional steering of descent. Thrust for Idle Power Vy Sustaining Thrust 160# Vertical component-lift Drag 160# Elevator Load Engine Idle Thrust 70# Gravity Component-Thrust 90# Mass Load Weight due to Gravity Fig Gravity Component-Thrust Gravity control is pilot controlling of pitch attitude for the required sustaining gravity component-thrust. This is coordinating the power setting and angle-of-attack for attaining and sustaining the desired descending indicated-airspeed. Reducing below the sustaining engine thrust or manually maneuvering to any descending attitude will cause addition of gravity componentthrust to maintain the sustaining thrust for any current elevatorpitched indicated-airspeed. Drag Forces Drag force results from the pressure and flow friction forces resisting the displacing airmass from the aircraft direction of motion. In addition, the small pitched-up attitude of travel will cause induced drag, a retarding component from both, gravity acting from the centerof-mass and aerodynamic wing and body lift acting from the center of aerodynamic lift. In sustained constant indicated-airspeed level or climbing flight, the engine delivered thrust component in the direction of motion will equal 22

37 drag. When equal, there is no net increase or decrease of indicatedairspeed. Attitude change redirects aerodynamic lift, so the retarding component forces of drag will change with any maneuvering, thereby requiring coordinated engine or gravity component-thrust change for sustaining any new attitude. Drag and Component-Drag Forces Lift Component Induced Drag Aerodynamic Lift Flow Pressure, Parasitic, and Friction Drag Direction of Motion Gravity Component Induced Drag Effective Center of Load Weight = Load due to Gravity Fig At all times in flight, there will be coordination of sustaining and excess engine thrust causing continued level or climb maneuvering flight and with reduced engine thrust, gravity component-thrust from descent adding to maintain that sustaining thrust. Aircraft Attitude Effective Axes Control is for maneuvering and requires coordination of the thrust and flight-control forces to cause desired change. All attitude change requires power coordination for maintaining the required balance of all vertical lift force components to prevent descent by gravity. Aircraft attitude maneuvering occurs around the effective axes of rotation, relative to the current load. These axes of motion are not the axes of static balance, but always relate to the current load. The maneuvering axes of rotation of an aircraft are three imaginary lines, perpendicular to each other, referenced to the direction of the aircraft motion. There is the effective longitudinal axis, which passes through the center of pressure in the direction of motion, the yaw axis up and down 23

38 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES through the top and bottom of the fuselage, and the lateral (transverse) axis, which passes through the sides of the fuselage and wings. These axes are perpendicular to each other, intersect at the center of pressure, and relate to the maneuvering of the airplane. Maneuvering is a function of controlling your aircraft, directing the thrust about these three axes of the aircraft. You control pitch attitude for orientation of the airplane's effective longitudinal axis, by rotation about the lateral axis. Aircraft Effective Axes, Three Directions of Rotation z x y Direction of Motion Vertical Axis--Yaw Axis Rudder Control yaws (steers) the nose and tail side to side directing thrust. An Aircraft can be maneuvered into any desired attitude the power available can sustain! Fig.1-15 Roll is attitude rotation around the effective longitudinal axis. Aileron input with banking/rolling creates lateral component lifting as a side force, which turns the airplane. The rudder provides side motion of the fuselage nose and tail rotating around the effective vertical axis from rudder input. This side pitching (yaw) of the engine, steers the direction of thrust, allowing coordination of any undesired turning forces from the engine and propeller rotation, or induced aerodynamic drag. Dimensional Axes The dimensional axes of attitude are perpendicular to each other, all passing through the static center of gravity, and describe the orientation of your aircraft as related to the earth. The longitudinal axis centered from nose to tail, the lateral axis from the wing tips, and the vertical axis out the top and bottom of the aircraft. Pitch angle is the angle between the horizon and the static longitudinal axis. Roll is the angle of bank as referenced to the horizon. Directional attitude (side-pitch) is the compass-heading angle as referenced to the 24

39 earth from magnetic north. The close relationship of normal aircraft attitude relative to the earth has caused many pilots to consider aircraft attitude effective axes and dimensional axes the same. Stability Stability is the tendency of the aircraft to maintain a constant attitude. Positive stability is the tendency, if disturbed from the constant attitude, to return to that constant attitude. Loading the aircraft with the static center-of-mass slightly ahead of the designed center of aerodynamic lift is a condition of positive stability. This creates a forward moment and its moment arm relative the center of pressure. In this way, balancing the angle-of-attack with small aerodynamic loading of the stabilizer at the tail, with its long moment arm, assures nose down pitching and acceleration if inadvertent slowed indicatedairspeed reduces that tail loading. Minimum Safe Indicated-Airspeed Flight and Descents Slowing below optimum indicated-airspeed requires increased angle-ofattack and related aerodynamic component-induced drag. There is increased mass airflow under the wing and related added voiding of air over the top of the wing. Without care, maneuvering at low indicated-airspeed high angles of attack can inadvertently reach the critical wing angle-of-attack and allow stall. Slow indicated-airspeed below maximum endurance (Vme) level or climbing maneuvers require careful use of increased power to avoid increasing the angle-of-attack to the stalling indicated-airspeed. Visual reference of flight attitude for controlling angle-of-attack in turns is not possible. There are no inflight visual references to indicate the aircraft longitudinal pitch angle in turn, whether level, climbing, or descending. There is a long history of low indicated-airspeed maneuvering turns to final landing approach leading to stall. The pilot must train to be aware of limiting manual aft elevator-pitch in slow indicated-airspeed turns. This maneuvering is common and normal for most landing approaches so pilot awareness of proper control use when maneuvering at slow indicated-airspeed is imperative. Pilots learning hands-off flight techniques can more easily fly with minimum or no elevator input when slow. This desirable technique allows safer low altitude maneuvering, approach, and landing procedures. Just use power for its lift control. 25

40 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES g Forces/Load Factor The cause of aerodynamic g loading is from aerodynamic tail loading for aircraft longitudinal balance and any added aerodynamic lifting by pulling the control wheel to sustain rapid attitude change. When maneuvering in level or climbing turning flight, it requires increasing the total lift forces. This is to overcome the increased g force loading for maintaining level flight. The aircraft must continually create lift to maintain the weight of the aircraft in the vertical direction plus the added turning (centripetal) side loading ( g force), the aerodynamic tail loading, and overcoming added induced drag force. All these forces above the weight of the aircraft are increases of total load. Load factor is a reference to the force of gravity and is relative to one g equaling the weight of the aircraft. Loading measured relative to the weight of a system is load factor. A load factor of two g s means two times the weight of a system. The lift, out of the top of the aircraft, in a 30 degree banked level turn, will require a 1.15 g load factor for sustaining the mass of the aircraft 1 g vertical lift component. (sine 30 =.5, cosine 30 =.866) There is a significant difference in wing loading during a turn depending on the control inputs used. A turn using aft elevator control increasing angle-of-attack, using momentum and slowing for maintaining level flight is causing increased loading on the wings. The thirty-degree banked turn will have 1.15 g loading on the wings. This increased loading also causes increase of the indicated-airspeed at which stall can occur. A turn using coordinated thrust-component increase (added power) to maintain level flight will have a 1 g load on the wings and the added.15 g load carried by the engine-lifting along the fuselage, its moment arm, to the center of lift. A turn without power increase but with ample altitude to allow descent can be with minimized g loading. A descending turn can have little or no increased g loading, even negative g with accompanying acceleration using gravity component-thrust as excess to the sustaining thrust. This means accepting the associated altitude loss during such maneuvering. A method of steep banked turning is a full or constant power turning zoom climb with elevator-pitch and coordinated rudder steering allowing deceleration of momentum. Then, continuing the turn as the nose will drop with the slowing. Release or push the elevator control to allow gravity acceleration back toward the set indicated-airspeed while continuing the rolled attitude, all while coordinating rudder steering to 26

41 pitch the nose down for the added gravity component-thrust of descent. This technique is called a wing-over and is similar to the entry of a lazy eight maneuver and though not a level turn, when releasing elevatorpitch input, gravity acceleration and rudder input reduces the pitch angle and increases indicated-airspeed back to the initial condition. This allows reduced g loading of the wings and steeper banked turns. Glide A partial glide with reduced thrust from an operating engine is similar to engine out gliding. There is always a minimum thrust effect at idle power, but control procedures are essentially the same as if there were no engine thrust. When reducing or closing the throttle, the engine thrust component-lift reduces longitudinal pitch coordinated with the elevator control. Elevator-pitch controls the indicated-airspeed, and with pilot adjustment, maintains the desired indicated-airspeed. Supplementing to maintain sustaining thrust at the pitched indicated-airspeed is gravity component-thrust. This now requires continuous descent to maintain the gravity component-thrust input. The descent rate will be that which maintains the indicated-airspeed. From our previous example requiring 160 pounds of thrust to sustain the flight, now with the engine out, our aircraft has only its 1,600- pound vertical gravity force as a thrust source. It now requires controlling to an approximate six-degree angle of descent (sine 6 =.1) or if descending with idle thrust of approximately 80 pounds, it will require an approximate three-degree angle of descent (sine 3 =.05). Indicated-Airspeed Indicated-airspeed is a relative velocity through the air! You have an indicator in the cockpit calibrated to read speed in miles/knots per hour. This indicator has a pointer that moves to indicate a current speed called indicated-airspeed. This is only an indication of a speed. The indicated-airspeed instrument senses air pressure from a forward facing, open ended, tube, rammed with the mass-of-the air from forward motion of flight. This is a pitot system (invented by Henri Pitot; 1723 ), for measuring air pressure from motion, yet in the aircraft instrument calibration is displayed as speed. The indicated-airspeed indicator is merely sensing the ram-air pressure. The instrument actuation is pressure from this motion into the airmass. However, this instrument calibration is in units of speed, so called an indicated-airspeed indicator (IAS). 27

42 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Measurement of the pressure into the pitot system is an indication to you, the pilot, of the relative mass pressures around the surfaces of the aircraft causing generation of aerodynamic lift. Indicated-airspeed pressure is a reference of the condition of attaining and sustaining the flight. You control the aircraft as related to the instrument reading of this air pressure-speed indication. When your aircraft is sitting on the ground, the real wind of a moving air mass can create some pressure, just as if the aircraft were moving. For this reason, if you take off, accelerating into a real wind, it requires less actual velocity over the ground and results in reduced takeoff roll to attain the indicated-airspeed pressure to cause flight. During the takeoff roll, your accelerating aircraft creates airmass pressure from the increasingly rapid encountering and displacement of its volume through the air. Generation of reactive vertical component forces take place due to the aerodynamic shape, and these increase with increased velocity to the extent, they become equal to the weight of the aircraft. The indicated-airspeed pressure is your primary indication of satisfactory operation of the aircraft motion. The indicated-airspeeds published for an aircraft are the only operational basis a pilot has of an aircraft without conducting actual flight test. Elevator-pitch can be set for a constant indicated-airspeed with the elevator trim control. The trim control adjusts the elevator position to maintain a constant angle-of-attack with minimum pilot elevator control input. True Airspeed and Groundspeed An air mass is a large portion of the atmosphere that has similar properties of temperature, pressure, and humidity. An air mass moves relative the surface as the earth rotates underneath while warm air rises over colder air so flows with temperature differences into other air masses. Air mass movement relative the surface is the real wind. An air mass carries the suspended aircraft in its direction of motion. True-airspeed is the velocity of travel and relative to the distance of travel over time within and relative to the current air mass. Groundspeed is the velocity over the surface. A moving air mass drifts the aircraft in the direction of its movement affecting the actual track over the surface. Density of the mass-of-the-air varies considerably with altitude, temperature, and humidity. Low-density air has reduced mass per unit volume. The aircraft is required to travel at velocities sufficient to maintain the constant indicated-airspeed pressure necessary to sustain its lift. You 28

43 can see then, true airspeed relates to the mass per unit volume of the air. The less mass in a unit volume, the greater velocity required to attain the necessary mass displacement to cause the constant lifting pressure required. It is necessary to take care when talking about airflow. It requires specific distinction if talking about volume of air (volume airflow) or mass of air (mass airflow) and the related effect on the aircraft from its motion or the power available. Lift Pressure and Wing Loading A simplified example of wing loading pressures: As noted in figure 1-4, the frontal airmass encountering pressure at knots indicatedairspeed is approximately one pound per square inch. At knot V y optimum indicated-airspeed, there will be approximately a 6-degree wing angle-of-attack (sine 6-degrees =.1). A 1,620 lb. aircraft with two wings, each measuring 12.5 ft. long (25 ) x 4.5 ft. wide, will have a wing frontal area encountering the mass-of-the-air of 300 in. (25 x 12 ) x 5.4 in. (54 x.1) = 1,620 sq. in. At the V y indicated-airspeed, approximately one-half of the oncoming airmass passes over the top of the wing and one-half under the wing. Lift occurs in two ways. The portion of airmass passing over the top curved surface deflects down along the surface by the Coanda Effect, and accelerates across the partially voided surface area by the Bernoulli Effect with resulting reduced pressure over the top surface. The airmass passing under the wing deflects slightly away with reactive upward pressure by the Newtonian Effect; the resulting combined pressure differential is the aerodynamic lift of the wing. The underside of the example wings is 300 in. long. x 54 in. wide = 16,200 sq. in. At the same 6-degree angle-of-attack reacting under the wings with.1 lbs./sq. in. of lift, (not considering any body lifting), one hundred forty-four (144 sq. in. /sq. ft.) with sq. ft. x.1 lb. /sq. in. = lb./sq. ft. wing loading. The aerodynamic lift pressure in this example is one-tenth pound per square inch. Aircraft wings have lots of square inches of area. Wing loading is measured in pressure per square-foot (144 sq. in./1 sq. ft.). The performance of an airfoil relates directly to the displacement pressure attained for the indicated-airspeed required for flight, and not related to temperature, pressure altitude, or surface velocity. Those things contribute to the mass-of-the-air and engine performance, but aircraft performance pressure relate only to the actual encountered mass (mass flow) at any instant. An indicated-airspeed is an indication of pressure-speed in any situation, and is always an indication of current pressures affecting the 29

44 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES airfoils. Though calibration of the system shows indicated-airspeed, it is always measuring the pressure of the impacted/rammed air, relative to the motion of your airplane. The calibration of the indicated-airspeed indicator is the rammed air pressure. Only on a standard day at mean sea level is indicatedairspeed the actual velocity relative to the ground. Since air density and temperatures vary significantly, the indicated-airspeed reading is seldom an accurate measurement of speed across the ground. At increased altitudes with less dense air, the velocity relative the encountering air and the surface increases while maintaining a constant indicated-airspeed airmass pressure. For a pilot, operation at altitudes near sea level, the indicated-airspeed reading is often close enough. There still must be consideration of air mass movement relative to the surface, real wind. Ground-effect Operations very near the surface restrict the displacement of airmass under the wing so alters the wing upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices and results in reduced drag. Every takeoff and landing passes through this ground-effect. Ground-effect relates to the height of the wing above the ground, so there is considerable difference with high-wing versus low-wing aircraft. At takeoff, ground-effect starts and is greatest at liftoff and decreases with increased altitude, essentially disappearing when above an approximate altitude of the wingspan. The wingspan of most small aircraft is less than feet. Keeping the aircraft very low allows faster and safer acceleration to desired climbing indicated-airspeeds. At landing, when approaching very near touchdown, this reduced drag can cause floating if the approach indicated-airspeed is too high. Ground-effect is present anytime the aircraft is very near the surface, and is not restricted to being over the runway. Very low-level flight during an approach for landing can extend gliding distance by utilizing ground-effect, or at takeoff; continued very low-level flight after passing the runway end will allow continued acceleration to safer climb indicated-airspeeds. A pilot must train to fly an aircraft low to the ground learning to utilize this phenomenon for extending glide distance when approaching a landing area, or to utilize the technique of remaining low for increased acceleration at takeoff from short, soft, or high-altitude runways. 30

45 .9 = 18 kts. Headwind.7 = 14 kts. headwind.5 = 7-8 kts. headwind Ground Effect The Surface restricts airmass displacement with resulting reduced drag. SURFACE Fig Being close to the rocks and trees could be an unnerving experience if not familiar with techniques of very low flight. All pilots should practice experiencing the phenomenon. Estimating Wind Components Crosswinds are components of wind affecting the direction of travel over the surface. Simple and quick mental estimates of crosswinds and head or tailwinds are easily calculated using three numbers,.5,.7, and.9. This is something any pilot can use for determining close enough crosswind conditions. PRACTICAL USES OF VECTORS AND VECTOR COMPONENTS Close is good enough! Wind 030 /20 kts. N Right Triangles have specific constant relationships of the vector angles and the component legs. Therefore 30/60/90 degree and 60/30/90 degree triangles have legs that are always.5 and.9 of the resultant vector. A 45/45/90 degree triangle has both legs of.7 of the resultant vector. The.5,.7,.9 relationship allows quick mental estimation of wind components even for directions that are close. A 35 degree wind at 20 knots would have a crosswind component of a little more than 10 knots, maybe 11 or 12. Wind 045 /20 kts. Wind 060 /15 kts..5 = 10 kts. direct crosswind.7 = 14 kts. direct crosswind.9 = almost 15 kts. direct crosswind Fig Flight Control

46 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES A reported 10-knot wind degrees away from the runway heading has a 5-knot effective crosswind component (sine 30 =.5) and a 9- knot effective headwind component (cosine 30 =.9[approx.]). A 20-knot wind, degrees away, will have an 18-knot crosswind (sine 60 =.9[approx.]) and 10-knot headwind (cosine 60 =.5). A 20- knot wind degrees away will have 14-knots of both crosswind and headwind components (sine and cosine 45 =.7), plus or minus 3 or 4 or 5 knots, close is good enough. When attaining initial information for the landing airport, making this quick mental calculation before a landing approach allows you to have a plan. 32

47 Chapter FLIGHT MANEUVERING Engineers designed your airplane to be aerodynamic and manufacturers built it to fly. It is a big chunk of aluminum sitting there. You cannot change that. You just deal with it. If started and turned loose, it could fly by itself, so what is all the fuss about? We now have an idea of how airplanes fly, but we don t need to concern ourselves how or why since they do that all by themselves. A pilot needs to let them fly merely using control input for pointing them in a desired direction, trimming them up hands-off, and letting it happen. How Does An Airplane Fly? In flight, pilot input to a control initiates a change of attitude. The actual response involves reaction to the applied forces with associated change of momentum to a new direction. This means change is not necessarily immediate, though from the pilot s perspective, a control input gives a certain response but it normally takes a little time for completing the reaction. Don t worry about it. Understand that all maneuvering is pilot input to the flight controls and power change, the attitude changes take a little time. You just like to know what inputs will get the desired results. Your job as pilot is the utilization of energy through thrust for motion to enable safe, controlled flight. Your airplane uses the potential energy from fuel, converted by the engine for power, developing thrust to attain the kinetic energy of motion to sustain flight at altitude. When airborne there becomes related potential energy of gravity from position, which with gravity component-thrust of descent sustains the flight. A pilot steers the direction of thrust to obtain desired direction of motion. Control All ground operation, taxiing, takeoff-roll (acceleration to high velocity), and after landing touchdown-roll (landing deceleration) to parking, involves usual two-dimensional ground maneuvering of an aircraft as any other machine. The ground steering control is with either manual rudder pedal actuation of nose-wheel steering or individual toe operated main wheel braking. Motion control is with hand throttle adjustment of thrust from the engine and wheel braking drag to slow. Ground maneuvering continues from start of taxi through acceleration of the takeoff roll and liftoff, then resumes at touchdown to parking. 33

48 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES The high power setting for takeoff accelerates the aircraft on the ground until attaining sufficient aerodynamic lift for flight. Aerodynamic flight control gradually becomes effective as the relativewind increases during takeoff acceleration. The increased relative-wind allows steering control with aerodynamic forces from pilot input to the flight controls; the elevator pitching the nose (up/to or down/away), the rudder yaw (side-pitch steering thrust), and ailerons rolling the attitude causing a turning side component-force (side lift from aerodynamic and engine thrustcomponent lifting). It is the instant becoming airborne that maneuvering in three dimensions begins. Immediately upon attaining lift-off, acceleration stops, and the excess thrust applied begins climb. There is now significant change in control response from any power change. Further acceleration requires reduced elevator loading, pitch away. Upon becoming airborne, there has become engine thrust componentlift adding to the elevator s longitudinal pitch control of angle-ofattack (indicated-airspeed) and the excess thrust component-lift is causing climb-pitch. The excess thrust component-direction of motion sustains the direction of the climb. Flight control maneuvering of the aircraft is steering the direction of engine and gravity component-thrusts and their related component forces for maintaining or changing of attitude. Transfer Of Energy (Energy Management) It is the thrust, from the reaction of blasting large volumes of the massof-the-air, which pushes or pulls your aircraft. Usual discussion in the industry has always related to jet engine motivation with thrust and reciprocating engine motivation with power. In both cases, it is the thrust. However, this book will use the term power interchangeably for thrust as they both cause the same results. Engine power causes thrust through the turning propeller. Engine power and gravity power are from conversion of potential energy of fuel and/or position above the surface into thrust. The reactive force of thrust causes acceleration and sustains motion. This becomes the kinetic energy of motion. When accelerated to sufficient indicated-airspeed pressure, the aircraft became airborne. Just as in the beginning, you start the engine and turn it loose. All you do as the pilot is guide down the runway with a high power setting allowing acceleration. When attaining sufficient indicated-airspeed to generate lift equal to the weight, the airplane lifts itself becoming airborne. 34

49 Now What Is Going To Happen? First, you become airborne. Well, the design of the airplane is to do that, if it goes fast enough. Now it is in the air. It requires continuous sustaining thrust, and control for direction to go somewhere. It needs to climb to some higher altitude, so it does not run into anything. You have lots of power. You became airborne after accelerating to a selected indicated-airspeed. Now you are climbing. You are converting excess energy of engine thrust by climbing to increase the potential energy of altitude from gravity. We now have available power sources from both, the engine and gravity. The engine consumes potential energy of fuel with combustion causing thrust for motion (kinetic energy), and gravity consumes potential energy of altitude causing thrust for continued motion (kinetic energy) with descent. Flight Controls The flight controls are panel devices hinged to the backsides (trailing edges) of the aircraft wings and empennage. EMPENNAGE Rudder Trailing Edges Trim Tabs Vertical Stabilizer Elevator Horizontal Stabilizer Leading Edges The aircraft empennage is the aircraft tail consisting of horizontal and vertical stabilizers. Attached to the back edges of the stabilizers are the elevator and rudder control surfaces. A trim tab is a small adjustable control used to neutralize individual control force input for ease of operation for the pilot. Fig 2-1 The empennage is the tail of the aircraft and all its components consisting of the vertical and horizontal stabilizers with the rudder and elevator. The controllable stabilizers enable maintaining flight stability somewhat similar to feathers on an arrow, but with pilot input allowing steering for attitude change. The aircraft flight controls, the Ailerons, Rudder, and Elevator, maneuver the aircraft changing the direction of thrust by using aerodynamically generated forces through moment arms around the center of pressure. Input to the flight control devices deflects the 35

50 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES control panels into the airstream causing reactive forces directing change of direction of the aircraft thrust. Ailerons The ailerons are the movable surfaces mounted along the outer wing trailing edges. When turning the control wheel, the ailerons move in opposite directions into the airflow increasing lift on one wing, and decreasing lift on the opposite wing causing unbalanced lift for banking/rolling the attitude. Turning of the control wheel in the cockpit controls the rate and extent of roll attitude change. Turning the control wheel counter-clockwise will cause the aircraft attitude to roll/bank to the left, and turning clockwise, the aircraft attitude will roll/bank to the right. AILERON CONTROL Aileron control allows maintaining the wings level and controlling into rolled or banked attitudes by opposite deflection on the wings to create changed direction of lift. Left Aileron Up reduces lift on the left wing Right Aileron Down increases lift on the right wing In this depiction the Control Wheel is turned counter clockwise to cause Roll to the Left The Ailerons move in opposite directions with control input. Figure 2-2 On the ground, rudder steering with nose-wheel tire to ground friction and individual main-wheel braking steers the machine. In the air, side components of lift from a rolled attitude turn the machine and rudder yawing steers the direction of thrust to coordinate any adverse forces. When the aircraft attitude is at a wings level, constant altitude, there are vertical aerodynamic component-forces lifting from the top of the wings and body to sustain the aircraft weight. A rolled/banked attitude of your aircraft changes the direction of the lift forces relative the direction of gravity. The rolled attitude creates a turning force from both the side directed aerodynamic componentlift and the thrust component-lift. This change reduces the vertical 36

51 component-lift forces opposing gravity, so the aircraft will begin descent unless adding sufficient coordinated power to retain a constant vertical lifting force. The deflected aileron of the outer wing may cause some drag (adverse yaw) to the turn. It normally requires coordinated rudder steering to compensate for this drag. Additionally, the engine and propeller cause gyroscopic roll forces also requiring coordination of control from rudder steering of the thrust. Rudder The rudder is a movable surface mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. It deflects from side to side into the airflow by pilot input to foot pedals. Most aircraft have individual main wheel braking and nose-wheel steering associated with the rudder pedals for ground taxi steering and braking. Pushing the left rudder pedal deflects the rudder control surface to yaw/steer/side-pitch the nose to left, and pushing the right rudder pedal deflects the rudder control surface to cause the nose to yaw/steer/side-pitch to the right. For ground operation, all taxiing from the ramp departure to lift-off and landing touchdown to parking, rudder and wheel brakes control steering the direction of motion. The engine thrust is always in the direction the nose faces. Changing the direction of the nose changes the direction of thrust force. Rudder control input is yawing to side-pitch for coordinating the thrust. The yaw of the rudder steers thrust and the rolled attitude from of the ailerons causes turn. In a turn, miscellaneous left turning forces occur. Most undesired turning forces typically require right rudder input for coordination for the pilot, whatever it takes. Varied rudder input coordinates the travel by directing engine thrust as necessary. In an increasing bank/rolled attitude, the rudder pitching forces gradually contribute nose up/down pitch control. In steep turns and acrobatic maneuvering, when attaining bank angles greater than fortyfive degrees, the rudder becomes a factor for vertical pitch control, up/down control of thrust relative the opposing gravity. Elevator The elevator is a movable control surface attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer. Pulling and pushing the control wheel deflects it into the airflow. This causes the nose to move to and away from the pilot as a pitch attitude change for steering the thrust. Pilot input to the elevator control is elevator-pitched attitude control. 37

52 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Pulling the elevator control causes an increased aerodynamic load (negative lift) to occur on the tail surface. Additionally, changed power affects the propeller-blast airflow, which depending on the specific horizontal stabilizer placement can cause some changed load on the tail. Changed tail loading changes both, the balance of the aircraft and total effective loading. This elevator and stabilizer aerodynamic loading causes a small rotation around the lateral axis acting on its fuselage moment arm from the tail and creates a new center of pressure. The direction of motion does not necessarily change significantly. Any attitude change causing indicated-airspeed change causes a change of the vertical component-lift. Without coordinated increase of engine thrust component-lift, altitude will decrease, as gravity componentthrust will do the power coordinating for you. Pushing the elevator control reduces aerodynamic tail loading, even creating aerodynamic lift on the tail if mass loading is far aft. Any changed attitude of elevator-pitched angle changes the frontal profile of the fuselage and wings encountering the air-stream. A change of frontal area of the aircraft results in an associated increased or decreased volume of displacing air. This allows the aircraft to decelerate or accelerate, as there becomes corresponding change of the required encountering air pressure per square inch for developing the constant aerodynamic lift. For a pilot, elevator control input allows increase or decrease of indicated-airspeed. When maneuvering below Vy indicated-airspeed, cautious aft input is required to avoid extreme angles of attack possibly leading to stall. Elevator and Horizontal Stabilizer Trim Elevator-pitch for an indicated-airspeed can be set manually with control wheel input, but is not convenient since it would require you to hold the control in the same position for long periods. Therefore, you can use adjustment of the elevator trim control to set a fixed elevator-pitch angle at the elevator control for minimum manual pressure. This allows the aircraft to fly at a constant indicated-airspeed with minor pilot input to the elevator control. Some aircraft have moveable horizontal stabilizers that trim to change the angle-of-attack. These systems with horizontal stabilizer trim result in the same control as elevator-pitch trim. An interesting thing about an elevator trim-control setting is that it does not change without the pilot resetting the trim control. If controlling the airplane with manual elevator-pitch control input and then releasing that manual input, the aircraft will attempt to resume 38

53 the indicated-airspeed related of the current elevator-pitch trimmed position. It is similar to a cruise control. Elevator Trim (pitch nose up) Aircraft Aft Fuselage Elevator Trim Tab Back Elevator Control rotates the elevator trailing edge up into the airstream causing downward force on the stabilizer and resulting pitch up nose attitude as the aircraft rotates around the lateral axis. The Elevator trim tab moved down into the airstream causes added upward force on the elevator to hold the elevator up position. The trim tab allows adjusting for a hands-off fixed position setting a specific airspeed angle of attack. Fig. 2-3 Throttle and Mixture Control Manual throttle control adjusts the engine power/thrust output and a manual mixture control adjusts the fuel/air ratio for proper burning. This enables coordination of optimum power from fuel combustion with any power change. For the pilot, when the aircraft is airborne, the throttle controls lift. Engine Mounting and Control Tractor mounted engines have thrust component-lift acting from the point of attachment forward of the center of pressure causing nose up pitch with increased thrust and nose down pitch with decreased thrust. Pusher mounted engines have their thrust component-lift acting from the point of attachment aft of the center of pressure, so pitch the nose down with thrust increase, and nose up pitch with thrust decrease. There are significant differences in normal maneuvering control depending on the location of the engine mounting. Most aircraft and essentially all training aircraft have tractor-mounted engines. All flight control discussion in this book is reference to tractor-mounted engines. 39

54 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Pusher aircraft control is simpler to describe, as it requires continuous coordination of both thrust and elevator pitch with any attitude or power change throughout all realms of flight. Both, a change of power or a change of elevator pitch affects the total lift at the tail. The two lift inputs require coordination to maintain a constant angle-of-attack. A simple method of determining your aircraft thrust effect is from slower hands-off level flight, add some power. If the nose lifts, it is a tractor; if the nose goes down, it is a pusher. Engine Mounting Thrust Effect Level Flight: Horizontal Movement into the Free Airstream (Relative Wind) Attitude: 6 degrees nose up Indicated-Airspeed: Vy Pitch Nose Up Center of Pressure Pitch Nose Down Engine mounted forward of Center-of-Pressure will rotate nose up with increased thrust component-lift. Engine mounted aft of Center of Gravity will rotate nose down with increased thrust component-lift. Fig. 2-4 Engine Thrust Components (tractor-engine) With most inflight operations, there is a body angle-of-attack as well as wing angle-of-attack of the travel into the free-stream air. A body angle causes the engine and its direction of thrust to be in a pitched attitude above the direction of motion so cause thrust componentvectors at the point of attachment, forward as the direction of motion and outward as lift. Level, constant indicated-airspeed flight is a condition of enginesustained thrust component-motion (in direction of motion) and thrust component-lift, both at the engine attachment. The engine thrust component-motion sustains the velocity of motion. The engine thrust component-lift is coordinated with the elevator-pitch causing the angle-of-attack for the current indicated-airspeed. An increase of engine power increases the thrust component-lift creating increased pitch attitude as a climb-angle with a related changed direction of motion. That portion of thrust component-lift 40

55 from the sustained level flight remains coordinated with elevator-pitch as part of the angle-of-attack setting. The increased portion of engine thrust component-lift causes climb angle and changes the direction of the sustaining thrust componentmotion, so altitude will increase while indicated-airspeed remains approximately at the original set angle-of-attack. Now at a climb angle up from horizontal, there is no deceleration, the added excess thrust of the thrust component-motion sustains the motion at the original indicated-airspeed in climb, and the excess engine thrust component-lift causing increased pitch angle sustains the new pitched attitude as climb angle. The rate of climb is controllable in this manner up to the maximum thrust setting. Thereafter, reduced power and increasing true airspeed from increasing altitude (decreasing air density) will gradually reduce the climb rate. Maneuvering Maneuvering is controlling the aircraft attitude away from engine thrust-sustained, straight and level, constant indicated-airspeed flight. At takeoff, the aerodynamic flight controls become effective as acceleration attains sufficient encountered airflow. Total applied engine thrust is causing acceleration. Upon becoming airborne, the rudder, aileron, and elevator controls aerodynamically steer the direction of engine thrust. The throttle controls the extent of engine thrust effect, but there is no more acceleration, the engine thrust now sustains the liftoff elevatorpitched indicated-airspeed of continued flight, and any excess thrust component-lift is causing climb angle, the excess thrust componentforward sustains the climb rate in the direction of motion. The elevator pitch-trim previously set for takeoff has set the angle-ofattack of air encounter for an indicated-airspeed the aircraft will fly. Manual elevator control input and trim change can override the set angle-of-attack pitch allowing any necessary indicated-airspeed adjustment. In climbing or level flight, the throttle is the control of altitude and elevates with increased engine thrust. The elevator position controls the angle-of-attack causing frontal-plate area and allowing the indicated-airspeed the aircraft will fly. Descent changes the relationship between power and angle-of-attack. Power reduction below level flight sustaining thrust, reduces that portion of thrust component-lift contributing to angle-of-attack so allows a small acceleration. 41

56 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Change of power below level flight sustaining thrust changes angle-ofattack so now requires continuous coordination of elevator or elevator trim to maintain a constant indicated-airspeed, similar to the pusher engine control. Flap Configuration Positioning of flight devices such as landing gear, flaps, spoilers, etc., extended into the airstream is adjustment of configuration. Any extended device causes added drag so most operation airborne is with all devices retracted, a clean configuration. Wing Flap Configuration Flaps 0 Direction of Motion Flaps 10 Cruise Configuration Flaps 30 Direction of Motion Slow Maneuvering Configuration Direction of Motion Landing Approach Configuration Attitude Fig 2-5 Attitude is orientation in space. The airplane attitude is its position relative to the surface of the earth. The attitude orientation can be straight and level (wings level with constant direction, coordinated power, and altitude), straight with nose up or down for an angle of climb or descent, rolled left or right to an angle of bank, or a combination of these including, straight up, down or inverted. A pilot should carefully consider airplane attitude. When the making a flight control input, placing the airplane into an attitude, returning the control to its neutral position stops the input, and the airplane remains in the newly selected attitude if there is sufficient coordinated power. The flight controls cause the airplane to change its orientation relative to the earth. They maneuver attitude change, but require coordinated engine or gravity power input to attain and maintain that change. Although attitude can be in any orientation in space, in most aircraft, normal maneuvering is power limited to within degrees nose up or down with reference to the horizon, and seldom more than

57 degrees angle of bank/roll. As the pilot, you must be aware that airplane orientation matters because of the continuous, large, gravitational force effect, and usual limited engine power available. Pitch There are two ways to consider pitch; aircraft attitude pitch and vertical attitude pitch. The two kinds of pitch are often confused so need clarification in discussion. Vertical pitch is an aircraft pitched angle relative the horizon and attitude pitch is reference to input of control for changing attitude. Pitch Angle Pitch angle refers to the attitude of the aircraft nose relative the horizon, a vertical-pitch angle. It is a definition related to a profile attitude angle between the horizon and the aircraft dimensional longitudinal axis. Because of power limitations, in most aircraft, the pitched attitude angle will seldom exceed degrees nose up or down. Which way is UP? Fig. 2-6 However, in aircraft with sufficient power it is possible to have flight pitched to any given angle from level to vertically up, down, or inverted. The resulting total aircraft pitch angle from the horizon will be the excess power causing climb angle plus the body angle (aircraft angle-of-attack) of combined elevator-pitch and sustaining portion of engine thrust component-lift. 43

58 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Pitch Control Pitch control input is directing thrust, steering the machine to attain a desired direction of motion. We consider the term pitch in different ways. Pitching the attitude refers to inputting control to cause an attitude change relative to the pilot in the cockpit. As the pilot, you pitch the aircraft nose to or away with movement of elevator-pitch control, engine thrust component-lift with power change, and side-pitch of thrust direction with rudder input. A consideration must be made of the attitude of the aircraft when applying a pitch input. When banking the aircraft beyond forty-five degrees, the rudder input gradually becomes a vertical-pitch control. For this reason, it is necessary to consider how pitch control works in acrobatic or unusual attitude recovery flight. Elevator-Pitch You use the control wheel, forward and aft movement for changing the elevator aerodynamic lifting/loading. Elevator pitch adjustment results in rotation of the fuselage, with the effective longitudinal axis, around the lateral axis. Elevator or horizontal stabilizer trimming systems set a desired elevator pitch for minimizing pressures of pilot input. In level flight, the climb angle is zero, so the horizontal stabilizer loading, coordinated with the small outward thrust component-lift of engine sustaining thrust, cause the vertical angles of aircraft pitch. This causes the vertical pitch and attitude pitch to be the same. Rudder-Pitch Rudder input moves the aircraft nose side-ways relative the pilot. This is steering the direction of thrust so is pitching the attitude in the direction of pilot input. When the attitude is rolled over forty-five degrees, it gradually becomes a vertical-pitch control. Climb-Pitch Excess thrust component-lift increases the level-flight engine lift, resulting in climb. This causes nose up/to pitching of the aircraft changing the direction of motion. The angle-of-attack pitch remains constant as previously balanced with elevator position and the sustaining portion of the engine s thrust component-lift. On some aircraft, the added propeller-blast will cause some elevator loading with increased angle-of-attack. Climb-pitch is a changed direction of motion. A climb is movement up away from level flight with continued horizontal travel, but now along an inclined plane of increasing altitude. The increased thrust 44

59 component-forward from adding excess thrust sustains the new direction of travel. Descent-Pitch You are again flying in a stabilized, constant indicated-airspeed, wings level condition. What happens when you reduce power? In level flight, the aircraft has its small outward angle of encounter with the oncoming free-stream air (wind of motion, relative wind). This, we have determined, causes the small outward lifting force of the engine thrust-component. A decrease of thrust reduces that engine thrust component-lift contributing to the elevator set angle-of-attack. The effect is a small decrease of the aircraft angle-of-attack. This occurs anytime the engine thrust reduces from that required for sustained level flight. Reducing engine thrust below the sustaining thrust allows the addition of gravity component-thrust to maintain the total flight sustaining thrust. This results from decreased pitch angle of aircraft attitude with descent (a negative climb angle) and allows the small acceleration from the reduction of angle-of-attack lift from level flight-sustaining engine thrust component-lift. Maneuvering is Attitude Change Beginning the discussion from a stabilized level flight with constant cruising Vy indicated-airspeed, and wings level, you have the indicatedairspeed set with elevator pitch trim and the power coordinated to sustain this altitude. This is hands-off flight. Your aircraft is flying by itself. In the stabilized hands-off level flight, your aircraft has its set angleof-attack of the fuselage and wings that has established this constant cruise indicated-airspeed. You have coordinated the engine power to sustain the constant altitude. A typical side profile of your aircraft nose up attitude in level cruise flight at this indicated-airspeed will be at a pitched attitude of six to eight degrees. This means, if your angle-of-incidence were three degrees, there is an associated elevator-pitched body angle of three to five degrees. At this time, your aircraft has zero climb angle and three to five degrees nose up body angle. The relative-wind is opposite the direction of motion, so is also level with the horizon. Maneuvering in Level Flight Constant altitude is level flight. Beginning from constant indicatedairspeed sustained wings level flight, adding only power will cause climb and reducing power will cause descent. Changing only angle-of- 45

60 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES attack allows acceleration or deceleration but with associated change of altitude by gravity component-thrust from descent or limited zooming climb with momentum and rapid slowing by gravity-component drag. Level flight indicated-airspeed increase requires reduced angleof-attack to allow acceleration with coordinated engine thrust increase to cause acceleration. If above maximum endurance (V me, Loiter/maximum endurance IAS is approximately 75% of V y,) indicated-airspeed, increased angle-of-attack allows deceleration and when coordinated with reduced thrust causes level flight deceleration. If below V me, deceleration allowed with increased angle-of-attack and its increased induced drag requires coordinated thrust increase to cause sustaining level flight. This is a behind the power curve condition and is very close to the critical angle-of-attack. Maneuvering with Excess Thrust (turns) Level flight maneuvering is turning, which with its rolled attitude, reduces the vertical component-lift so requires coordinated thrust increase to sustain the constant vertical lift for level flight. Coordinated increase of thrust, adding excess thrust, throughout a turn will maintain the lift balance with associated increased engine thrust component-lift while traveling level along an angled plane. The angleof-attack set indicated-airspeed will remain constant. Some propeller aircraft may have increased downwash effect from blasting air when thrust is increased. This will cause some slowing from increased elevator loading and the related increased angle-of-attack. Turns greater than 34 degree bank cannot maintain constant altitude and indicated-airspeed! Aircraft Aerodynamic Wing Lift 800 ft. lbs. Turns Small Aircraft maximum thrust at 5,000 ft. approximately 320 lbs. Engine Thrust-Vector Lift 160 ft. lbs. Aircraft Aerodynamic Wing Lift 800 ft. lbs. Elevator Aerodynamic Lift -160 ft. lbs. THE AIRCRAFT RESPONDS TO A LEVEL CONSTANT INDICATED-AIRSPEED TURN AS HORIZONTAL CLIMB NO ELEVATOR INPUT REQUIRED! Gravity weight= 1,600 lbs. Wings Level requires 1.0 g lift. Engine thrust 160 lbs. Engine thrust component-lift, 16 lbs over a ten foot arm. Elevator aerodynamic load, 10 lbs over a twenty foot arm. Fig. 2-7 Gravity weight= 1,600 lbs. 34-degree bank turn requires 1.2 g lift Engine thrust 320 lbs. Engine thrust component-lift with ten foot arm requires 32 lbs. Elevator negative aerodynamic lift, is constant 8 lbs over a twenty foot arm. Constant elevator aerodynamic load equals constant angle of attack and its indicated-airspeed

61 The level, constant indicated-airspeed turning maneuver, increases the effective structural gross weight of the aircraft. Level or climb turning flight requires added power to carry this load. Most small aircraft do not have enough power to sustain more than a degree banked level constant indicated-airspeed turn. Use of gradual increased aft elevator-pitch when turning will add some lift to allow level flight. However, this increases angle-of-attack, slows the aircraft, increases g loading on the wings, and increases stall indicated-airspeed. Therefore, steeper banked turning with increased pitch requires cautious consideration that there is sufficient indicatedairspeed to allow increasing lift in this manner. A 30 degree banked level turn at our constant 65-knot V y will cause a 1,600-pound aircraft to lose some of its vertical-component lift plus, for maintaining level flight, requires more power to offset the increased g loading. In this 1.15 g turn, the aircraft requires a total lift of 1840 pounds (cosine 30 =.866), to sustain the 1,600-pound vertical lift. This constant indicated-airspeed and constant aerodynamic lift, requires an increase of 8± pounds of engine thrust component-lift on its ten-foot moment arm. Coordinating power from 160 to 240 pounds of thrust while in this attitude increases total lift for the level turn. For a pilot, there is no reading of thrust applied, just roll into and out of the turns, visually acquiring and maintaining the travel of the nose level across the horizon with coordinated thrust as required. Lift Forces and Their Component Vertical and Horizontal Forces Maximum Power Constant Indicated-Airspeed Level Turn 1600 lb. Aircraft, 32 lb. Engine Lift, 1.2 g 34 Bank Requires 1920 lb. Total Lift Sine 34 = Secant = 1.2 Fig

62 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES The rolled/banked attitude of an aircraft, with the changed direction of lift has also created a side-component of the lift force. This sidecomponent of lift is turning the aircraft. In this case, 920 pounds (sine 30 =.5) of the total force is changing the direction of flight. The thirty degree banked level turn has caused a 1.15 g structural load on the aircraft. When using added thrust, there is a one g wing load and a.15 g forward fuselage load. Maneuvering with Excess Thrust (Climb) Excess thrust is that engine thrust applied above the level-flight sustaining power setting. It requires excess thrust to cause climb. Added thrust increases propeller-blasting air and on some aircraft may cause some aerodynamic loading change across the horizontal stabilizer and elevator. These effects vary by aircraft according to the designed structural placement of the horizontal stabilizer, but may cause some increased angle-of-attack and slowing. In this changed attitude, for climb, the sustaining power for the current indicated-airspeed pressure remains constant. The excess thrust causes the angle of climb and sustains the upward motion. The excess thrust also increases both the drag components of aerodynamic lift and gravity caused by the changed attitude on the direction of total lift. The increased altitude of climb results in conversion of chemical energy through the engine to an increase of the potential energy of gravity. So what does all this mean? You have normal climb occurring at some rate of climb at the previously set elevator pitched indicated-airspeed. Now you know an aircraft with tractor-mounted engines, if increasing power from sustained level hands-off trimmed flight and not affected by propeller-blast, the aircraft will pitch up to a climb angle and with no change to angle-of-attack, maintain the current indicated-airspeed. Maneuvering in Descending Flight The aircraft, in sustained level flight, is at a set angle-of-attack into the oncoming free-stream air (wind of motion, relative wind) causing a desired indicated-airspeed. The elevator-pitch has incorporated the small engine thrust-component of lift as part of the pitched angle-ofattack setting for the current attitude balance. A decrease of this sustaining engine thrust to cause descent reduces a portion of that thrust component-lift. The effect is a small decrease of the aircraft angle-of-attack allowing some acceleration. At the same time, reducing engine thrust creates gravity componentthrust as the attitude moves into a descending angle. This gravity 48

63 component-thrust adds to accelerate to, and maintain, the sustaining thrust at this new indicated-airspeed. Reduced or idle power (partial gliding) and engine-out (gliding) flight requires re-setting the angle-of-attack with manual elevator-pitch control or elevator-pitch trim to maintain a desired indicated-airspeed. All descent requires continuous coordination for both power and indicated-airspeed change. Knowledge of this relationship of enginepower lifting and elevator-pitch control when below sustaining thrust allows anticipation of attitude change with changing engine thrust. This relationship of changing the angle-of-attack with power change when in descent is an explanation of many Pilots considering that power controls indicated-airspeed. When flying constant indicated-airspeed approaches to landing, stabilized control allows minimum thrust change throughout, and reduces the need of large elevator-pitch inputs for maintaining constant indicated-airspeed. In glide, the elevator control acts as gravity controller, but always with either increased rate of descent causing acceleration or reduced descent rate causing deceleration. Maneuvering with Gravity (Engine Out) Elevator input is the only control of gravity component-thrust. You have no throttle for gravity, only aircraft attitude. Maneuvering with elevator-pitch input to attitudes that change gravity component-thrust is the only way to throttle gravity acceleration. Decreased elevator-pitch can cause rapid acceleration from the very large gravity force. Nose down elevator-pitch input can initiate descent, but you must exercise caution. Gravity thrust is equivalent to the gross weight of the aircraft, possibly four times the maximum engine thrust. Indicated-airspeed will increase rapidly with any elevator nose down pitch input. The set elevator-pitch in normal flight attempts maintaining a constant indicated-airspeed due to positive dynamic stabilization, but with any low-pitched attitude, the acceleration from the gravitational component-thrust will be rapid. Normal technique is from manual aft elevator-pitch input for slowing using the increased angle-of-attack for its induced drag. This is positive pulling of the control wheel to regain or retain indicated-airspeed control. With large angles of descent, use of aft elevator-pitch control for more rapid deceleration will result in increased structural load factor ( g loading), so requires careful input. The sight picture across the 49

64 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES windshield in this extreme example might show mostly surface and little sky. An example: A 1,600 pound aircraft with a 6 degree descent angle having gravity component-thrust of 160 pounds (sine 6 degrees =.1), will for a 12-degree descent, have gravity component-thrust of 320 pounds (sine 12 degrees =.2), almost the equivalent of full engine power at 5,000 feet. Acceleration can be very rapid even in shallow descents. The indicatedairspeed increase by holding down elevator-pitch could cause approaching or exceeding the never-exceed speed (Vne) to the extent structural damage might occur. The combined effect of aft elevator control and high indicatedairspeed can easily generate large loads ( g forces) that could overstress the structure. It requires awareness to avoid excessive descent attitude and with large angles of descent (diving) careful but positive elevator-pitch control input for attitude recovery. Gravity Effects Engine thrust and Gravity component-thrust sustain lift by maintaining sufficient motion. Gravity is always out there, it is a substantial force, and always directed vertically down. If your vertical lift opposing gravity is not equal to the weight of the machine, then gravity component-thrust will always add to maintain the necessary sustaining force for your indicated-airspeed but you are going to descend every time. Gravity component-thrust will always balance the engine thrust to the sustaining indicated-airspeed for the current angle-of-attack and always with descent. You can maneuver the aircraft into any attitude, but can only attain or sustain that attitude if there is sufficient engine thrust. An attitude that engine power alone cannot develop sustaining thrust will result in descent from gravity component-thrust, causing the aircraft to continue to fly, but at some different attitude and altitude. You can do nothing. If unable to sustain the airplane indicated-airspeed because of engine power limitations, gravity does it for you, with descent. If you insist on manually forcing a maneuver with aft elevator into an attitude the machine does not have the power to sustain, it will decelerate into a stall and then still descend, uncontrolled! In all cases, you will descend. Just be sure there is altitude below. Zoom and Dive Exercises in zoom and dive will allow a pilot to become familiar with the coordination of energy exchanges in different regimes of flight. 50

65 Zoom is limited by power available, but dive is almost unlimited by gravity so is used cautiously. Simple wings level, constant powered, zoom can begin from a trimmed level indicated-airspeed. Holding aft elevator-pitch to zoom the aircraft up allows the indicated-airspeed to decelerate. As the aircraft decelerates, the nose will want to drop (from positive stability); gradual release of elevator-pitch allows the nose to drop with a resulting shallow dive allowing indicated-airspeed to resume toward the original elevator trimmed indicated-airspeed. A second procedure could be with added climb power, zooming again following the same procedure as before. The release of elevator-pitch will allow a diving descent, and now will have to be coordinated with reducing the power back to the original level flight sustaining thrust. The power has caused greater altitude increase during the zoom and rapid acceleration in the dive. This has been an energy exchange of kinetic energy to potential energy of increased altitude then exchanged back to the original kinetic energy of motion. Continuing this type maneuvering, with initial diving by pushing the elevator-pitch for descent, there will be descent with a rapid increase of indicated-airspeed. Note how rapidly acceleration occurs from the large gravity component-thrust effect added to the sustaining engine thrust. As indicated-airspeed increases toward V ne, gradual release of the elevator-pitch input will allow the trimmed angle-of-attack with the increased kinetic energy in the aircraft to cause climb and reduce back toward the starting indicated-airspeed and altitude. Note that with different energy losses involved, it will not regain the original altitude. The set elevator trimmed angle-of-attack and related sustaining engine thrust will resume the previous indicate-airspeed, just at a lower altitude. The two types of maneuvers zoom/dive and dive/zoom have different results. With an initial zoom, the aircraft will return close to its original altitude. The initial dive maneuver has both engine and gravity component-thrust adding with considerable acceleration and related energy loss throughout so does not recover to the original altitude without additional climb. Turning maneuvers (wingovers) of zoom/dive and dive/zoom will show similar behavior. These turning maneuvers at different power settings will allow familiarity with the control required in steep angled turns. This enhances a pilots understanding of energy management for control to become proficient in altitude-exchange turns and is useful in unusual or emergency very low altitude maneuvering situations. 51

66 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES The turn begins by using full engine power into a climbing, banking attitude while allowing the nose to begin dropping as indicatedairspeed reduces, and the banked angle increases. With gradual release of any aft elevator control and coordinated rudder input with the turn, the slowing indicated-airspeed will cause the nose to drop through the horizon, similar to the lazy-eight entry maneuver. Coordinated rudder at this time is side pitching the nose down, and indicated-airspeed will begin accelerating. Recovery of descent and heading is coordinated to roll out of the turn leveled at the desired altitude and heading, and with the power coordinated to sustain the original indicated-airspeed. This procedure also allows steep banked turning without excessive g loading. As an emergency turn, practicing at a safe altitude using only outside visual reference at idle power will simulate engine-out turning to allow learning of a safe procedure and probable altitude required to complete. In a zoom, there is obvious slowing and changed control response. Release of any elevator-pitch input will allow natural nose down pitching from the slowed indicated-airspeed. The coordinated turning is changing the heading and as the bank angle passes forty-five degrees, the rudder input becomes a vertical pitch control and when coordinated assures nose down pitching with any increased turning rate. The turning should be coordinated to allow rolling out of a 180-degree turn with wings level. 52

67 Chapter VISUAL FLIGHT CONTROL Visual flight is a method of maneuvering in relation to sighted references, a sight picture. You direct the aircraft into a desired attitude and maintain that attitude as related to visual reference of points on the surface or horizon and ratios of the surface to the sky using the horizon as a line across the windshield. This is controlling toward sighted points on the horizon or ground. It involves the alignment of distant objects toward which you fly be maintained in a constant position (unmoving) relative to you and a reference point on your aircraft window. This is similar to sighting targets with a gun. Directed-Course Visual Flight Control In this book, the added term Directed-Course is reference to normal visual maneuvering of flight courses and attitudes. The common term Collision Course refers to a course relative to another in-flight aircraft or object, sighted unmoving, that could lead to an actual mid-air collision. A collision course sighting always requires you maneuver to cause the other aircraft or object to become moving relative to your aircraft. It is essential you understand what is happening when flying a Directed- Course as an unmoving sight picture relative to the earth s surface. A Directed-Course is toward a distant referenced object, maneuvered to be unmoving relative to your sighting alignment through a reference point on the windshield or side-window, and toward which you target your motion, however you never reach this targeted object. Prior to reaching any sighted reference, you will maneuver away toward a different targeted destination. When approaching an apparent obstacle, only visually sighted objects below the horizon are objects that you will pass over. Pitch, roll, and yaw are the three components of control for steering your airplane's attitude. Pilot input maneuvers the aircraft attitude to attain a sight picture as an unmoving targeted point on the surface or horizon relative to the windshield, and toward which you want to fly. You can maintain or change the indicated-airspeed, altitude, and direction (heading) of flight using the airplane flight and engine controls. The controls adjust your rate of climb or descent, and rate of turn (bank angle of travel relative the horizon). Coordination of the controls adjusts your aircraft to a desired, inflight referenced, sight picture for attaining and/or maintaining the attitude required for a maneuver. 53

68 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES The primary visual reference (sight picture), used in your airplane, is the relationship between the airplane's nose-cowling, or points on the windshield or side-windows, to something in the distance on the ground or horizon. The fixed line of the horizon, sighted unmoving and level across your windshield in flight is a wings level collision course toward the horizon. A fixed point or object on the horizon, aligned to a point on the windshield for directional control, is a potential collision with that distant reference. A descent, toward a destination on the ground, is directing your airplane onto a fixed or nonmoving referenced course (Directed- Course) toward that location on the surface. Generally, you start descent when the referenced object is sighted toward the middle or lower windshield. Practice will determine the visual point for beginning descent to achieve different rates of descent. Steering toward Sighted Point on Horizon maintained unmoving + + Horizon maintained level and unmoving across the windshield DIRECTED COURSE VISUAL REFERENCE FLIGHT NORMAL CRUISE SPEED, LEVEL FLIGHT Fig 3-1 When established on a final landing approach, the aiming point you have chosen for touchdown becomes a Visual directed-course (collision course) to that area, on or near the runway approach end. Maneuvering attitudes are combinations of level, turning, climbing, and descending flight. The associated sight pictures allow your confirmation of proper attitude for attaining and sustaining these attitudes for flight toward a chosen direction and site. 54

69 Vertical Pitch Attitude Vertical Pitch Attitude is the angular relationship between your aircraft and the horizon. This angular or pitched attitude is the sighted ratio of the visible sky to the ground in the view ahead through the windshield. The ratio of the sky to the ground sighted in the windshield will change with pitch angle change. It requires a new sight picture for any attitude change. In your typical small airplane, there might be 1/3 ground and 2/3 sky with your airplane in a wings level constant altitude cruise attitude. Maintaining a distant point of reference as unmoving (no movement relative to a point on the windshield), results in desired direction of travel. Level flight deceleration increases the vertical angle slightly, causing more sky to be visible. The sight picture of less ground to more sky occurs as the indicated-airspeed slows. Level flight acceleration, decreases the pitch attitude, causing less sky to be visible. This changes the sight picture to more ground and less sky and happens as indicated-airspeed increases. The same kinds of reference change will occur with climbs, descents, and turns. In all cases, there is a sight picture, which will correspond to a current pitch attitude of the airplane. Each change of attitude is a new sight picture. You maneuver into the attitude desired, and note the visual sight picture, relative to the surface, and horizon. You then adjust the power and maneuver the flight controls, to maintain that sight picture, unmoving, relative to the targeting point on the windshield or cowling. In any attitude, the rate of climb or descent will be dependent on the coordinated power and the indicated-airspeed as set with elevatorpitch. You can always note a related visual reference of the ratio of ground and sky. Maintaining a fixed sight picture of the horizon requires you coordinate power for maintaining the constant pitched attitude in wings level or turning flight. Visual Flight Attitudes The relationship between your airplane's nose-cowling, points on the windshield and side-windows, as related to the surface and horizon, provide you primary visual reference. In all cases, coordination of flight and engine controls causes a pitch attitude. When attaining a desired pitch attitude, there will be distant surface and horizon points that become unmoving as reference to allow maintaining this attitude. 55

70 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES Takeoff Attitude Your takeoff attitude is similar to a climb attitude with a sight picture of the horizon being low, at or near the nose cowling. The actual position of the sight picture of the horizon low on the windshield will vary depending on your selected indicated-airspeed and the climb angle from excess thrust available. Horizon low across the windshield with climb angle at takeoff angle of attack. Sighting to a selected point for a Directed Course. x x H O R I Z O N DIRECTED COURSE VISUAL REFERENCE FLIGHT TAKEOFF AND CLIMBING WINGS LEVEL FLIGHT Fig. 3-2 You also must select a point or object on or toward the horizon for directional control. With the excess power and at the trimmed indicated-airspeed, your aircraft is attempting to maintain a constant climb at that indicatedairspeed. Rudder and aileron control will maintain the heading point constant. Climb Attitude To initiate, or maintain a climb, you have increased above the sustaining engine power by adding excess power. In some aircraft, depending on the placement of the horizontal stabilizer, increase in power causes increased propeller-blasting airflow over the horizontal stabilizer and elevator, resulting in added elevator aerodynamic loading and some slowing of indicated-airspeed. For many light airplanes, the climbing sight picture will appear to have the nose cowling on, or just slightly above the horizon. When you initiate a climb, an attitude change will occur without horizontal stabilizer or elevator-pitch input, as your aircraft will attempt to 56

71 maintain its trimmed indicated-airspeed (elevator-pitched angle-ofattack) previously set with the horizontal stabilizer or elevator-pitch trim. The amount of pitch change for climb angle is dependent on the excess engine power available. Climbing into the reduced density of the atmosphere gradually limits available power, so throughout any climb, there is a gradual reduction of the climb angle and the related sight picture ground/sky ratio very slowly changes. In all cases of attitude change, you will reference the horizon to enable attaining a sight picture for relating to the desired climb performance. With the application of excess power, your aircraft, at a constant indicated-airspeed, seeks its own climb pitch angle. Cruise Attitude In cruise flight, your properly trimmed airplane maintains a constant indicated-airspeed and altitude. The range of attitudes at different level flight indicated-airspeeds is relatively small, usually being just a few degrees of pitch, and often not apparent to a pilot. The sighted horizon will be level across the windshield close to one-third to onehalf up from the bottom. Turn Attitude Roll or bank is an angle (tilt) to the left or right of your aircraft as referenced to the horizon. You sight the angle of the horizon across the windshield. Your heading reference on the windshield is movement of the nose cowling traveling level along the horizon causing a constant altitude level turn. If there is no increase of the vertical lift component to maintain this aircraft loading, the nose position, sighted relative to the horizon, starts down, and will result in the airplane descending, as it tries to maintain the set elevator-pitched indicated-airspeed. In order to make any level constant indicated-airspeed turning flight, you must always add coordinated power. The referenced sight picture, moving level horizontally in the turn, is with controlled, constant, vertical component-lift from the coordination of added thrust. With an understanding of the cause of lift and indicated-airspeed, it soon becomes apparent that, in most turns, you do not need to pull on the control wheel. To maintain the level-flight sight picture, gradually add coordinated power as you roll the aircraft into the turn and gradually retard that power as you roll out level on a desired heading. Perfect level, constant indicated-airspeed turns can result with bank angles up to maximum power input. After reaching maximum power, steeper bank angles for level turns are not possible without elevatorpitch and resultant slowed indicated-airspeed. 57

72 HOW TO FLY AIRPLANES DIRECTED COURSE VISUAL REFERENCE FLIGHT 22 STANDARD RATE LEVEL LEFT TURN Horizon Tracking Referenced sighting spot on windshield Add power as necessary to keep the reference spot tracking the horizon Fig. 3.3 When operating at slower indicated-airspeeds, aft elevator-pitch input in a turn increases the stalling indicated-airspeed from the added gforce loading and when operating at very slow indicated-airspeeds, there may be rapid approach to the critical wing angle-of-attack. Descent attitude To make your airplane descend (decrease altitude), you will initiate a small power reduction, which lowers the nose below that of the level cruise attitude. Normal descent will occur with the nose lowering from reduction of engine thrust component-lift. For most light airplanes, this will become a sight picture at which the airplane nose appears to be close or slightly below the horizon. Power reduction for descent reduces the powered lift portion of the indicated-airspeed angle-of-attack as set with elevator-pitch. Also in some aircraft, the decrease of propeller-blast loading on the elevator may result in a small increase of indicated-airspeed. Visually fixing your descent destination as a Directed-Course, unmoving, near the bottom center of the windshield, enables you to fly a descent path directly to that destination. Adjustment of power will keep your destination point fixed, and the airplane will continue at the elevator-pitched indicated-airspeed as coordinated with the elevator trim. 58