3/6/2001 Fig. 6-1, p.142

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1 First GOES 11 image earth.nasa.g ov/view_rec. php?id=190 Air-born dust from the Sahara Desert, Feb Fig. 6-CO, p.140 dust from China over Japan. 3/5/2001 FIGURE 6.1 A model of the atmosphere where air density remains constant with height. The air pressure at the surface is related to the number of molecules above. When air of the same temperature is stuffed into the column, the surface air pressure rises. When air is removed from the column, the surface pressure falls. 3/6/2001 Fig. 6-1, p.142 FIGURE 6.2 It takes a shorter column of cold air to exert the same pressure as a taller column of warm air. Because of this fact, aloft, cold air is associated with low pressure and warm air with high pressure. The pressure differences aloft create a force that causes the air to move from a region of higher pressure toward a region of lower pressure. The removal of air from column 2 causes its surface pressure to drop, whereas the addition of air into column 1 causes its surface pressure to rise. (The difference in height between the two columns is greatly exaggerated.) It takes a shorter column of cold, dense air to exert the same sfc P as a taller column of warm, less dense air. Warm air aloft = high P; cold air aloft = low P Fig. 6-2, p.143

2 The Pressure gradient force is due to the pressure difference and causes air to move from higher P to lower P (wind) Air pressure = force of air molecules over a given area P=T x Density x k, so P~ T x P Fig. 6-2c, p.143 Air above a region of surface high pressure is more dense than air above a region of surface low pressure (at the same temperature p.144 FIGURE 6.3 Atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury and in millibars. FIGURE 6.4 The mercury barometer. The height of the mercury column is a measure of atmospheric pressure. Fig. 6-3, p.145 Fig. 6-4, p.146 Recording barograph Fig. 6-5, p.146 Fig. 6-6, p.147

3 FIGURE 6.7 The top diagram (a) shows four cities (A, B, C, and D) at varying elevations above sea level, all with different station pressures. The middle diagram (b) represents sea-level pressures of the four cities plotted on a sea-level chart. The bottom diagram (c) shows isobars drawn on the chart (dark lines) at intervals of 4 millibars. Fig. 6-7, p.147 FIGURE 6.8 (a) Surface map (left) and upper air map (right) for same day. Fig. 6-8, p.148 FIGURE 6.8 (a) Surface map showing areas of high and low P Wind blows across the isobars Fig. 6-8a, p.148 (b) Upper-level (500-mb) map for the same day on right. Solid lines = contour lines in meters above sea level. Dashed red lines = isotherms in C. Note wind blows parallel to the contour lines on upper air map! Fig. 6-8b, p.148 Isobaric map FIGURE 6.9 The higher water level creates higher fluid pressure at the bottom of tank A and a net force directed toward the lower fluid pressure at the bottom of tank B. This net force causes water to move from higher pressure toward lower pressure. Because of the changes in air density, a surface of constant pressure rises in warm, less-dense air and lowers in cold, p.149 Fig. 6-9, p.150 more-dense air.

4 P gradient = 4 mb/100 km Net force = P gradient force = PGF FIGURE 6.10 The pressure gradient between point 1 and point FIG The closer the spacing of isobars, the greater the pressure gradient. The greater the pres. gradient, the stronger the pres. gradient force (PGF). The 2 is 4 mb per 100 km. The net force directed from higher stronger the PGF, the greater the wind speed. The red arrows represent the toward lower pressure is the pressure gradient force. Fig. 6-10, p.151 relative magnitude of the force, which is always directed from higher toward lower Fig. 6-11, p.151 pressure. FIGURE 6.13 On non rotating platform A, the thrown ball moves in a straight line. On platform B, which rotates counterclockwise, the ball continues to move in a straight line. However, platform B is rotating while the ball is in flight; thus, to anyone on platform B, the ball appears to deflect to FIGURE 6.12 Surface weather map for 6 A.M. (CST), Tuesday, November 10, Dark gray lines are isobars with units in millibars w/ 4 mb interval. A deep low with a central P of 972 mb (28.70 in.) is moving over NW Iowa. The dist. along the green line X-X is 500 km. The diff. in P between X and X is 32 mb, producing a P gradient of 32 mb/500 km. The tightly packed isobars along the green line are associated with strong northwesterly winds of 40 knots, with gusts even higher. Wind directions are given by lines that parallel the wind. Wind speeds are indicated by barbs and flags. (A wind indicated by the symbol would be a wind from the northwest at 10 knots. See blue insert.) The solid blue line is a cold front, the solid red line a warm front, and the solid purple (red?) line an occluded front. The heavy dashed line is a trough. Fig. 6-12, p.152 the right of its intended path. Fig. 6-13, p.152 Coriolis effect geostrophic wind FIGURE 6.14 Except at the equator, a free-moving object will appear from the Earth to deviate from its path as the Earth rotates beneath it. The deviation (Coriolis force ) is greatest at the poles and decreases to zero at the equator. Fig. 6-14a, p.153 FIGURE 6.15 Above the level of friction (~1000 m elev), air initially at rest will accelerate until it flows parallel to the isobars at a steady speed with the pressure gradient force (PGF) balanced by the Coriolis force (CF). Fig. 6-15, p.154

5 FIGURE 6.16 The isobars and contours on an upper-level chart are like the banks along a flowing stream. When they are widely spaced, the flow is weak; when they are narrowly spaced, the flow is stronger. The increase in winds on the chart results in a stronger Coriolis force (CF), which balances a larger pressure gradient force (PGF). Fig. 6-16a, p.155 Fig. 6-16b, p.155 FIGURE 6.17 Winds and related forces around areas of low and high pressure above the friction level in the Northern Hemisphere. Notice that the pressure gradient force (PGF) is FIGURE 6.17 Winds and related forces around areas of low and high pressure above the friction level in the Northern Hemisphere. Notice that the pressure gradient force (PGF) is in red, while the Coriolis force (CF) is in blue. Fig. 6-17a, p.155 Fig. 6-17b, p.155 in red, while the Coriolis force (CF) is in blue. FIGURE 6.18 An upper-level 500-mb map showing wind direction, as indicated by lines that parallel the wind. Wind speeds are indicated by barbs and flags. (See the blue insert.) Solid gray lines are contours in meters above sea level. Upper level chart that extends over the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Solid gray lines on the chart are isobars. Dashed red lines are isotherms in C. Fig. 6-18, p.156 p.157

6 This drawing of a simplified upper level chart is based on cloud observations. Upper level clouds moving from the southwest (a) indicate isobars and winds aloft (b). When extended horizontally, the upper-level chart appears as in (c), where lower pressure is to the northwest and higher pressure FIGURE 6.19 (a) The effect of surface friction is to slow down the wind so that, near the ground, the wind crosses the isobars and blows toward lower pressure (friction lowers the wind speed which lowers Coriolis force). (b) This phenomenon at the surface produces an outflow of air around a high. Aloft, the winds blow parallel to the lines, usually in a wavy west-to-east pattern. p.158 Fig. 6-19, p.159 is to the southeast. FIGURE 6.20 (a) Surf. weather map showing isobars and winds on a day in Dec. in S. America. (b) The boxed area shows the idealized flow around surf.-pressure systems in the Southern Hemisphere. Fig. 6-20, p.159 FIGURE 6.21 Winds and air motions associated with surface highs and lows in the Northern Hemisphere. Fig. 6-21, p.160 FIGURE 6.22 An onshore wind blows from water to land, whereas an offshore wind blows from land to water. Fig. 6-22, p.161 Fig. 6-23, p.161 FIGURE 6.23 Wind direction can be expressed in degrees about a circle or as compass points.

7 FIGURE 6.25 This wind rose represents the percent of time the wind blew from different directions at a given site during FIGURE 6.24 In the high country, trees standing unprotected the month of January for the past ten years. The prevailing Fig. 6-24, p.161 Fig. 6-25, p.162 from the wind are often sculpted into flag trees. wind is NW and the wind direction of least frequency is NE. FIGURE 6.26 A wind vane and a cup anemometer. These instruments are part of the ASOS system. (For a complete FIGURE 6.27 The aero vane (skyvane). Fig. 6-26, p.162 Fig. 6-27, p.162 picture of the system, see Fig. 3.17, p. 74). FIGURE 5 A portion of a wind farm near the summit of Altamont Pass, California. With over 7000 wind turbines, this is the world s largest wind energy development project. p.162

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