1.1 Noise maps: initial situations. Rating environmental noise on the basis of noise maps. Written by Henk M.E. Miedema TNO Hieronymus C.

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1 TIP4-CT Page 1 of 34 DELIVERABLE D 1.5 CONTRACT N PROJECT N ACRONYM TITLE TIP4-CT FP QCITY Quet Cty Transport Subproject 1 Nose mappng & modellng Work Package 1.1 Nose maps: ntal stuatons Ratng envronmental nose on the bass of nose maps Wrtten by Henk M.E. Medema TNO Heronymus C. Borst Date of ssue of ths report February, 2007 PROJECT CO-ORDINATOR Acoustc Control ACL SE PARTNERS Accon ACC DE Akron AKR BE Alfa Products & Technologes APT BE Banverket BAN SE Composte Dampng Materal CDM BE Havenbedrjf Oostende HOOS BE Frateur de Pourcq FDP BE Goodyear GOOD LU Head Acoustcs HAC SE Hejmans Infra HEIJ BE Royal Insttute of Technology KTH SE Vlaamse Vervoersmaatschappj DE LIJN LIJN BE Lucchn Sdermeccanca LUC IT NCC Roads NCC SE Stockholm Envronmental & Health Admnstraton SEA SE Socété des Transports Intercommunaux de Bruxelles STIB BE Netherlands Organsaton for Appled Scentfc Research TNO NL Trafkkontoret Göteborg TRAF SE Tram SA TRAM GR TT&E Consultants TTE GR Unversty of Cambrdge UCAM UK Unversty of Thessaly UTH GR Voestalpne Schenen VAS AU Zbloc Norden ZBN SE Unon of European Ralway Industres UNIFE BE PROJECT START DATE February 1, 2005 DURATION 48 months Project funded by the European Communty under the SIXTH FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME PRIORITY 6 Sustanable development, global change & ecosystems

2 TIP4-CT Page 2 of 34 TABLE OF CONTENTS 0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3 1 INTRODUCTION 4 2 NOISE EXPOSURE 7 3 ANNOYANCE Annoyance exposure-response relatons per type of source Relaton of annoyance to combned exposures Dscusson 12 4 SLEEP DISTURBANCE Sleep dsturbance exposure-response relatons per type of source Relaton of sleep dsturbance to combned exposures Dscusson 17 5 UNACCEPTABLE EXPOSURES AND QUIET AREAS Unacceptable resdental exposures (hot spots) Quet areas 20 6 ADDITIONAL ACOUSTICAL FACTORS Addtonal factors and Lden Insulaton Quet sde Ambent nose Addtonal factors and Lnght 27 7 RATING SYSTEM: STEPWISE PROCEDURE Percentage hghly annoyed Percentage hghly sleep dsturbed Number of ndvduals wth unacceptable nose exposure Percentage of non-quet area 32 REFERENCES 32

3 TIP4-CT Page 3 of 34 0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The objectve of QCty s to propose a range of measures and solutons wth respect to nose n ctes that can be ntegrated n the acton plans that these ctes (agglomeratons) have to produce as a consequence of the EU Envronmental Nose Drectve (END). Nose maps can be the startng pont for the desgn of measures that mprove the nose clmate. In order to evaluate the need for nose measures as well as the mprovement that can be obtaned wth varous measures, there s a need for a system that rates envronmental nose on the bass of nose maps. The objectve of ths report s to present such a ratng system. The ratng system needs to be evdence-based, so that t may be expected that effects n the communty reduce f the system ndcates that the ratng mproves. Therefore, n prncpal t needs to be based on emprcal exposure-response relatonshps. A desk study has been carred out that uses the relevant emprcal evdence on such relatonshps. After ts descrpton, the ratng system s presented as a stepwse procedure that can be read as a cookbook. Applcaton of ths procedure gves the followng ratngs of the envronmental nose: Overall nose clmate n resdental areas: percentage hghly annoyed (%HA); Nght-tme nose clmate n resdental areas: percentage hghly sleep dsturbed (%HSD); Hot spots n resdental areas: (weghted) number of ndvduals above lmt value L (nl); Non-Quet area: percentage area wth Lden > 50 db(a) (AREA50). These four ndcators together consttute the proposed system for ratng envronmental nose on the bass of nose maps. The ndcators can be calculated for a cty or parts of t (neghbourhoods), for dfferent types of sources (arcraft, road traffc, ralways) separately or for the combned nose from these sources, and for the present stuaton as well as for nose maps of possble future stuatons based on scenaro s. The structure of the ratng system appears to be sold and consstent wth requrements formulated but t needs to be elaborated n some respects, and not all numercal values used could be equally founded on emprcal evdence so that addtonal emprcal research s needed. However, t s suffcently developed to mplement t n nose mappng software. After ths has been done, ts usage wll be explored n practce. It s the frst coherent proposal of a ratng system that gves nsght not only n the mpact of Lden or Lnght, but addtonally n the nfluence of sound nsulaton, quet sde of a dwellng, and ambent nose n the neghbourhood, and, furthermore, that s not only applcable to nose from a sngle source, but also to combned nose from varous sources.

4 TIP4-CT Page 4 of 34 1 INTRODUCTION June 2002 the European Parlament and Councl adopted the Envronmental Nose Drectve (END) (EC, 2002). END ntends to provde a common bass for tacklng the nose problem across the EU. It has the followng four man objectves: Montorng the envronmental problem by requrng competent authortes n Member States to draw up "strategc nose maps" for major roads, ralways, arports, and agglomeratons. These maps wll be used to assess the number of people annoyed and sleep-dsturbed respectvely throughout Europe. Informng and consultng the publc about nose exposure, ts effects, and the measures consdered to address nose, n lne wth the prncples of the Aarhus Conventon Addressng local nose ssues by requrng competent authortes to draw up acton plans to reduce nose where necessary and mantan envronmental nose qualty where t s good. Developng a long term EU strategy, whch ncludes objectves to reduce the number of people affected by nose n the longer term, and provdes a framework for developng exstng Communty polcy on nose reducton from source. To meet these general objectves a number of actons are taken and projects started on natonal and EU level, ncludng, as part of the EU Sxth Framework Programme, the project Quet Cty Transport (QCty). The objectve of QCty s to propose a range of measures and solutons wth respect to nose n ctes that can realstcally be ntegrated both from an economc as well as from practcal pont of vew n the acton plans that these ctes (agglomeratons) have to produce as a consequence of END. Nose maps are the startng pont for the desgn of measures that mprove the nose clmate. In order to evaluate the need for nose measures as well as the mprovement that can be obtaned wth varous measures, there s a need for a system that rates envronmental nose on the bass of nose maps. Ths report presents such a ratng system. The ratng system has been developed takng nto account the followng condtons: The ratng system needs to be evdence-based, so that t may be expected that effects n the communty reduce f the system ndcates that the ratng mproves. Therefore, n prncpal t need to be based on emprcal exposure-response relatonshps. However, because evdence regardng ther nfluence on nose effects wll be not avalable for all potentally relevant factors, rules based on one of three levels of emprcal evdence can be ncorporated: I suffcently precse emprcal evdence; II plausblty and emprcal evdence, wth lmted quanttatve uncertanty; III plausblty and (some) emprcal evdence, wth lmted quanttatve uncertanty. Preferably nformaton from the hghest category s used, and the research that appears to be needed to strengthen the emprcal bass of the ratng system s recommended at the end of ths ntroducton. The ratng system needs to be consstent wth the chosen nose metrcs n the EU and the effect measures to rate the envronmental nose. Specfcally, Lden and Lnght have been chosen as the nose metrcs to be used for nose mappng n the EC (2002). Furthermore, annoyance and sleep dsturbance are the health effects that are chosen as crtera for evaluatng envronmental nose. EU workng groups have recommended exposureresponse relatonshps to be used for estmatng the prevalence of nose annoyance (EC-WG/2, 2002) and sleep dsturbance (EC-WG/HSEA, 2004) on the bass of nose maps. For sleep dsturbance, the workng group presents relatonshps for two chronc effects related to Lnght, namely nose-nduced motlty and self-reported sleep dsturbance. The presented relatonshps for motlty were derved for arcraft nose. For self-reported sleep

5 TIP4-CT Page 5 of 34 dsturbance relatonshps are presented for arcraft, road traffc and ralway nose. Here we focus on self-reported sleep dsturbance, one reason for ths choce beng that only for ths effect exposure-response relatonshps are avalable also for road traffc and ralway nose. Gven ths background, the ratng system need to be based on Lden and Lnght, and need to predct nose annoyance and self-reported sleep dsturbance. The ratng system must be senstve to changes n the acoustcal stuaton that affect nose annoyance and sleep dsturbance. To accomplsh ths, the set of predctors of annoyance and sleep dsturbance wll be extended beyond Lden and Lnght, respectvely, to mprove the predcton on the bass of addton acoustcal aspects. These extensons need to be consstent wth the establshed relatonshps for nose annoyance and sleep dsturbance that use only Lden or Lnght, respectvely, as predctor. Addtonal aspects that wll be taken nto account are sound nsulaton, quet sde of the dwellng, and ambent nose n the neghbourhood. The ratng system must gve nsght n the acoustcal stuaton that s as complete as needed for nose polcy. Because often ndvduals are not exposed to nose from a sngle source, but to combned nose from varous sources, a suffcently complete ratng system must be able to take nto account total nose exposures, and the annoyance and sleep dsturbance expected on the bass of ths total exposure. In addton to ndcatons of the acoustcal clmate n resdental areas and the effects expected on the bass of exposures n and around home, there s a need to have specfc nformaton on the very hgh and the relatvely low exposures. Wth respect to the very hgh exposures, t s mportant to quantfy the number of ndvduals wth an unacceptably hgh exposure. When a relatvely large number of ndvduals wth unacceptable exposures are clustered n a small area, we call ths a hot spot. Unacceptablty wll be defned by conventon and may be based on legal lmts above whch nose reducton s mandatory. Insght n areas where the envronmental nose exposure s or can be relatvely low, s useful for nose polcy amng at the mprovement of quet areas. The ratng system need to be transparent and ts usage n practce must be feasble. It must be transparent n the sense that t must show the overall effects to be expected gven the nose maps, but n addton t must be clear how varous acoustcal aspects contrbute to these overall outcomes. Wth respect to feasblty, t must be possble to defne routnes n a GIS system so that the nose ratngs can be calculated automatcally from the nose maps. The nput nformaton requred for the calculaton of the ratngs need to be avalable after the mandatory nose mappng has been carred out (mnmum requred nformaton), whle t must be possble to take advantage of addtonal, more detaled nformaton that s avalable to some of the muncpaltes n the EU (maxmum usable nformaton). Dealng wth ths requrement calls for a ratng system that can ncorporate detaled nformaton, but also gves estmaton procedures or defaults for cases where ths nformaton s not avalable. Ths report s organsed as follows. The next chapter (Ch 2) brefly dscusses the EU nose metrcs and ther assessment. Then there are two chapters (Chs 3 4) that present relevant nformaton that s avalable on exposure-effect relatonshps for nose annoyance and sleep dsturbance. In these chapters t s not only dscussed how these effects are related to nose exposure from a sngle type of source, but also how the effects are related to combned exposures. The subsequent chapter (Ch 5) ntroduces measures for dentfyng hot spots and for quet areas. Then the method of ncorporatng sound nsulaton, quet sde of the dwellng and ambent nose level n the neghbourhood n the ratng system that s prmarly based on the exposure-effect relatonshps for ndvdual and combned sources, s

6 TIP4-CT Page 6 of 34 dscussed (Ch 6). Fnally, the ratng system s presented as a stepwse procedure that can be read as a cookbook (Ch 7). Applcaton of ths procedure gves the followng ratngs of the envronmental nose: Overall nose clmate n resdental areas: percentage hghly annoyed (%HA); Nght-tme nose clmate n resdental areas: percentage hghly sleep dsturbed (%HSD); Hot spots n resdental areas: (weghted) number of ndvduals above lmt value L(nL); Non-Quet area: percentage area wth Lden > 50 db(a) (AREA50). These four ndcators together consttute the proposed system for ratng envronmental nose on the bass of nose maps. The ndcators can be calculated for a cty or parts of t (neghbourhoods), and for the present stuaton as well as for nose maps of possble future stuatons based on scenaro s. Ths report s ntended prmarly for frms whch produce nose maps. It gves them the tool for addng an envronmental nose ratng system consstent wth the EU polcy to ther nose mappng software. The report s not so much ntended for the authortes of ctes concerned wth envronmental nose. Hopefully they wll see the result of the applcaton of the tool to ther cty. The reader who s manly nterested n the tool and not so much n ts background, can skp Chs 3 6, and go drectly to the cookbook n the fnal chapter after readng a bref dscusson of the most exposed facade n the next chapter. Dsclamer and research needed: at ths pont n tme the structure of the ratng system that wll be presented n the sequel appears to be sold and consstent wth the requrements formulated n ths chapter. However, t needs to be elaborated n some respects, and not all numercal values used are equally founded on emprcal evdence. The ponts that could be elaborated are addressed n dscussons n the subsequent chapters. In partcular, procedures need to be developed to estmate the sound nsulaton on the bass of nformaton at varous levels of detal. The most mportant emprcal research need concerns the nfluence of sound nsulaton, quet sde, and, less mportant from a quanttatve pont of vew, ambent nose n the neghbourhood on nose annoyance, and the nfluence of sound nsulaton on (self-reported) sleep dsturbance. These research questons could be addressed n a sngle jont European study. Acknowledgement: we would lke to acknowledge the helpful feedback wth respect to hot spot detecton whch we receved from Wolfgang Probst.

7 TIP4-CT Page 7 of 34 2 NOISE EXPOSURE The EC Envronmental Nose Drectve (END) (EC, 2002) and related EU Poston Papers (EC- WG/2, 2002; EC-WG/HSEA, 2004) on exposure response relatonshps chose Lden (dayevenng-nght equvalent level) and Lnght (nght equvalent level) as the long term nose exposure metrcs. Lden s used as the descrptor of the long term nose exposure wth a vew to predctng nose annoyance, and Lnght s the descrptor of the nose exposure wth a vew to sleep dsturbance. The assessment of these nose metrcs s dscussed n another poston paper (EC-WG/AEN, 2003). Snce there s ambguty regardng some aspects of Lden and Lnght, ths chapter defnes some mportant aspects of the assessment of these nose metrcs. Choces are made wth a vew to the usage of the nose metrcs for the predcton of the nose effects, snce the ratng system proposed here s meant to gve ndcatons of the nose effects. In order to be a proper bass for predctng nose effects, the nose metrcs need to be defned as smlar as possble to the metrcs used n the studes from whch exposure response relatonshps were derved. Addtonal measures that descrbe the acoustcal stuaton of a dwellng (sound nsulaton, exposure at the quet sde, and the ambent nose level n the neghbourhood) whch are ncorporated n the envronmental nose ratng system n combnaton wth Lden and Lnght, wll be ntroduced n chapter 6. Lden Lden s defned n terms of the average levels durng daytme, evenng and nght, and apples a 5 db(a) penalty to nose n the evenng and a 10 db(a) penalty to nose n the nght. The defnton of Lden s as follows: Lden = 10 lg [(12/24).10 LD/10 + (4/24).10 (LE+5)/10 + (8/24).10 (LN+10)/10 ] Here LD, LE, and LN are an A-weghted long term LAeq as defned n ISO (1987) for the day (7-19h), evenng (19-23h), and nght (23-7h) determned over the year at the most exposed facade at 4 m heght for the ncdent sound (.e., not ncludng reflectons by the facade of the dwellng of whch the nose exposure s descrbed). Lnght Lnght s the A-weghted long term LAeq as defned n ISO (1987) for the nght (23-7h) determned over the year at the most exposed facade at 4 m heght for the ncdent sound (.e., not ncludng reflectons by the facade of the dwellng of whch the nose exposure s descrbed). Thus, Lnght s the component n the defnton of Lden denoted above by LN, and s an outdoor level. Most exposed facade for assessment of Lden and Lnght The nose level at the most exposed facade s determned per dwellng for each type of source separately. Ths nose level s the hghest level caused by the type of source concerned on an exteror wall (facades) of the dwellng. Ths s llustrated by fgure 2.1. In both stuatons, the nose level on the most exposed facade s 53 db(a) for ral traffc nose and 50 db(a) for road nose. It llustrates that the most exposed facade may be not the same for dfferent sources. On the bass of practcal consderatons, the facade that s defned to be the most exposed facade for a source on the bass of the Lden values, s also taken to be the most exposed facade when assessng Lnght.

8 TIP4-CT Page 8 of 34 Lden ral = 53 Lden road = 50 Lden road = 50 Lden ral = 53 ral road road ral Fgure 2.1: Two examples of the most exposed facades. The levels at the most exposed facade as descrbed above, are also the bass for calculatng the total nose exposure from combned sources. Thus, n that calculaton nose exposure levels may be combned from the same sde of the dwellng (rght part of fgure 2.1), but n other cases levels found at dfferent sdes of the dwellng may be combned (left part of fgure 2.1).

9 TIP4-CT Page 9 of 34 3 ANNOYANCE The EU Poston Paper on exposure-response relatonshps for nose annoyance (EC-WG/2 2002) dscusses the annoyance measure to be used. It restrcts ts recommendatons regardng exposure-response relatonshps to two related measures (percentage annoyed and percentage hghly annoyed), but does not make a fnal choce between them. However, the dscusson on the choce n the Poston Paper, whch s reproduced below, ponts towards the use of the percentage hghly annoyed as the measure to be used. Therefore, here we adopt the percentage hghly annoyed as the annoyance measure. Note however that relatonshps for other nose annoyance measures are also easly derved from the exposure-response model presented n the Appendx of the Poston Paper, and that all that follows could easly be reformulated n terms of another annoyance measure. The percentage hghly annoyed (%HA) s defned as the percentage of responses exceedng the cut-off of 72 on a scale of annoyance, wth 0 correspondng to no annoyance at all, and 100 correspondng to extreme annoyance. 3.1 ANNOYANCE EXPOSURE-RESPONSE RELATIONS PER TYPE OF SOURCE The Poston Paper recommends the use of the followng relatonshps for the estmaton of the percentage hghly annoyance (%HA) on the bass of the nose exposure of dwellngs: %HA for arcraft %HA = (Lden - 42) (Lden - 42) (Lden - 42); %HA for road traffc %HA = (Lden - 42) (Lden - 42) (Lden - 42); %HA for ralways %HA = (Lden - 42) (Lden - 42) (Lden - 42). The above relatonshps are vald n the range 42 Lden 75 db(a). Below 42 db(a) the percentage hghly annoyed s assumed to be nhl. Fgure 3.1 shows the correspondng curves and table 1 gve the numercal value for %HA at varous levels of Lden. The fgures also show the 95% confdence ntervals around the curves (dotted lnes). Snce the annoyance curves have rather narrow confdence ntervals, the locaton of these curves n the entre populaton s known rather accurately.

10 TIP4-CT Page 10 of 34 Fgure 3.1: For arcraft, road traffc and ralways, %HA as a functon of Lden, together wth the 95% confdence ntervals. Table 1: %HA at varous nose exposure levels (Lden) for arcraft, road traffc, and ralways Lden Arcraft Road traffc Ralways RELATION OF ANNOYANCE TO COMBINED EXPOSURES In many cases people are exposed not to ether arcraft, road traffc or ralway nose, but to a combnaton of these types of noses. The annoyance equvalents model (Medema, 2004) descrbes how the annoyance caused by the total, combned exposure can be calculated. Brefly, the procedure based on the model s to translate the nose from the ndvdual sources nto the equally annoyng sound levels of a reference source (road traffc), and then to sum these levels. Fgure 3.2 llustrates ths for two dfferent nose sources A and B. The nose levels from these sources are LA and LB, respectvely. Source A (road traffc) s selected as the reference. In order to calculate the total nose annoyance, LB s transformed nto the equally annoyng level of A, re(lb) (read: road equvalent of LB), as shown n the fgure. Then LA and re(lb), are added on an energy bass, gvng LT. The correspondng annoyance from the two combned sources s found by usng the exposure - annoyance relatonshp of reference source A, wth exposure LT. Thus, the model frst translates the nose from the ndvdual sources nto the equally annoyng sound levels of a reference source, road traffc, and then sums these levels gvng total level LT. The annoyance from the combned sources s found by substtutng exposure LT n the road traffc exposure annoyance relatonshp.

11 TIP4-CT Page 11 of 34 Fgure 3.2: Illustraton of the annoyance equvalents model (see text) The assessment of the total nose level and the correspondng percentage hghly annoyed can be broken down n the followng 5 steps: %HA for combned exposures 1. Assess Lden for arcraft, road traffc, and ralways (Lden,ar, Lden,road and Lden,ral). 2. Calculate the percentage hghly annoyed for arcraft, and for ralways. %HAar = (Lden - 42) (Lden - 42) (Lden - 42); %HAral = (Lden - 42) (Lden - 42) (Lden - 42). 3. Calculate the equally annoyng road traffc levels for arcraft and for ralways as follows ( s ether ar or ral): re(lden,) = where F(%HA ) for Lden,> 42 F(%HA ) Lden, for Lden, 42 F( x) = ( ) 1 / x x x Calculate the total nose level: L den,t 0. 1 re( L ) 0. 1 L 0. 1 re( L ral ) den,ar den,road den, = 10 lg ( ). 5. Calculate the percentage hghly annoyed for the combned, multple sources: %HA = (Lden,T - 42) (Lden,T - 42) (Lden,T - 42).

12 TIP4-CT Page 12 of 34 In the fnal step, the exposure-response functon for road traffc presented n the precedng secton s appled to the total nose level Lden,T, because the total level s expressed as the road traffc level that would gve equal annoyance as the combnaton of exposures concerned. 3.3 DISCUSSION Choce of the annoyance measure The followng dscusson summarzes some arguments presented n a smlar dscusson n the Poston Paper on nose annoyance (EC-WG/2, 2002). %HA has been most wdely used. An mportant practcal advantage over the percentage annoyed (%A), whch uses 50 as the cut off on a annoyance scale, s that calculaton of the %A does requre very low levels down to Lden = 37 db(a) to be assessed, whle determnaton of the number of hghly annoyed persons (%HA) does not requre nformaton on levels wth Lden < 42 db(a). Experence made clear that the hgher senstvty of %HA to changes n the hgher range of Lden and the lower senstvty to changes n the lower range of Lden actually may be an advantage. Substantve reducton of any prevalence measure of annoyance (based on %HA or %A) requres mprovements n the lower part of the nose exposure range, because the largest part of the populaton comes n that part of the range. There s no danger of neglectng quet areas as a consequence of usng %HA as the annoyance descrptor, f there s a separate ndcator stmulatng the preservaton and extenson of quet areas (e.g. AREA50 ) Applcaton and lmtatons The followng dscusson s partly based on a smlar dscusson n the Poston Paper on nose annoyance (EC-WG/2, 2002). The exposure-response functons and ther curves recommended are only to be used for arcraft, road traffc, and ralway nose and for assessment of long term stable stuatons. They are to be utlsed for strategc assessment, n partcular n the context of Annex III of END, n order to assess the effects of nose on populatons n terms of annoyance. They can be used n target settng, n translatng nose maps nto overvews of numbers of persons hghly annoyed, n cost-beneft analyss and Envronmental Health Impact Assessment. When used n Envronmental Health Impact Assessment, they gve nsght n the stuaton that s expected n the long term. They are not applcable to local, complant-type stuatons were dosyncratc features play an mportant role, or to the assessment of the short-term effects of a change of nose clmate. The curves have been derved for adults. The curves are not recommended for specfc sources such as helcopters, mltary low-flyng arcraft, tran shuntng nose, shppng nose or arcraft nose on the ground [tax-ng]. There are ndcatons that annoyance of arcraft nose at a gven exposure level has ncreased. Ths may necesstate adopton of hgher curves or curves that predct hgher annoyance n the future but suffcent evdence to do so s lackng at present. The crtcal property underlyng the model for the annoyance of combned sources s ndependence of the contrbutons to annoyance. Important volatons of ths assumpton are expected only n a lmted number of practcal stuatons. For example, ndependence s volated f a tonal sound combned wth lttle or no road traffc nose s more annoyng than the same tonal sound wth a hgher level of road traffc nose. Ths may actually occur f the tonal sound s masked n the latter case. A smlar phenomenon may be found wth very low frequency nose, or mpulsve nose nstead of tonal nose. In these cases the annoyance reducton caused by the maskng of the very rrtatng sound may outwegh the annoyance ncrease caused by the hgher road traffc nose. The use of the procedure for calculatng annoyance from combned sources s not recommended for these specfc stuatons.

13 TIP4-CT Page 13 of 34 Temporary patch Steps 2 and 3 n the procedure for calculatng %HA for combned exposures actually devates numercally slghtly from the outcome of the followng steps whch are n prncple the proper steps: 2. Calculate the annoyance level for arcraft, and for ralways 1 : Aar = 2.17 Lden,ar Aral = 2.10 Lden,ral Calculate the equally annoyng road traffc levels for arcraft, and for ralways: re(lden,ar) = (Aar ) / 2.22 re(lden,ral) = (Aral ) / The need for replacng steps 2 and 3 s caused by two detals n the (polynomal approxmatons of) the exposure response relatonshps that gve %HA as a functon of Lden. The frst pont s that at low exposure levels the polynomal approxmaton of the %HA curve for arcraft nose underestmates the actual model curve. The second pont s that the exposure response models were ftted separately for the dfferent types of transportaton so that the estmated varance of the annoyance scores at a gven exposure level, was free to vary between the three types of sources. Actually rather smlar varances were found but they were not exactly equal. Due to these two ponts (devaton of a polynomal approxmaton and not exactly equal estmates of varances), the calculated %HA for a sngle source stuaton wth a low arcraft nose level dffers dependng on whether t s calculated drectly wth the exposure response curve for the sngle source or ndrectly wth the procedure for combned exposures (for whch s t a lmt stuaton to whch the procedure also apples). A smlar pont holds for ralway nose. Ths s undesrable. The prncple soluton s not dffcult to realse and would requre that the exposure response relatonshps for the sngle sources are agan ftted on the bass of the same stll avalable data and that then the polynomal approxmatons are agan determned, takng nto account the above two ponts. Although the result would only slghtly devate from the exstng, above gven relatonshps for sngle sources, at present the easest approach s to replace n the procedure for combned exposures the proper steps 2 and 3, by the patch steps 2 and 3. In contrast wth the proper procedure (steps presented here), whch can be used also when n the end other annoyance measures are determned (e.g. percentage annoyed nstead of %HA) the patch can be used only for calculatng %HA. Hopefully n due tme, the sngle source relatonshps can be re-establshed n the descrbed manner so that the patch can be replaced by the proper step. Addtonal ponts of consderaton and recommend lterature The descrpton n sectons 3.1 and 3.2 s based on research publshed n two artcles (Medema & Oudshoorn, 2001; Medema, 2004). The descrpton s restrcted to the three major transportaton nose sources (ar, road, and ral traffc). Statonary sources (e.g. ndustry) could be ncorporated n the same framework usng results publshed by Medema & Vos (2004). In addton to acoustcal factors, nose annoyance s also related to personal characterstcs. In an analyss of the combned data from many studes, Medema and Vos (1999) found 1 The lnear relatonshps do not have the observed annoyance score as the dependent varable, but the mean of the correspondng (latent) varable wth a normal dstrbuton, whch may have negatve values.

14 TIP4-CT Page 14 of 34 that n partcular nose senstvty, fear of the source (n case of arcraft), and to a lesser extent, age nfluence nose annoyance. Lttle nfluence was found of economc dependency on the nose (e.g. workng at the arport), educaton level, occupaton status, homeownershp, use of the nose source (frequent flyer or not). It s mportant to dstngush the nfluence of such factors on nose annoyance (whch have been found to be small for e.g. economc dependency), and acceptance of nose annoyance (whch may depend strongly on economc dependency). Also expectaton regardng future developments of the nose exposure appears to nfluence the annoyance. There s some debate as to the exact form of nfluence (moderator or addtve factor) of one of the most mportant factors, nose senstvty (Medema and Vos, 2004; Stansfeld et al., 2005) There are ndcatons that there has been a trend towards hgher annoyance for arcraft nose at the same Lden level. There are no defnte results wth respect to ths ssue. The frst publcaton drawng attenton to ths ssue was Gusk (2004). Chldren appear to be a vulnerable group n several respects. In partcular, ther cogntve development may be adversely affected by exposure to (arcraft) nose. It appears necessary to gve specal attenton to the nose exposure of vulnerable groups and therefore evaluate the nose exposures of e.g. schools. The results of a recent European study on effect of nose on chldren are publshed by Stansfeld et al. (2005)

15 TIP4-CT Page 15 of 34 4 SLEEP DISTURBANCE The EU Poston Paper on exposure-response relatonshps for nose-nduced sleep dsturbance (EC-WG/HSEA, 2004) presents relatonshps for two chronc effects related to Lnght, namely nose-nduced motlty and self-reported sleep dsturbance. The presented relatonshps for motlty were derved for arcraft nose. For self-reported sleep dsturbance relatonshps are presented for arcraft, road traffc and ralway nose. Here we focus on selfreported sleep dsturbance, one reason for ths choce beng that only for ths effect exposure-response relatonshps are avalable also for road traffc and ralway nose. The EU Poston Paper recommends for self-reported sleep dsturbance exposure-response relatonshps for three related measures (percentages at least a lttle sleep dsturbed, sleep dsturbed, and hghly sleep dsturbed), but does not make a choce between them. By analogy of the choce for annoyance, here we adopt the percentage hghly sleep dsturbed as the sleep dsturbance measure. Note however that relatonshps for other selfreported sleep dsturbance measures are also easly derved from the exposure-response model presented n the report underlyng the Poston Paper, and that all that follows could easly be reformulated n terms of another self-reported sleep dsturbance measure. The percentage hghly sleep dsturbed (%HSD) s defned as the percentage of responses exceedng the cutoff of 72 on a sleep dsturbance scale, wth 0 correspondng to no sleep dsturbance at all, and 100 correspondng to extreme self-reported sleep dsturbance. 4.1 SLEEP DISTURBANCE EXPOSURE-RESPONSE RELATIONS PER TYPE OF SOURCE The Poston Paper recommends the use of the followng relatonshps for the estmaton of the percentage hghly sleep dsturbed (%HSD) on the bass of the nose exposure of dwellngs: %HSD for arcraft %HSD = Lnght,ar Lnght,ar 2 ; %HSD for road traffc %HSD = Lnght,road Lnght,road 2 ; %HSD for ralways %HSD = Lnght,ral Lnght,ral 2. The above relatonshps can be appled n the range 40 Lnght 70 db(a). The relatonshps are based on data n the Lnght range db(a) and are expected to gve approxmatons also for lower exposures (40-45 db(a)) and hgher exposures (65-70 db(a)). Below 40 db(a) the percentage hghly sleep dsturbed s assumed to be nhl.

16 TIP4-CT Page 16 of 34 Fgure 4.1 shows the correspondng curves and table 1 gve the numercal value for %HSD at varous levels of Lnght. The fgures also show the 95% confdence ntervals around the curves (dotted lnes). Ar traffc Road traffc Ralways L nght L nght L nght Fgure 4.1: For arcraft, road traffc and ralways %HSD as a functon of Lnght, together wth the 95% confdence ntervals. Table 4.1: %HSD at varous nose exposure levels (Lnght) for arcraft, road traffc, and ralways Lnght Arcraft Road traffc Ralways RELATION OF SLEEP DISTURBANCE TO COMBINED EXPOSURES Also at nght, n many cases people are not exposed to ether arcraft, road traffc or ralway nose, but to a combnaton of these types of noses. The annoyance equvalents model whch descrbes how the annoyance caused by the total, cumulatve exposure can be calculated has been descrbed n the prevous chapter. The approach taken for selfreported sleep dsturbance s completely analogue. For explanaton we refer to the descrpton and the dscusson n sectons 3.2 en 3.3, and here we present only the stepwse procedure, now for self-reported sleep dsturbance:

17 TIP4-CT Page 17 of 34 %HSD for combned exposures 1. Assess Lnght for arcraft, road traffc and ralways (Lnght,ar, Lnght,road and Lnght,ral); 2. Calculate the percentage hghly sleep dsturbed for arcraft and for ralways: %HSDar = Lnght,ar Lnght,ar 2 ; %HSDral = Lnght,ral Lnght,ral Calculate the equally sleep-dsturbng road traffc levels for arcraft and for ralways as follows ( s ether ar or ral): re (Lnght,) = (%HSD) for Lnght, >40 Lnght, for Lnght, Calculate the total nght-tme nose level: L nghtt, = 10 lg ( re( Lnght,ar) 0. 1 Lnght,road 0. 1 re( Lnght, ral) 5. Calculate the percentage hghly sleep dsturbed for the combned, multple sources: + 10 %HSD = Lnght,T Lnght,T 2. In the fnal step, the exposure-response functon for road traffc presented n the precedng secton s appled to the total nght-tme nose level Lnght,T because the total level s expressed as the road traffc level that would gve equal self-reported sleep dsturbance as the combnaton of exposures concerned ) 4.3 DISCUSSION Choce of the self-reported sleep dsturbance as the effect measure A conceptual framework for nose-nduced sleep dsturbance s presented n fgure 4.1 (cf. Isng et al., 1999). Ths framework gves a rough outlne of steps n the development of effects of nght-tme nose. The framework suggests the sequental occurrence of the mmedate processng of nose, nstantaneous arousal/stress reactons and changes n one nght and the day after, chronc (possbly reversble) changes, and an ncreased rsk of (rreversble) health effects. Ths process s ntated by nose exposure durng the sleep perod, and depends on the state and characterstcs of the ndvdual. Furthermore, there s feedback concernng the occurrence of acute and chronc effects that nfluences the occurrence of further (stress-related) effects. The framework does not mply that nstantaneous effects necessarly contrbute to chronc changes or long term health effects, or that chronc changes necessarly contrbute to long term health effects. Recovery mechansms can restore balances and prevent the occurrence of further effects. A comprehensve assessment of the effects of nose on sleep would consder all three effect stages n fgure 4.1 (nstantaneous changes and changes n one nght and the day after, chronc changes, long term health effects). The effects n fgure 4.1 for whch there s a suffcent bass to establsh (provsonal) exposure-response relatonshps, are n talcs: the nstantaneous effects (onset of) motlty; mcro-arousals and (conscous) awakenng and the chronc effects ncrease of mean motlty durng sleep and self-reported sleep dsturbance.

18 TIP4-CT Page 18 of 34 Nght-tme nose exposure State parameters behavour precedng sleep worres use of medcne Indvdual parameters age trat anxety nose senstvty Arousal Instantaneous changes release of stress hormones change n heart rate vasoconstrcton nstantaneous (onset) of motlty change n sleep stage mcro-arousals awakenng Changes n one nght and the day after sleep latency duraton REM/SWS sleep structure / fragmentaton cortsol after wake-up overnght (nor)adrenalne mood/performance next day Chronc dsregulaton Chronc changes self-reported (chronc) sleep dsturbance chronc ncrease of motlty use of sleepng plls Long term health effects ncreased rsk of hypertenson ncreased rsk of myocardal nfarcton Fgure 4.2: Framework for the study of nose-nduced sleep dsturbance. The effects mentoned are examples and not necessarly proven effects of nose on sleep. Exposure-response relatonshps have been establshed for the effects prnted n talcs, wth the excepton of selfreported sleep dsturbance, only for arcraft nose. Relatonshps establshed for myocardal nfarcton do not specfcally relate ths effect to nght-tme nose. Relatons for self-reported sleep dsturbance have been establshed for arcraft, road traffc and ralway nose. Only the chronc effects mean motlty and self-reported sleep dsturbance are drectly related Lnght, and only for self-reported sleep dsturbance relatonshps are also avalable for

19 TIP4-CT Page 19 of 34 road traffc and ralway nose. Ths s an mportant reason for choosng self-reported sleep dsturbance as the effect measure of sleep dsturbance. Applcaton and lmtatons The descrpton n sectons 4.1 and 4.2 s based on research publshed n two artcles (Medema and Vos, 2007; Medema, 2004). The exposure-response functons and ther curves recommended are only to be used for arcraft, road traffc, and ralway nose and for assessment of long term stable stuatons. They are to be utlsed for strategc assessment, n partcular n the context of Annex III of END, n order to assess the effects of nght-tme nose on populatons n terms of self-reported sleep dsturbance. They can be used n target settng, n translatng nose maps nto overvews of numbers of persons hghly sleep dsturbed, n cost-beneft analyss and Envronmental Health Impact Assessment. When used n Envronmental Health Impact Assessment, they gve nsght n the stuaton that s expected n the long term. They are not applcable to local, complant-type stuatons were dosyncratc feature play an mportant role, or to the assessment of the short-term effects of a change of nose clmate. The curves have been derved for adults. The curves are not recommended for specfc sources such as helcopters, mltary low-flyng arcraft, tran shuntng nose, shppng nose or arcraft nose on the ground [tax-ng]. There are ndcatons that also the self-reported sleep dsturbance of arcraft nose at a gven exposure level has ncreased. Ths may necesstate adopton of curves that predct hgher sleep dsturbance n the future, but at present suffcent evdence to do so s lackng. The relatonshps for selfreported sleep dsturbance are weaker than the relatonshps presented for nose annoyance, n partcular the relatonshps for self-reported sleep dsturbance by arcraft nose. Smlar comments as made wth respect to the model of the annoyance from combned sources, hold for the approach used to predct the self-reported sleep dsturbance caused by the total combned nght-tme nose.

20 TIP4-CT Page 20 of 34 5 UNACCEPTABLE EXPOSURES AND QUIET AREAS The annoyance and sleep dsturbance ndcators (%HA and %HSD) descrbe the overall and nght-tme acoustc clmate n resdental areas. In addton there s a need to have specfc nformaton on the exposures that are so hgh that they are consdered to be unacceptable and specfc nformaton on the quet areas. The problem of unacceptable exposures can be quantfed by countng the number of ndvduals above a hgh lmt value. Countng very hghly exposed persons and assessng the quet area supplement the nsght n the general resdental acoustc clmate as ndcated by the number of hghly annoyed and the number of hghly sleep dsturbed. These addtonal numbers focus on the extremes to gude separate actons amng at elmnatng the very hgh exposures, or preservng or extendng the quet area. Actons to elmnate unacceptable exposures may be motvated by a prncple that everybody has the rght to a certan mnmal level of protecton aganst envronmental nose, whch may be codfed n regulatons settng nose lmts. Actons to preserve or extend the quet area may be motvated by goals concernng the qualty of (urban) recreatonal areas. 5.1 UNACCEPTABLE RESIDENTIAL EXPOSURES (HOT SPOTS) A straghtforward ndcator of the problem of unacceptable exposures s the number of ndvduals wth Lden above lmt value L. Even though all exposures above lmt L may be consdered to be unacceptable, due to practcal lmtatons t may not be possble to elmnate these exposures n a lmted perod. To gude actons frst towards the mprovement of the exposures that are most n excess of the lmt, a weghtng functon may be ntroduced. There are no wdely accepted weghtng functons so that t must be decded locally whether such a functon s consdered useful and whch functon s preferred. Two optons for famles of weghtng functons are the lnear weghtng functons and the exponental weghtng functons. The lnear weghtng functon gves the weght above lmt L as follows: W(Lden) = 1 + a (Lden L), wth a > 0, whle settng W(Lden) = 0 below the lmt. The exponental weghtng functon gves the weght above lmt L as follows: W(Lden) = 10 a(lden L) wth a > 0, whle settng W(Lden) = 0 below the lmt. The ndcator of the prevalence of unacceptable exposures,.e. the (weghted) number of persons above a lmt L denoted by nl, s the bass for the detecton of hot spots. Ths number can be assessed for a whole muncpalty or for neghbourhoods, but also for small areas. Hot spots are defned as small areas wth a hgh number of unacceptably exposed persons,.e. a hgh value of nl. Such spots may be found by calculatng for all (partally overlappng) square wndows of, e.g., sze 100 m 100 m, whch together cover the total area of the muncpalty, n.. Then, (clusters of) squares wth hgh nl are the hot spots. 5.2 QUIET AREAS The ndcator of non-quet area s the percentage of an area wth Lden > 50 db(a) (AREA50). When the value of ths ndcator decreases, the presence of quet area has ncreased. We chose ths ndcator nstead of ts complement, the percentage of area wth Lden < 50 db(a), n order that a lower value means a better stuaton for all four ndcators n the ratng system. The ndcator can be assessed for a whole muncpalty or for neghbourhoods rrespectve of the further characterstcs of the area. Wth a vew to recreaton, s may be useful to determne also the percentage of area otherwse suted for recreaton wth

21 TIP4-CT Page 21 of 34 Lden > 50 db(a). For example, the protecton of quet areas may focus on parks, and on areas wth walkng and bcycle routes.

22 TIP4-CT Page 22 of 34 6 ADDITIONAL ACOUSTICAL FACTORS In addton to the nose level at the most exposed facade (Lden and Lnght), there are a number of factors that affect nose annoyance and self-reported sleep dsturbance. For annoyance three addtonal acoustcal factors are consdered: - sound nsulaton - quet sde - ambent nose level n the vcnty of the dwellng For sleep dsturbance, only the nose nsulaton of the bedroom s consdered. The exposure-effect curves for annoyance and sleep dsturbance are based on the average stuaton for each of the above factors (n the study samples on whch the curves are based). If a dwellng has, e.g., a hgher sound nsulaton than average, nose annoyance of ts nhabtants wll be less than expected on the bass of the exposure-effect curve. On the other hand, f a dwellng has a lower sound nsulaton than the average dwellng, nose annoyance of ts nhabtants wll be hgher than expected on the bass of the exposure-effect curve. The method to take these addtonal factors nto account used here, s to adjust the nose exposure level (Lden, and Lnght,). The adjusted nose exposure levels (Lden, and Lnght, ) can be used wth the same exposure-effect curves for annoyance and sleep dsturbance presented n the prevous chapters to estmate annoyance and sleep dsturbance. Ths s accomplshed by defnng the adjustments as devatons from the average stuaton, as wll be dscussed n more detal below. In general the effect of an addtonal factor (e.g. sound nsulaton) wll dependent on the outdoor nose level. Furthermore, the effects of addtonal factors are assumed to be lnear and ndependent. More specfcally, on the bass of these consderatons, the adjusted Lden, and Lnght, are calculated as follows: L ' den, = Lden, + a a a I, ( I den, I, I ) L + b ( I I ) + Q, ( Q den, Q, Q ) L + b ( Q Q ) + ( A A ) Lden, + b, ( A A ) A, A (1) I = lowest nsulaton for source type of bed/lvng room at the most exposed facade [db(a)]; Q = dfference between most and least exposed facade for source type [db(a)]; A = ambent nose level wthn a radus of 200 m around the dwellng [db(a)]. I = average nsulaton of dwellngs for source type [db(a)]; = average dfference between most and least exposed facade for source type [db(a)]; Q A = average ambent nose level wthn 200 m radus of a dwellng for source type [db(a)]. L nght, ' = L + a ( I I )L + b ( I I ) (2) nght, Ib, b, b, nght, Ib, b, b, Ib, = lowest nsulaton for source type of bedrooms at the most exposed facade [db(a)]. I b, = average bedroom nsulaton of dwellngs for source type.

23 TIP4-CT Page 23 of 34 The addtonal factors are dscussed n more detal below. 6.1 ADDITIONAL FACTORS AND LDEN Lden s the metrc used to predct nose annoyance. Ths secton presents an elaboraton of ths metrc whch ncorporates other factors that nfluence annoyance. The factors taken nto account are sound nsulaton, quet sde, and ambent nose n the neghbourhood Insulaton If the nsulaton of the dwellng s hgher than average, the ndoor nose levels wll be lower than average. Consequently, wth the same outdoor exposure, an nsulaton hgher than average wll cause the nose annoyance to be less than average. The nsulaton as t s meant here s the maxmum nsulaton that can be obtaned by the nhabtants of a dwellng,.e., wth the wndows closed. The actual benefcal effect of nsulaton on nose annoyance wll depend on the ventlaton system n the dwellng (brefly dscussed below). If we consder only the effect of the nsulaton (suppose the quet sde and ambent nose are average), equaton 1 reduces to: L den, ' = L den, + a I, ( I I )L den, + b I, ( I I ) In prncple, the parameters ai, and bi, can be estmated on the bass of emprcal data. Here t s assumed that the parameters ai, and bi, do not dependent on the type of nose source, so that they can be wrtten as ai and bi. Actually, there s very lttle data avalable for estmatng the parameters. The tentatve assgnment of values to the parameters s dscussed below. Parameter estmaton The percentage of hghly annoyed by nose starts to ncrease above zero around 45 db(a). Because the percentage of hghly annoyed s very low below 45 db(a), sound nsulaton s assumed to start havng a benefcal effect from 45 db(a) on. The benefcal effect of nose nsulaton wll ncrease when the outdoor nose level s hgher. The benefcal effect of sound nsulaton s maxmal for hgh sound nsulaton values n a stuaton wth hgh outdoor nose levels. We assume that at a very hgh exposure level, a hgh extra nsulaton s equvalent to a reducton of the (outdoor) exposure that s less than the value of the extra nsulaton but equal to a substantal part of t. More specfcally, we assume that extra nose nsulaton of 15 db(a) at 75dB(A) would correspond to a reducton of the outdoor Lden wth 10 db(a). Ths leads to two equatons from whch we can solve factors ai and bi: ai bi 15 = -10 ai bi 15 = 0 whch gves: ai = and bi = 1. It s assumed that there s a lmt to the postve effect of ncreasng sound nsulaton and to the negatve effect of very poor sound nsulaton. More specfcally, t s assumed that the (absolute) effect s maxmal, when I I = 15 and remans at the same level for hgher absolute dfferences. Furthermore, we do not know what happens at extremely hgh levels (Lden > 75 db(a)), but assume that the effect of nsulaton wll not contnue to ncrease.

24 TIP4-CT Page 24 of 34 Lden' - Lden Effect of nose nsulaton Lden, [db] I - I Lden' - Lden Effect of nose nsulaton Lden, I - I Fgure 6.1: Effect of sound nsulaton on the dfference between Lden and Lden as functon of Lden (left fgure) and as functon of the relatve nsulaton value (rght fgure). The effect of sound nsulaton based on the above assumptons s llustrated n fgure 6.1. Dscusson The benefcal effect of sound nsulaton depends on the possblty to ventlate suffcently when the wndows are closed (at the most exposed facade). If then the ventlaton s poor, occupants wll open wndows, causng the nose nsulaton to drop. If wndows are to be kept closed even though the ventlaton s not adequate, nose stll wll be consdered to be annoyng because t s the cause of the stuaton wth nadequate ventlaton. Therefore, the benefcal effect of sound nsulaton wll be much smaller f the ventlaton wth closed wndows s not suffcent. In some cases, the most exposed facade s closed,.e., t has no wndows that can be opened. These facades may gve a hgh nsulaton. If the followng condtons are fulflled, the closed facade can be excluded when determnng the most exposed facade for each ndvdual type of source (see Ch 2),.e., then the most exposed facade s the non-closed facade wth the hghest nose load. The frst condton s that the ventlaton n the dwellng wth the closed facade s suffcent. The second condton s that layout of the dwellng s desgned so that all bedrooms and the lvng room do have wndows that can be opened Quet sde When there s a quet sde at the dwellng, the occupants can escape to some extent from the nose levels at the most exposed facade. Ths wll reduce annoyance n comparson to stuatons when there s no such escape. In order to be able to escape from the nose at the most exposed facade, the nose exposure due to all nose sources has to be low at the quet facade. Therefore, n the evaluaton of the quet sde for one source type, the outdoor nose level from all nose sources (Loutdoor) has to be consdered. Ths outdoor nose level s calculated wth the rules regardng combned sources descrbed n subsecton 3.2. The outdoor nose level s the energetc sum of the road equvalent nose levels from the ndvdual sources (re(lden,)): L outdoor = 10 lg( re( Lden,ar ) 0. 1 Lden,road 0. 1 re( Lden, ral ) ) The lowest outdoor exposure level of a dwellng, mn(loutdoor), s determned by calculatng Loutdoor for ponts on all the facades of the dwellng and takng the lowest value. The measure for the benefcal effect of a quet sde when exposed to source type, denoted