1.2 THE TRADITIONAL METHOD

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3 INTRODUCTION: THE CONCEPT OF THE ACCELERATED FREEFALL COURSE (AFF) 1.1 THE AFF COURSE 1.2 THE TRADITIONAL METHOD The traditional method of learning to skydive starts with a static line parachute jump. This jump provides only the opportunity to exit the aircraft and assume the freefall body position. CHAPTER Congratulations on choosing the AFF course to introduce you to skydiving. This course, due to its excellent results, has become the most widespread course amongst the schools all over the world. It is called ACCELERATED because the learning process is three to five times faster than the traditional method (static line, i.e. automatically opened parachute jumps), which is becoming obsolete The AFF course was developed in the USA in the early eighties and since then it has been in constant evolution. The method is designed to provide personalized one on one instruction and, after a brief but intensive training period, allows the student to continue jumping by himself with complete safety. Although ambitious in nature, this program has been carefully and systematically developed, and has incorporated the most advanced skills, techniques and equipment After the third static line jump, and during the three following jumps the student will perform one practice pull per jump. To advance to the next level of progression these practice pulls must be satisfactorily performed If these jumps are performed with success, the student will continue with delayed jumps. During these jumps the student attempts to perform a good exit, assume the freefall body position and correctly execute the actual opening of the parachute, all of it in three seconds, then in five and finally in ten seconds. During these fleeting exposures to freefall the student will also experience a phenomenon known as sensory overload, which consists of a distortion of the perceptions a person has as a consequence of a rush of stimuli to the senses in a short period of time.

4 From this point on the student learns to perform turns, back loops and horizontal movement (tracking) during jumps with 15, 20 and 30 second freefalls. During this phase the student normally feels scared and alone. 1.3 ACCELERATED FREEFALL METHOD With the AFF method the student, accompanied by his instructors in freefall, will start jumping from and will have 50 of freefall learning time per jump. The student performs the exercises with direct assistance and will learn freefall stability during the much longer freefall exposure. The student still experiences sensory overload, but the freefall assistance makes it easier to overcome. Sensory overload is surpassed after approximately five seconds. During the first jumps various practice pulls are performed, preparing the student for the actual parachute opening on the same jump. The instructors are highly qualified and are prepared to assist the student if it were necessary. With this system more learning MAIN INSTRUCTOR SECONDARY INSTRUCTOR STUDENT FIG. 1

5 takes place in less time, less jumps and, in consequence, with less exposure to the risks of opening and landing problems The student progresses through the seven levels at his or her own pace. 1.4 OBJECTIVES During this course the student receives all the information necessary to enjoy a successful and rewarding skydive. All the instruction and training in this course are aimed at achieving these three basic objectives: The skills required to exit the aircraft and fall in a controlled and stable manner are practised and developed through intensive ground training and direct in-air supervision In the progression through the seven levels the student learns to fall stable, to recover stability from any position, to perform forward movements, 360 turns, back loops and front loops, and tracking. The student becomes accustomed to the use of instruments, formation skydiving safety procedures as well as orientation in the air jumping alone or with other skydivers, and the development of time awareness and awareness of his position regarding other skydivers. A controlled freefall. Opening and controlled descent with a high performance parachute. A safe landing in a designated landing area. 1.5 THE VIDEO The AFF student has readily available a unique learning tool: his freefall video. All the jumps during the course will be recorded, and the video thoroughly analysed with the assistance of his instructor, allowing for a better understanding of what was experienced during the last jump and the elements of improvement applicable to the following jump.! Order of priorities on every skydive: Deploy your parachute. Deploy at the correct altitude. Deploy in a stable position. Land in an area without obstacles. Land in a safe manner.

6 8 QUESTIONS How much freefall time do we have on every AFF course jump? Which are the basic objectives of the AFF course? Which are the priorities on every skydive?

7 CHAPTER PARACHUTE AND EQUIPMENT 2.1 COMPONENTS OF A STUDENT FREEFALL PARACHUTE SYSTEM (Fig 2) Containers: Both main and reserve parachutes are mounted on the back of the student Harness: Set of adjustable webbing straps, which secure the containers and the parachutes to the student. FIG. 2 AFF Student rig

8 10 FIG. 3 Main canopy

9 2.1.6 Pilot chute: Located in a pocket at the bottom of the container. When thrown into the air stream it causes the opening of the container and the deployment of the main parachute Secondary Instructor deployment handle: A handle located at the bottom of the container, on the opposite side of the Main deployment handle, to be activated by the AFF instructor if necessary in order to avoid having to go around the student to deploy the main parachute. This handle allows the extraction of the pilot chute, therefore provoking the main parachute deployment from the left side of the student. FIG. 4 3-Ring release system Main canopy (Fig.3): The main parachute is stowed in the lower container and is attached to the harness by the 3-ring release system located on the shoulders. (Fig. 4) Reserve canopy: The reserve parachute is stowed in the upper container and it is permanently attached to the harness Main deployment handle: A plastic cylinder or a ball located on the upper skin of the pilot chute ring release handle (cutaway pad): A soft handle secured with Velcro tape on the upper-right, front of the harness which, when pulled, allows for the separation of the skydiver from the main parachute Reserve ripcord handle: A metal handle located on the upper-left, front of the harness which, when pulled, opens the reserve container Automatic Activation Device (CYPRES): This device activates at a pre-set altitude and speed cutting the reserve closure loop and initiating the reserve deployment sequence. The control unit is mounted under the reserve flap or on the inside of the reserve container.

10 Steering Toggles: Located on the back of the rear risers of both the main and reserve canopies. 2.2 ACCESSORY EQUIPMENT Altimeter: Usually mounted on the left hand wrist. The altimeter displays altitude above ground in feet or meters Radio: Used to assist the student while under canopy. Only used as an aid and must not be relied upon Helmet: Worn for protection from knocks during exit, freefall or landings. FIG. 5 RSL or Stevens Goggles: Used as eye protection against the wind created by the freefall Jumpsuit: Designed with arm and leg grips for the instructors. 2.3 OPERATION AND PARACHUTE OPENING SEQUENCE Reserve Static Line (RSL or Stevens) (Fig. 5): A bridle that connects the main canopy with the reserve ripcord pin. When the main canopy is separated from the skydiver, in the event of a cutaway, the Stevens would initiate the reserve deployment. The skydiver extracts the pilot chute from its pocket and throws it into the air stream. Exposed to the wind the pilot chute inflates and acts as an anchor, lifting the deployment bag, which contains the main parachute, out of the container, while the skydiver falls away. The suspension lines unstow from the rubber

11 bands and extend, then the bag opens and the canopy unfolds and begins to inflate, causing the slider to descend. Finally the canopy deploys completely and then the skydiver releases the brakes allowing it to fly normally. (Fig. 6) 13 FIG. 6 Deployment sequence

12 14 QUESTIONS How does the 3-ring release system work? What is the Cypres, and how does it work? What is the RSL or Stevens, and how does it work? Where are the steering toggles located?

13 AIRCRAFT PROCEDURES AND POSSIBLE AIRCRAFT EMERGENCIES 3.1 STANDARD AIRCRAFT PROCEDURES The AFF student and the instructors will wait the arrival of the aircraft at the boarding area and will be the first to enter the aircraft.! NEVER BOARD THE AIRCRAFT WITHOUT RECEIVING AN EQUIPMENT CHECK FROM THE INSTRUCTORS Always approach the aircraft from the rear to avoid the propellers Put on the helmet and fasten the seat belt for take-off. Remain like that until reaching, at least, Use the 15 it takes to reach the correct altitude to prepare yourself both mentally and physically for the jump. The entire skydive will be reviewed orally with your instructor The instructor will again perform a complete equipment check. CHAPTER 15

14 The student remains seated until told otherwise by the instructor The instructor will command the climbout prior to the exit Once in the door, the student will look at the inside instructor and ask READY?, after receiving the OK he will repeat the operation with the outside instructor ( Exit Checks). Once he has received the OK from both instructors he will initiate the exit count, shouting out, in, arch with a simultaneous body movement. This way the student synchronizes the exit with the instructors. 3.2 PARACHUTE PROTECTION IN THE AIRCRAFT Always be aware of your main and reserve handles; protect them! If a container opens and the canopy falls out inside the plane, jump on it! and prevent it from going near the door. If this were to happen when the door is open, immediately have it closed If one of your parachutes does go out the door, follow it out immediately, jump out and be prepared for a possible malfunction If it were to get hooked on the plane and you find yourself in tow from your main, behind the aircraft, cut away and deploy the reserve. 3.3 AIRCRAFT EMERGENCY PROCEDURES Below 1000 we will land with the aircraft, the helmet remains on and the seat belts are still fastened and we will adopt the brace up position If we have to abandon the aircraft between 1000 and 3000 follow your instructor s orders, position yourself in the door and grasp the reserve handle with your left hand. Jump as soon as your instructor tells you to. Count one thousand and one, one thousand and two, one thousand and three (to clear the aircraft and to gain the essential freefall speed needed for the deployment) and pull the reserve handle Above 3000 follow your instructors orders, position yourself in the door and grasp your main deployment handle with your right hand and jump when you are told, arch, count one thousand and one, one thousand and two, one thousand and three and pull In the event of having to abandon the aircraft above 5000 we will perform a poised exit as in a normal jump, even though there might not be enough time to complete the whole planned sequence.

15 AIRCRAFT EMERGENCY PROCEDURES 17

16 If you descend with the aircraft for landing and your rig is equipped with a Student Cypres (yellow button) your instructor will switch it off before initiating the descent While in the aircraft it is your responsibility to: Protect the main and reserve handles at all times. Maintain eye contact with your instructors at all time. REMEMBER: It is very important to keep eye contact with your instructors. In the aircraft the noise level is high and in an emergency situation the instructor will be quite occupied communicating with the pilot, because the pilot is ultimately in command of the aircraft and will let the instructor know whether to exit the aircraft or not. At this moment, when the instructor needs to communicate something to you it is very important to already have your attention. QUESTIONS We will never proceed to board the aircraft unless our instructor has. Describe the exit checks and exit count. What must you do in the event of an aircraft emergency?

17 EXIT PROCEDURES AND BASIC FREEFALL BODY POSITION 4.1 POSITIONING IN THE DOOR (CLIMB-OUT) Climb-out procedures will vary depending on the type of aircraft used for the jump. However, in all the cases one of the Instructors will have complete control over the student during the climb-out Pilatus Porter (Fig. 7): the right-hand side Instructor will observe the spot and climb out the door. The student will position himself on the floor once he has received the command order on the floor and following the command order in the door he will move to the door ( right foot on the step, left knee on CHAPTER 19

18 20 the edge on the door-frame, arms in the freefall position and the body slightly orientated into the relative wind). The student then performs the pre-exit checks (left OK, right OK). Initiating immediately afterwards the exit count Out!, In!, Arch! synchronized with a determined and rhythmic body movement. FIG. 7 Pilatus Porter FIG. 8 Twin Otter Twin Otter (Fig 8): the left-hand Instructor will observe the spot and climb out the door. The right-hand side Instructor, holding the student by the leg strap of the harness, will command to the door, the student will then position himself at the door frame slightly bent down, with the spine column straight, both feet at the door frame, right foot forward, gripping the front-door frame and keeping the body orientated into the relative wind. The student then performs the pre-exit checks (left OK, right OK). Initiating immediately afterwards the exit count Out!, In!, Arch! synchronized with a determined and rhythmic body

19 movement and jumps out assuming immediately the basic freefall position. 4.2 THE FIRST FEW SECONDS The first 5 seconds following the exit are especially important to obtain stability. After the initial exit boost, the student must assume the basic freefall position ARCHING and thus, progressively, after a few seconds he will fall stable, horizontal to the ground. 4.3 BASIC FREEFALL BODY POSITION The basic freefall stable body position (horizontal and facing towards the ground) (Fig. 9). Body slightly bent back at the waist, hips pushed forward. Head back Arms extended and bent 90 at the elbows. Legs apart (shoulder width), knees relaxed and toes pointed. Relaxed, without any muscular tension 21 FIG. 9 Basic freefall body position

20 ARCH AND STABILITY Learning to know this position is essential for a good skydive. You will learn where your arms, legs and feet are without looking A good arch will always give us a stable position and will make us recover from unusual attitudes or instability QUESTIONS How should you orientate your body during the exit? Why is the basic freefall body position important? Where do you look while in the basic freefall body position?

21 CHAPTER LEVEL OUT AND SKYDIVE 5.1 CIRCLE OF AWARENESS The circle of awareness is an exercise that allows us to make us aware of all the important things in freefall: stability, altitude and our body position We will perform this exercise during the first three levels of the course, after exiting the aircraft and as soon as possible. Look at the horizon in front of you and pick up a heading (orientation, stability awareness). Look at the altimeter, turning the head but without moving the arm and read the altitude (altitude awareness). Look at the left hand Instructor and shout out the altitude you have read and wait for his OK signal (Fig.10), this means that your body position is correct. Once we receive the OK signal from the left hand Instructor, look at the right hand Instructor and wait for his OK. When we have received the second OK the exercise is finished. (You must make eye contact with your Instructors) During the communication with the Instructors you will probably receive some hand signals to correct your body position, if so make the corrections as appropriate and maintain eye contact until you receive the corresponding OK signal. 23 FIG. 10 OK

22 24 FIG. 11 Practice Pull 5.2 PRACTICE PULLS This exercise will be performed after the Circle of Awareness during the first three levels (three practice pulls on Level I, two on Level II, and one on Level III, although the Instructor may change the number of repetitions for a given student) From the basic freefall body position and maintaining the arch, the student will touch the deployment handle with his right hand while simultaneously placing his left hand to a position above his head, between his eyes and the horizon. Maintain this position for a second and return to the basic freefall body position after simulating the deployment of the parachute (Fig. 11). 5.3 OTHER EXERCISES From Levels II to VII our Instructor will progressively introduce us in the knowledge of other freefall maneuvers of control by means of exercises like, forward movements in group (L-II), turns (L-IV / V), front and back loopings and tracking (L-VI / VII).

23 5.4 ALTITUDE CONTROL This will be your most important duty during freefall. You must always check the altitude before and after every exercise, especially when you begin to practice looping and tracking, because when these exercises are performed we lose more altitude more rapidly. During free time (after finishing the planned exercises) and down to 6,000, you must constantly check the altitude (every 3-5 ) so you can begin to understand the relationship between time and the loss of altitude in freefall. 5.5 AT 6,000 When reaching 6000 we will make a head shake signal to indicate, No more exercises. From this moment on you will fix your eyes on the altimeter, preparing yourself for the deployment. 5.6 AT 5,000 When reaching exactly 5,000 you will make a signal crossing your hands over your head (wave-off) to announce the deployment, immediately followed by the actual deployment according to this sequence: Arch, grasp, launch and check the deployment maintaining the basic freefall body position and looking at the deployment over your right shoulder (Fig. 12). 25 FIG. 12 Deployment sequence

24 FREEFALL PROBLEMS If you find yourself out of control during the exit, or at any moment, the solution will be to ARCH! and relax your body position One instructor releases and disappears, the student must arch and continue with the normal freefall sequence, communicating only with the remaining Instructor If you lose both Instructors and you find yourself alone in freefall you must arch to recover stability, and if you have altitude control wait until 5000 to deploy. If you cannot read the altimeter and after 5 of being unstable you cannot recover stability, arch and deploy If at any moment during the freefall you receive a pull signal do not question it and deploy. It could be that your altimeter is not reading correctly, or that there is a plane under us or many other circumstances If you were to lose your altimeter in freefall or it were to malfunction, one of your Instructors will place his in front of your face and will keep it there until pull time. Therefore the skydive will continue as planed and you will be able to control the altitude at any moment. If these altimeter problems were to occur while you are doing a solo skydive, you are to deploy immediately. The ground visual reference may be quite different and misleading, depending on the light, atmospheric conditions and landscape of the area. QUESTIONS What is the Circle of Awareness and why is it important? Until what altitude can we continue doing exercises? Which is the deployment altitude? What will you do if you lose your stability during freefall?

25 CHAPTER FREEFALL COMMUNICATION 6.1 COMMUNICATION WITH THE INSTRUCTORS During freefall your Instructors will accompany you. They have the information you require at this time, that s why the communication with them is essential. This information will be transmitted to you by signals. You may receive these signals at any moment during the 50 of freefall. 6.2 FREEFALL SIGNALS There are three types of signals: Exercise reminder signals. Body correction signals. Safety signals Reminder signals, given to you if you forget any exercise of the sequence Circle of awareness or Circle of observation (Fig.13) Fig. 13 Circle of awareness Practice pulls; this is done by a tap on the student s hip where the deployment handle is Body correction signals to correct the body position ARCH! In other words, move your hips lower. (Fig. 14). 27 Fig.14 Arch

26 Straighten legs (Fig.15). 28 Fig. 15 Straighten legs Bend legs (Fig.16). Fig. 17 Relax Fig. 16 Bend legs Relax the position, when your position is correct but tense, given by a hand waving in front of your face (Fig. 17) If your arms are not in the correct position your Instructors will physically move them to the correct position. Do not offer resistance if they do.

27 Bring legs a bit closer together (Fig. 18) Safety signals Look at the altimeter! Tap (gently) on the student s helmet or an Instructor in front of you will show you his altimeter tapping it with his right hand Pull! It may come from either Instructor and at any time. (Fig.19). Fig.18 Bring legs a bit closer together Other signals, to be determined, may be used to correct specific problems for each student. Fig. 19 Pull!

28 RESPONSE TO SIGNALS Signals will be presented to you in front of your eyes and will not be withdrawn until you take the corrective action. The response to signals should be progressive. QUESTIONS What will you do if you receive the same signal several times during a skydive? What will you do if you receive the Pull signal above 5,000?

29 CANOPY CONTROL 7.1 BASIC AERODYNAMICS Some basic concepts on aerodynamics are necessary to understand how a parachute opens, flies and how it is controlled The basic ram-air canopy ( airfoil ) or the wing of an aircraft work under a very simple principle. As the wing moves through the air, some air passes over the top of the wing and some passes under it. Due to the shape the wing has, the top skin is curved while the bottom skin is flat (Fig. 20), the distance from the nose (leading edge) to the tail (trailing edge) is longer over the top than across the bottom The Laws of Physics state that all the air that strikes the nose of the canopy must meet again at the tail at precisely the same instant. Therefore, because of the airfoil shape of the canopy, the air traveling over the top of the canopy must travel faster than the air traveling across the bottom. This action will cause a negative pressure area to develop on the upper wing surface. Because of this difference in pressure the wing moves up into the lower pressure area. The wing is in flight. CHAPTER 31 FIG. 20

30 The forces acting on the canopy while in flight are: Lift, do to the difference in pressure between the top skin and the bottom skin. Thrust, a forward movement caused by the angle of attack of the canopy. Gravity, do to the suspended weight of the skydiver. Drag or resistance to the forward movement do to the shape of the canopy. (Fig. 21). 7.2 AIR NAVIGATION AND MANEUVERING Full glide With toggles up, your canopy will glide straight and stable at about 30 to 50 Km/h with a rate of descent of approximately 4 to 5 m/s. This is the most usual flight position and, in normal conditions, the starting point for turning and flaring the canopy Half brakes Braking is achieved by altering the airflow along the lower surface of the canopy. This is accomplished by distorting the trailing edge in much the same manner as flaps on an airplane. Half brakes is achieved, from the full glide position, by slowly depressing both toggles half way down (approximately at chest level), the forward speed will be now between 15 and 20 Km/h and the rate of descent between 3 and 4 m/s. FIG.21

31 7.2.3 Full brakes Under normal flight conditions, the fullbraked attitude will be reached by depressing both toggles slowly until all the forward speed is reduced (Fig. 22). In this mode the direction of flight will be almost vertical. The forward speed will be approximately 8 km/h or less, and the rate of descent about 5 m/s. Directional stability can be maintained in the % braked condition. When braking further the canopy doesn t fly; we are reaching the stall point The stall A stall is induced by slowly pulling down both toggles slightly more than the full brake position, the canopy is completely braked. In this attitude the canopy loses its efficiency as a lifting device. Forward speed is reduced to 0 and the canopy sinks as it gently rocks backwards. Your canopy may start to fly backwards or turn towards any side and collapse. To recover normal flight from this position simply raise both toggles gently. Your canopy will smoothly recover from the stall. 33! Never induce a stall, release the toggles completely, nor let them up abruptly. If the toggles are released in such a manner, the canopy may surge forward possibly causing a line twist. FIG. 22 Ram-air parachute in landing configuration.

32 GROUND SPEED VS. AIR SPEED 34 FIG. 23

33 Paracaidas, ANGLÈS 14/10/05 15:19 Página Dynamic stall A dynamic stall is initiated by making an abrupt displacement of the toggles, causing additional drag to be placed on the canopy (fig. 24). The canopy decelerates rapidly, while the skydiver, due to his inertia, reacts much more slowly, causing him to swing out. The skydiver swings forward causing an artificial increase in the angle of attack. This new angle of attack yields an increase of lift for a very short period of time, followed by an abrupt loss of lift or stall of the canopy due to the loss of forward air speed. Since the trailing edge has been deflected downward, changing the direction of the airflow, the canopy now attempts to fly backwards unless corrective measures are taken. one completely up. In this type of turns the canopy will bank a bit causing a loss of altitude. The further the toggle is depressed, the steeper the bank angle. The additional increase in rate of descent is partially due to the loss of lift resulting from the bank angle. To recover from a dynamic stall smoothly raise the toggles to a 50 % braked position. Do not let the toggles up any higher than chest level otherwise the canopy may surge forward accelerating much faster than the skydiver. Even though your canopy is a docile parachute, incapable of causing violent stalls, it is still recommended to avoid dynamic stalls below 2000 feet. FIG. 24 Dynamic stall Full glide turns Spiral turns Turns from full glide are quite responsive, but due to the high forward speed, the turns will encompass a wide arc. These turns are done depressing either toggle, leaving the other Spiral turns are basically turns from full glide but maintained for more than 360 of rotation. The parachute will begin diving in a spiral. 35

34 36 The first turn will be fairly slow, with shallow bank angles, but both the turn speed and the bank angle will increase rapidly if the spiral is maintained. Increasing the turn rate will cause excessively fast diving speed with a quick loss of altitude. Therefore spiral turns should be avoided below 2000 feet and when there are other canopies in the air % brake turns Turns from the 50% braked configuration are done by further depressing either toggle. Canopy response in this mode is much faster, with minimal banking, resulting in almost flat turns. This type of turn is especially useful when a change of direction is desired with a minimum loss of altitude % - 100% brake turns Canopy response is extremely quick in this mode. When flying in this mode, one should be keenly aware that we are operating very near the stall range. Turns are best made with directional cross control, by slightly raising the opposite toggle. This way you prevent the canopy from stalling. There is little or no banking and the resulting turns are quick and flat Stall turns If your canopy is flying in the % brake range and either toggle is further depressed, a stall turn will result. Stall turns produce a very quick, pivoting action, with the stalled side of the canopy flying backwards. Since the stalled side of the canopy generates very little lift, the rate of descent will increase. Never attempt stall turns because it could cause a line twist. 7.3 CANOPY DEPLOYMENT CHECKS When reaching 5000 we will initiate the canopy deployment as seen in 5.6 (page 25). Once the deployment pilot chute has been launched while checking it over the right shoulder, we will start counting from 1001 to 1005, these 5 seconds are sufficient time for the canopy to inflate completely. 7.4 CANOPY PROCEDURES Once the canopy is open you must proceed as follows: 1) Move your hands to the rear risers, locate the steering toggles and grab them. 2) Check the canopy (Is it open correctly?), pump the toggles three times all the way down. This way we will unlock the toggles, which were set on brakes during the canopy packing. 3) Check the airspace and locate the rest of the skydivers in order to prevent canopy collisions. 4) Perform a controllability check to determine if your parachute is controllable and if it can be landed without problems.

35 5) Locate the landing area and proceed to the holding area. Your instructor will help you do it on your first jump (a tandem), and you will always do it by starting to look straight down, on your vertical, and from there outwards. The best is, before boarding the aircraft, to choose an easy to locate reference point that will act as a guide. For example, look for the sea, on the shoreline is Empuriabrava and at the end of the town the drop zone. CHECK CANOPY Canopy flies straight when both toggles are all the way up Turns to the right when depressing the right toggle Flares when pulling down on both toggles Doesn t stall if the flare is held for 3 seconds 37

36 When in doubt look for the canopies under you because they will be flying towards the landing area. 7.5 CANOPY CONTROL (AIR NAVIGATION AND MANEUVERING)! Remember you are the pilot. TAKE CHARGE! The wind line is an imaginary line, which runs from the opening point through the planned landing point (fig. 25) A basic understanding of the wind line and how to stay on it will help you to systematically land on the desired area. Fig. 25 The wind line

37 7.5.3 The wind line and the exit point must be determined in advance to do a good approach to the target area Important points to better canopy control: Never let go of the toggles. Always move the toggles straight up and down, not out to the sides. Keep your movements in the harness to a minimum. 7.6 LANDING The ram-air parachute landing approach is identical that the aircraft do. It is a simple procedure consisting of a downwind leg, a base leg and a final approach upwind, towards the target. It is difficult to determine visually the variations in altitude accurately, so the use of an altimeter during approaches is highly recommended. accordance with these wind directions we establish a north or a south landing pattern North landing pattern With north winds we will establish our holding area to the north of the field, approximately over the roundabout on the Figures-Rosas road and we will remain there until reaching At this altitude we initiate the downwind leg towards the designated landing area flying downwind parallel to the landing area and about m on the outside of it. When we reach 500 we will turn 90 to the right to initiate our base leg and position ourselves in the center of the landing area. When we reach 300 we again turn 90 to the right to set up for the final approach into the wind. We will not do any more turns (although we could still make small corrections to maintain the direction or to avoid any obstacle) and we will keep the toggles all the way up until about 3 meters from the ground where we will initiate the flare Distributed through out the landing area we can find various aids that indicate the wind direction (windsocks), there is also the T indicator, highly visual while under canopy and that will tell us the landing direction even when there is no wind The most common winds in Skydive Empuriabrava are north or south winds. In South landing pattern With south winds we will establish our holding area to the south of the field, approximately over the last houses/road of Empuriabrava and we will remain there until reaching At this altitude we initiate the downwind leg towards the designated landing area flying downwind parallel to the landing area and about m on the outside of it. When we reach 500 we will turn 90 to the left to

38 40 initiate our base leg and position ourselves in the center of the landing area. When we reach 300 we again turn 90 to the left to set up for the final approach into the wind. We will not do any more turns (although we could still make small corrections to maintain the direction or to avoid any obstacle) and we will keep the toggles all the way up until about 3 meters from the ground where we will initiate the flare. FIG. 26 Drop zone and landing patterns.

39 7.6.6 The base leg could be slightly modified to correct a traffic that does not take us to the desired target point (Fig. 27) Depending on the wind speed our canopy will penetrate more or less into the wind, that s why the final approach will be shorter in stronger winds (Fig. 28). FIG. 27 Corrections in the base leg FIG. 28 Glide angle in final approach

40 FLARED LANDINGS The flared landing is in essence a carefully controlled dynamic stall, timed so that touchdown occurs during the exact moment of high lift yield during the artificial change in the angle of attack that takes place in the dynamic stall. This is just an instant prior to the stall, and the jumper should be extremely careful not to stall too high (Fig. 29). The flare should be done facing the wind and should start at a height of about 3 meters. Both toggles are depressed at the same time from all the way up, thus reducing the forward speed. At about 3 meters from the ground, slowly depress both toggles downwards, timing the movement to coincide with the 100% brake position at touchdown. The flared landing, when properly executed, practically eliminates both horizontal and vertical velocities for a short period of time. If the canopy has been slowed down prior to the flare attempt, depressing the toggles further will result in a sink. If, on a misjudged flare attempt, the canopy enters a dynamic stall, immediate dynamic stall recovery must be initiated by raising a bit both toggles For the landing you must take visual references looking at the ground with a 45 angle. Looking straight under our feet can be misleading.! ALWAYS AVOID LOW TURNS! FIG. 29 Flare

41 7.7.3 A canopy can be safetly landed without flaring by flying the canopy on final approach at 50-75% brakes with final braking increased immediately prior to landing. getting drifted away from the drop zone. Stay alert to avoid a possible collision! 7.9 HAZARDOUS LANDINGS CONSIDERATION UNDER CANOPY The lower canopy has the right of way; we must keep sufficient vertical and horizontal distance between canopies If you see another canopy coming towards you, both skydivers should avoid the collision by turning right, unless there is another canopy there. In the event of a collision, we must try not to go through the lines of the other canopy (spreading our legs and arms). If you end up hanging from another skydiver or his equipment you must immediately establish verbal contact with each other to communicate your intentions, keeping in mind that if you need to cutaway the lowest skydiver will cutaway first and must obtain some separation before deploying the reserve (therefore the RSL must be disconnected before cutting away). NEVER CUTAWAY BELOW 1000, in this situation, if it were necessary, deploy the reserve without cutting away the main When flying in clouds do so at 30% brakes pulling a bit more on the right steering toggle. This will prevent you from The severity of hazardous landings can be reduced to a minimum if you follow the basic steps outlined for each kind of hazard Tree landings 1) Face into the wind, brake just before touching the obstacle. 2) Feet and knees together, keeping your legs towards the tree. 3) Protect your face and neck with your arms. 4) Prepare yourself for a hard landing. 5) If you ve hurt yourself, don t move! Wait for assistance. 6) If you are suspended from the tree and your feet are not on the ground, don t cutaway to free yourself, try to hold onto a thick branch or the trunk of the tree and wait for assistance Water landings 1) With sufficient altitude prepare for the water landing by disconnecting the chest strap and the Stevens. 2) Land into the wind, flare over the surface of the water. 3) Feet and knees together. 4) Prepare yourself for a hard landing. 5) Once in the water, cutaway the main

42 44 canopy, get your shoulders out of the harness and slide off the leg straps by swimming away from the canopy. 6) Do not attempt to save the equipment. It could cost you your life! 7) If you are far away from the coast, stay close to the equipment Power lines Try to avoid them even by turning low attempting to land parallel to the lines. 1) Feet and knees together. 2) Try to go through the lines without touching them. 3) Prepare yourself for a hard landing. 4) If you are touching the ground, cutaway and walk clear. 5) If you are suspended from the power line wait for assistance from your Instructors. Don t allow anybody to touch you nor attempt to climb down on your own! Other obstacles 1) Buildings. 2) Vehicles. 3) People. 4) Roofs. To avoid them you can land crosswind or downwind as long as your canopy is level Off field landings In the event of an off field landing look for an alternative landing area. 1) Big. 2) Clear of obstacles. 3) Flat. 4) If possible with an easy access. Don t let it bother you if you have to walk a bit more. In this case it is preferable to land far from the drop zone instead of trying to make it back and realize that you are too low for the last turn. If you think you are not going to reach the landing area comfortably, look for an alternative landing area before Landing in strong winds If you are flying into the wind and your canopy is going backwards, you will have to look over your shoulder to make sure you re not going towards an obstacle. You may correct or even improve this situation by pulling down on both front risers, without letting the toggles out of your hands. In this mode your canopy will have more penetrating capabilities but will also have a higher rate of descent. Be careful! Remember to release the front risers before flaring for the landing. If when reaching the ground the winds are a bit strong, your canopy will remain inflated and may drag you. To avoid this situation, as soon as you land let go of one toggle and pull the other one as far as you can while, at the same time, run around it so it remains between you and the wind. If you cannot avoid been dragged, the best solution, after disconnecting the Stevens, would be to cutaway the main.

43 7.9.8 Downwind or crosswind landings Although we should always try to land into the wind, we could find ourselves facing the situation of having to land downwind or crosswind because we misinterpreted the wind direction, to avoid a hazardous area or for any other reason. In this situation we would land the canopy in the same way we would when flying into the wind, but expecting more forward speed than usual and also that the canopy will not come to a full stop so we will be forced to run at landing or, if the wind is quite strong, prepare for the landing by performing a parachute landing fall. Never attempt a low turn to face into the wind for the landing Landing in the Empuriabrava Marina This is very unlikely situation since students are the last to exit the plane and the jumprun is always done from south to north. However, in the event of having to land in the marina you should land in the water. In the marina one can find all kinds of obstacles and there is no alternative landing area so, as usual, before reaching 1000 you must select a channel, if possible orientated the wind and attempt to land in the middle of it. In this case you will have to execute your emergency procedures for water landings and remember that you might encounter turbulence close to the ground Parachte landing fall (PLF) All skydivers may suffer a hard landing from time to time. You can minimize the risk of injury if you anticipate it and execute a PLF. On touchdown keep legs together, slightly bent and with muscle tension, trying to make contact with both feet at the same time. Turn sideways a bit to contact first the leg, followed by the buttock, your back and finally roll over the opposite shoulder. It is very important not to put your arms in the way. 45! AVOID OBSTACLES! PREPARE YOUR LANDING WITH ENOUGH ALTITUDE!

44 46 QUESTIONS What is a dynamic stall? When your canopy turns, is the vertical speed, reduced, increased or maintained? Describe a canopy check. How should you land regarding the wind direction? Describe the procedure for a water landing. What will you do if at 200 you realize that you are going downwind? If you think your landing is going to be harder than usual, What will you do to avoid hurting yourself?

45 CHAPTER TURBULENCE AND RAM AIR PARACHUTES 8.1 WHAT IS TURBULENCE? Turbulence is also known as eddies or rotors. They come in all sizes from a few centimeters in diameter to some kilometers in diameter Rotors than effect a canopy are caused by; 1) Solid objects, like trees, hills, buildings etc., obstructing the air flow on the surface. 2) The static instability of air (due to thermal activity). 3) Wind shear, (due to differences of velocity between two wind streams of air). Number 3 type turbulence is least likely to be encountered by skydivers and except in extreme cases, like clouds or warm fronts, would pose little danger to the jumper. Number 2 type turbulence is always associated with thermal activity. They are produced when a mass of air acquires a sudden inertia. The most common turbulence, and the ones that have more effects on the skydiver are the ones caused by solid objects obstructing the path of the wind (type 1). This type of turbulence is often compounded by turbulence generated by thermal activity The factors that affect the intensity of turbulence are wind velocity, density of the air and the size and shape of the obstructions in the path of the wind. Wind velocity is the most influential factor in these types of turbulence. In winds up to 10 knots, the turbulence generated will not be very intense nor will it pose serious danger to the jumper. In winds between 10 and 15 knots a great turbulence can be generated which could cause a canopy to collapse. If the winds are in excess of 15 knots, turbulence can be produced by even very small objects. The higher the density of air, the greater the intensity or energy of the turbulent eddy. Cold air is more dense than warm air so turbulent eddies are more common in winter than in summer. Humid air is less dense than dry air so turbulence will be more powerful at 30% relative humidity than at 80%. Higher elevation fields, with lower air density than at sea level, will produce turbulence of lesser intensity. The shape and size of the objects obstructing the wind flow are also determining factors of the size and intensity of the turbulence. A large object will generate larger eddies, although not more intense, than smaller ones. 47

46 48 FIG. 30 A rectangular building with corners at 90, will generate eddies at slower wind speeds and generate more forceful eddies than those created by, for example, an iglooshaped building (Fig. 30). We may encounter more turbulence at midday since at this time the thermal activity and the wind velocity tend to be higher. 8.2 FLYING WITH TURBULENCE PRESENT Canopies with a high wing loading withstand turbulence better; so lighter jumpers with large wing surfaces are more susceptible to turbulent air. When flying in turbulent air we should: Keep toggles all the way up to allow for maximum canopy speed. Maintain flight direction by using smooth but effective toggle input. Prepare for a hard landing. QUESTIONS With south winds, in which part of the landing area can you foresee encountering more turbulence? In turbulent wind conditions, how will you fly your canopy?

47 CHAPTER MALFUNCTIONS canopy is controllable and if it can be landed safetly EQUIPMENT MALFUNCTIONS AND SOLUTIONS By the term malfunction we understand any failure of the canopy or related equipment that does not provide a normal rate of descent for a safe landing. When facing a possible malfunction we should ask ourselves if the Upon opening look up to check that your canopy is correctly open (Fig. 31) and perform a canopy check There are two types of malfunctions; Total malfunctions. (High speed) Partial malfunctions. (Low speed) Fig. 31 Canopy after the opening

48 50 EMERGENCY PROCEDURE

49 9.2 TOTAL MALFUNCTIONS Pack closure (Fig. 32) These may occur due to various factors: Pilot chute in tow The pilot chute is inflated and deployed a few meters above the skydiver but it does not open the main container (Fig. 33) 51 Fig. 32 Pack closure Unable to locate deployment handle Probably it is completely inside the pilot chute pouch Hard pull Unable to extract pilot chute because it is very hard Pilot chute bridle brakes The bridle brakes and the pilot chute separates from the container, therefore the extraction does not occur A knot in the pilot chute A knot on the pilot chute does not allow it to inflate. Fig. 33 Pilot chute in tow 9.3 TOTAL MALFUNCTION PROCEDURE 1) Check canopy (nothing there). 2) Cutaway main canopy and deploy reserve canopy carrying out the emergency procedure.

50 52 3) Reach up and grab the reserve canopy steering toggles. If you were not able to extract the pilot chute, for whatever reason, it is not necessary to cutaway and you must open the reserve directly. 9.4 PARTIAL MALFUNCTIONS In this type of malfunction the parachute or part of it has deployed so we have a bit more time to try to remedy the problem. Always maintaining altitude awareness! Bag lock The pilot chute extracts the bag containing the main and it is lifted until line stretch but remains closed not letting the canopy out (Fig. 34) Streamer In this situation there is complete line stretch and the canopy is out of the bag, but it is not completely deployed. We could attempt to remedy the problem, always maintaining altitude awareness, by pulling on both toggles repeatedly. If the situation doesn t improve we would execute emergency procedures. (Fig. 35). Fig. 34 Bag lock. Fig. 35 Streamer

51 9.4.4 Horseshoe There are two types of horseshoe malfunctions: During freefall the main container opens (normally because the closing loop was loose or worn out). In this case the bag will come out of the container and initiate line stretch, but since the pilot chute is still in its pouch, the deployment sequence will not be completed and the pilot chute bridle, the lines and the bag will get entangled with each other, thwarting the normal deployment. (Fig. 36) The pilot chute, the bridle, or any other part of the parachute is caught around the jumper s body or some part of the equipment, and even thou the lines are stretched and some part of the canopy exposed, it cannot deploy correctly. (Fig. 37). In this case and having altitude awareness, we could make one attempt to unhook ourselves before initiating emergency procedures. 53 Fig. 36 Horseshoe malfunction Fig. 37 Horseshoe malfunction

52 Line-over (Fig. 38) In some cases it could be possible to make the line come down from over the canopy by turning the canopy. If after this attempt it remains over the canopy, and even though the canopy may seem to be flying correctly, we must initiate emergency procedures Broken lines Broken suspension lines. (Fig. 40) If when checking the canopy we find out that some line has broken during deployment, we must perform a canopy check (see box in page 37) to determine if our canopy is controllable and if you can descend and land it. If not, initiate emergency procedures. Fig. 38 Line-over Slider hang-up (Fig. 39) The slider gets hung up and it becomes impossible to make it descend. Fig. 40 Broken lines Knots in the lines Holes or fabric failures on the canopy Fig. 39 Slider hang-up

53 9.5 PARTIAL MALFUNCTION EMERGENCY PROCEDURE 1) Check canopy. 2) Attempt to solve the problem maintaining altitude awareness. 3) Cutaway main canopy and deploy reserve canopy carrying out the emergency procedure. (See box in page 50) 4) Reach up and grab the reserve canopy steering toggles. 9.7 UNUSUAL PARACHUTE OPENINGS There are unusual parachute openings, which do not require cutaway and reserve activation: Pilot chute hesitation Some times the pilot chute does not go up directly but rather stays flying for an instant in the turbulent burble formed by the relative wind on the jumpers back. (Fig. 41) TRAINING HARNESS Malfunction procedures can be practiced in the training harness where you can execute them calmly. It is convenient to review the emergency procedures prior to very jump Slider up (Fig. 42) Common problem that happens frequently, especially with big canopies with little suspended weight, like the ones used for students. We must pull repeatedly on both toggles to make it come down. Fig. 41 Pilot chute hesitation Fig. 42 Slider up

54 Closed end cells End cells closed, with slider down (Fig. 43) Broken steering line Probably the canopy will be turning continuously after the opening. We must pull on both steering toggles to release the brakes (one toggle will remain in our hand) and from here on steer using the rear risers. In this case it is important to practice the landing with rear risers at altitude to find the flare point of the canopy. Fig. 43 Closed end cells Premature brake release If on opening your canopy starts turning continuously, it is probably because one of the steering lines was not set on brakes during the packing or it has released during the opening. In this situation you must grab both steering toggles and pull them down completely three times. If the turn persists them it was caused by a different problem and you must cutaway and deploy the reserve End cells closed, with slider up Line twists (Fig. 44). Generally caused by a less than stable opening or a packing error. If you find yourself in this line twist situation, you must reach for the risers and try to separate them, while at the same time kick trying to make your body turn in the opposite direction of the twist. If you cannot undo the line twist or you begin spinning you must execute the emergency procedure. Fig. 44 Line twists

55 9.7.7 Pilot chute over nose You must perform a canopy check, and if you see that the canopy flight is not affected, then continue as normal. If it is affected then execute the emergency procedure.! REMEMBER! THE MINIMUM DECISION ALTITUDE FOR CUTTING AWAY IS Remember that you must always perform a canopy check, especially after one of these unusual openings, to evaluate if you are capable of steering and landing your canopy. AND THE MINIMUM ALTITUDE TO INITIATE THE CUTAWAY IS 2000 POSSIBLE SITUATIONS AFTER THE OPENING

56 BOTH CANOPIES OPEN Biplane One canopy in front of the other. You must release the brakes of the front canopy and steer the front canopy until landing. It is very important not to do sharp turns nor long ones. In this situation we will not flare the canopy for landing and we will do a PLF on touchdown Downplane It can be caused by a sharp turn on a side-byside or by other circumstances. You must cutaway the main canopy immediately! Main and reserve entanglement In this case you must do everything possible to separate the two canopies, pulling on the risers and/or toggles. Cutting away the main canopy could increase the problem Side-by-side (Fig. 45) Check to see which canopy is more overhead, this is the dominant canopy and the one you should release the brakes on and steer, very gently, until touchdown. In this case it won t be necessary to flare the canopy for landing. We will do a PLF on touchdown. Fig. 45 Side-by-side

57 SAFETY ALTITUDES. STUDENT SKYDIVERS 59

58 60 QUESTIONS What is the difference between a total and a partial malfunction? Describe the emergency procedure. Is a line twist a malfunction? What is the minimum decision altitude to cut away your main canopy?

59 CHAPTER THE SEVEN LEVELS OF AFF 10.1 AFF PROGRESSION Once you have concluded your ground school, your ground training, your suspended harness practices and you have done your tandem jump with your Instructor, you will be prepared to begin jumping with your own parachute The course is divided into seven learning levels through which you must progress in order to graduate and begin to jump on your own In each level your Instructor will tell you the learning objectives required to pass the level. The learning objectives will be somewhat simple but very important, and you must achieve these learning objectives in order to progress to the next level. The learning objectives for each jump can be passed in one jump but it could be necessary to repeat a level if you do not achieve them. 61

60 The best way to achieve the objectives of each jump is to follow the sequence prepared by your Instructor GENERAL AFF COURSE OBJECTIVES General concept of the AFF Course. Familiarization with parachuting equipment. Familiarization with aircraft and with the drop zone. Learning of the procedures, before boarding the plane, in flight, in freefall, under canopy and landing. Study of the possible problems and malfunctions along with their solutions. Practical objectives - Aircraft exits - Freefall stability control - Altitude awareness - Canopy opening and control - Landings

61 LEVEL I 10.3 INTRODUCTION TO FREEFALL Objectives: 1) Exposure to continuous freefall. 2) Heading awareness. 3) Focused awareness and attention. 4) Coordinated movements during the practice pulls. 5) Altitude awareness. 6) Deployment at 5,000 feet. 7) Safe landing On the ground (for all seven levels): 1) Prepare with your Instructor the landing pattern for this jump. 2) Your Instructor must perform an equipment check before boarding Jump sequence: Pre-exit checks with your Instructors in the door. Exit count. Exit, presenting the body to the relative wind and arching. Level out Circle of awareness. Three practice pulls. Free time, maintaining the stable body position, controlling the orientation using the horizon and checking the altitude every 3-5. The left side Instructor will release if you have a good body position. At 6,000 make a head shake signal to indicate, no more exercises and fix your eyes on the altimeter until reaching 5,000. At 5,000 make the wave-off signal and deploy (arch, grasp, launch the pilot chute and check, 1,001, 1,002, 1,003, 1,004, 1,005). Check canopy In flight: 1) Locate the landing area. 2) Review signals and the jump sequence with your Instructors (for all seven levels). 3) Equipment check by one of your Instructors (for all seven levels).

62 64 LEVEL II 10.4 FORWARD MOVEMENT Once surpassed the first contact with freefall we can start working a bit further on the freefall position A common error among beginners is to use the arms more than the legs, leaving the arms more forward than desirable and the legs a bit too bent. That is exactly the position to fly backwards (Fig. 46) Forward movement exercise: From the neutral stable position, and with altitude awareness, we will select a point in the horizon, right in front of us. Then we will progressively point our toes until our legs are completely straight. At the same time we will move our arms backwards keeping them bent by the elbows (Fig. 47). We will maintain this position for 5 seconds and then return to the neutral freefall body position. During the time in which we maintain the forward movement position we will feel that we are falling a bit more head down and that we move forward In Level II we will perform some forward movements that will help us to think more about the use of the legs and will let us see how this affects stability. FIG. 46 Backward movement position FIG. 47 Forward movement

63 Objectives: 1) Same as level I. 2) More perception of our legs and basic knowledge of the forward movement. 3) Relax the body position without losing the arch during the whole jump Jump sequence: Pre-exit checks with your Instructors in the door. Exit count. Exit, presenting the body to the relative wind and arching. Level out Circle of awareness. Two practice pulls. Check altitude Perform one forward movement Check altitude If we still have enough altitude (+ 7,000 ), perform a second forward movement. Free time, maintaining the stable body position, controlling the orientation using the horizon and checking the altitude every 3-5. The left side Instructor will release if you have a good body position. At 6,000 make a head shake signal to indicate, no more exercises and fix your eyes on the altimeter until reaching 5,000. At 5,000 make the wave-off signal and deploy. 65

64 66 LEVEL III 10.5 UNASSISTED FREEFALL Our next step in the progression will be to maintain the stability, therefore to control the body position continuously during freefall. To achieve it both Instructors will release you on this jump Objectives: 1) More perception in freefall. 2) Hover control 3) Altitude awareness. 4) Deployment at Jump sequence: Pre-exit checks with your Instructors in the door. Exit, presenting the body to the relative wind and arching. Level out. Circle of awareness. One practice pull. Check altitude. Both Instructors release the student. Free time, maintaining the stable body position, controlling the orientation using the horizon and checking the altitude every 3-5. At 6,000 make a head shake signal to indicate, no more exercises and fix your eyes on the altimeter until reaching 5,000. At 5,000 make the wave-off signal and deploy.

65 LEVEL IV 10.6 STABLE FREEFALL AND TURNS From this moment on we will continue jumping with only one Instructor. Since you are now capable of maintaining stability at all times, it is the moment to start working on new exercises: turns During this jump we will perform 90 turns following our Instructor. He will place himself in front of you to begin the exercise and then move to your side. From that position he will indicate, with a hand signal, to follow him, then we must turn until we are again in front of him Turns: from the basic neutral position, and looking in the direction in which we want to turn, we will lower the elbow to 67

66 68 where we want to turn while simultaneously raising the opposite elbow (Fig. 48). The spine column must remain straight at all times, like in the arching position. To stop the turn we will return to the neutral position Objectives: 1) To fly close to the Instructor without turning using the knowledge acquired in the previous jumps. 2) Altitude awareness. 3) Deployment at 5,000 feet. Even though the turns are an exercise of this jump they are not one of the main objectives of this level. FIG. 48 Right turn Jump sequence: Pre-exit checks with your Instructor in the door. Exit count and exit. Circle of awareness. The Instructor releases and moves in front of the student. The student maintains orientation and proximity with the Instructor, checking the altitude every 5 seconds. The Instructor moves to one side and the student follows performing a 90 turn. Altitude check. Repeat the exercise as long as there is enough altitude. At 6,000 no more exercises signal. At 5,000 wave-off signal and deploy.

67 LEVEL V TURNS In this level we will continue with the turning skills performing controlled 360 turns. We must bear in mind that the bigger the angle of the arms, the faster the turn will be, and also that when we want to stop the turn we will have more momentum, therefore we must stop the turn sooner in order to stop at the desired reference point. Also in this jump we will exit the plane by ourselves for the first time, in other words, our Instructor will not be holding onto us in the door, so we will feel the relative wind during the exit a bit different. A good arching position and a good presentation to the relative wind will guarantee stability during the exit. 69

68 Objectives: 1) Alternative 360 turns. 2) Axes control 3) Altitude awareness. 4) Deployment at 5, Jump sequence: Pre-exit checks with your Instructor in the door. Exit count and solo exit. The Instructor positions himself in front of the student. The student maintains orientation and proximity with the Instructor, who will signal the student to turn right. 360 turn to the right using the Instructor as reference. Altitude check. The student maintains orientation and proximity with the Instructor, who will signal the student to turn left. 360 turn to the left using the Instructor as reference. Altitude check. Repeat the exercise as long as there is enough altitude. At 6,000 no more exercises signal. At 5,000 wave-off signal and deploy.

69 LEVEL VI 10.8 STABILITY RECOVERY In Level VI we will go one step further in the progression, being ourselves the ones to provoke situations of loss of stability (by performing back loops), to recover stability using the arch technique, in other words, by going back to the neutral body position. These exercises will also help us to improve our three dimensional orientation. In this level we will also improve our forward movement technique (which we covered in Level II) by practicing the delta position, a previous step to tracking, which is one of the most important maneuvers in skydiving Delta: from the neutral position, and with altitude control, we will select a point in the horizon right in front of us. Then we will progressively point our toes until our legs are completely straight while simultaneously moving your arms back to the sides and maintaining them away from our body at about cm. (Fig. 49). In the delta position we still maintain the arch and our legs are apart at shoulder width. Maintain this position for 5 seconds and return to the neutral body position. Our position will be a bit head-down and, even though we move a bit forward our loss of altitude will be considerable Objectives: 1) Recovery of stability from unstable positions. 2) Delta position. 3) Altitude awareness. 4) Deployment at 5,000.

70 Jump sequence: Pre-exit checks with your Instructor and solo exit. The Instructor positions himself in front of the student. After receiving the corresponding signal, the student performs a back loop. Altitude check. After receiving the corresponding signal, the student performs a front loop. Altitude check. After receiving the corresponding signal, the student takes a reference point and performs a delta for 5. Altitude check and free time. At 6,000 no more exercises signal. At 5,000 wave-off signal and deploy. FIG. 49 Delta position! The exercises performed in this level will cause important changes in the neutral body position, lessening the air resistance and therefore increasing the fall rate. When in the neutral body position you fall 1,000 every 5.5, performing this type of exercises you will lose much more altitude in the same time.

71 LEVEL VII 10.9 GRADUATION JUMP By now you have acquired all the necessary knowledge and the minimum experience needed to jump alone but your Instructor will still make one more jump with you. During this jump, after the pre-exit checks you probably will not see your instructor again until you have finished your exercises or until just before deployment. We will not introduce any more new exercises, but now you will have to make the decision of performing them, decide if you have the altitude necessary to execute the exercises or not, and whether you position is stable enough to begin them. 73

72 Objectives: 1) Execution of all the exercises without assistance. 2) Demonstrate good judgment in making decisions when performing the exercises (enough altitude, stability before beginning them). 3) Overall control during the skydive Jump sequence: Pre-exit checks with your Instructor and solo exit. Stability and altitude check. Back loop. Altitude check. 360 right turn. Altitude check. 360 left turn. Altitude check. Delta for 5, you must try to improve the delta position progressing towards the tracking position (Fig. 50). Altitude check and free time. At 6,000 no more exercises signal. At 5,000 wave-off signal and deploy. FIG. 50 Tracking position

73 Quick reference guide

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75 78 Quick reference guide

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77 80 Quick reference guide

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