1.1 Coastal processes produce landforms

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1 1.1 Coastal processes produce landforms Types of wave: destructive and constructive Destructive Carry out erosion Tall Powerful High frequency Backwash greater than the swash Take sediment from beach to sea Constructive Small Weak Low frequency Carry out deposition Swash is greater than the backwash Sediment is pushed up the beach The impact of weathering, erosion and mass movement on the coast: cliffs and wave-cut platforms, headlands and bays, caves, arches, stacks and stumps. Types of coastal weathering: Physical Weathering When changes in temperature or rainfall cause the rock to weaken. Acid rain If the air is polluted, it can be very acidic. When rain falls on rocks it reacts with the minerals causing them to dissolve, and the rock to decay. Biological weathering Roots of plants, and burrowing animals, can push into cracks in a rock face and cause the rock to split. Types of wave erosion: Hydraulic action - results from the force of the wave hitting the cliffs, often forcing air pockets into cracks and crevices. Abrasion - caused by waves picking up stones and hurling them at the cliffs. Attrition any material carried by the waves will become rounder and smaller over time as it collides with other suspended particles. Corrosion the dissolving of rocks and minerals by sea water Types of coastal mass movement: Rock fall fragments of weathered rock fall from a cliff under gravity and collect at the base. Slumping happens when the bottom of a cliff is eroded by waves. The cliff slides downwards, often triggered by saturation due to rain, which both lubricates the rock and makes it heavier.

2 Landforms resulting from weathering, erosion and mass movement: Cliffs and wave cut platforms 1. In most cliffs are lines of weakness (cracks), sometimes these run horizontally (bedding planes). 2. Abrasion and hydraulic action erode the beddings planes creating a wave cut notch. 3. As the notch grows the top of the cliff is undercut and becomes unstable. Weathering weakens it further. 4. Evetnually the top of the cliff collapses. 5. As there was little erosion beneath the low tide mark, a flat shelf of rock known as a wave cut platform is left. Headlands and Bays Headlands and bays form where the coastline is made of different types of rock. The weaker rock is eroded more easily, leading to the creation of bays. The areas of more resistant rock are only eroded slowly leaving headlands.

3 Caves, arches, stacks and stumps 1. Cliffs are often faulted (cracked) 2. Abrasion and hydraulic action erode the crack, enlarging it into a cave 3. The cave is widened and deepened by further erosion 4. If the sea cuts the whole way through the headland an arch is formed 5. Continued erosion will cause the arch to grow in size, eventually the roof of the arch will become too heavy and will collapse, leaving a stack 6. Over time the stack is eroded at the base and collapses, forming a stump. The process and impact of longshore drift on the coastline. When waves approach the shore at an angle, due to the direction of the prevailing wind, their swash pushes beach material up the beach at the same angle. Backwash then drags the material back down the beach at a 90⁰, due to gravity. This produces a zig-zag movement of sediment along the beach (as shown above).

4 The formation of beaches, spits and bars. Beaches - Constructive waves deposit sediment on the coastline and lead to the formation of a beach. This is especially the case on coastlines that are sheltered from wind and waves, such as in a bay. Spits - Longshore drift carries sand along the beach. If the coastline suddenly changes direction, the beach material is deposited, builds up to form a sand bank known as a spit. The end of the spit is often curved by strong winds and waves. Behind the site is an area of calm water in which salt marshes often form. Continued deposition and plant growth can turn the marsh into new land. Bar A spit which stretches across an entire bay. Tombolo A spit which joins the coastline to an Island. Practice Questions 1. What is meant by the term swash? (2 marks) 2. Give 3 features of a destructive wave. (3 marks) 3. Outline the process of longshore drift. (3 marks) 4. Explain how the sea can erode the coastline. (4 marks) 5. Using diagrams, explain how stacks form. (6 marks) (3 SPAG) 1.2 Coastal processes Types of wave: destructive and constructive Destructive Carry out erosion Arrive quickly Tall Powerful High frequency Backwash greater than the swash Take sediment from beach to sea Constructive Small Weak Low frequency Carry out deposition Swash is greater than the backwash Sediment is pushed up the beach The impact of weathering, erosion and mass movement on the coast: cliffs and wave-cut platforms, headlands and bays, caves, arches, stacks and stumps. Types of coastal weathering:

5 Salt crystal growth When spray from waves lands on rocks, the water can evaporate leaving the salt behind. Salt crystals grow and create stresses in the rock, causing it to break into small fragments Acid rain If the air is polluted, it can be very acidic. When rain falls on rocks it reacts with the minerals causing them to dissolve, and the rock to decay. Biological weathering Roots of vegetation can grow into cracks in a rock and split the rock apart. Types of wave erosion: Hydraulic action - results from the force of the wave hitting the cliffs, often forcing air pockets into cracks and crevices. Abrasion - caused by waves picking up stones and hurling them at the cliffs. Attrition any material carried by the waves will become rounder and smaller over time as it collides with other suspended particles. Corrosion the dissolving of rocks and minerals by sea water Types of coastal mass movement: Rock fall fragments of weathered rock fall from a cliff under gravity and collect at the base. Slumping happens when the bottom of a cliff is eroded by waves. The cliff slides downwards, often triggered by saturation due to rain, which both lubricates the rock and makes it heavier.

6 Landforms resulting from weathering, erosion and mass movement: Cliffs and wave cut platforms 6. Horizontal lines of weakness (known as bedding planes) form in cliffs. 7. Abrasion and hydraulic action erode the bedding plane to form a wave cut notch. The wave cut notch forms between the high and low tide marks at the base of the cliff. 8. Continued erosion makes the notch larger. 9. The top of the cliff is undercut by erosion and weakened through weathering. Eventually, the cliff face becomes too unstable and collapses causing the cliff to move back. 10. As there was little erosion beneath the low tide mark, a flat shelf of rock known as a wave cut platform is left behind. Headlands and Bays The key to their formation is differences in geology. A discordant coastline occurs where bands of differing rock types run perpendicular to the coast. The weaker rock is eroded more easily, creating bays. The areas of more resistant rock are only eroded slowly, leaving them sticking out into the sea, as headlands. Caves, arches, stacks and stumps

7 7. Vertical Lines of weakness (cracks / faults) occur in headlands 8. Abrasion and hydraulic action erode the faults, eventually forming a cave 9. The cave is widened and deepened by further erosion 10. The sea cuts the whole way through the headland forming an arch 11. The sea erodes the arch at the base and widens it, leaving the roof unsupported. 12. The roof of the arch is weakened through weathering (physical and biological). 13. Eventually the arch roof becomes too unstable and collapses part of the former cliff is now isolated as a stack 14. Over time the stack is undercut and collapses a stump is all that remains 15. Eventually, the stump too is eroded away and becomes beach material through attrition. Coastal Transport Longshore Drift When waves approach the shore at an angle, due to the direction of the prevailing wind, their swash pushes beach material up the beach at the same angle. Backwash then drags the material back down the beach at a 90⁰, due to gravity. This produces a zig-zag movement of sediment along the beach (as shown above). The smallest material, such as sand, is easiest to carry and so ends up furthest along the beach. The heavier material, such as pebbles, are harder to move and so do not travel as far in the same amount of time.

8 Depositional Landforms. Beaches - Constructive waves deposit sediment on the coastline and lead to the formation of a beach. This is especially the case on coastlines that are sheltered from wind and waves, such as in a bay. Spits - Longshore drift carries beach sediment along the beach. When the coastline suddenly changes direction, possibly due to a river estuary, the beach material is deposited and builds up. Over time this deposition leads to the formation of a sand bank that extends the beach out into open water. This sandbank is known as a spit. The end of the spit often becomes curved by strong winds and waves. The spit creates an area of calm water immediately behind it. This leads to deposition. Plants begin to grow - forming a salt marsh. The plants hold silt in place and stabilize the landform. Continued deposition and further plant growth turns the marsh into land. This final stage is rarely reached as spits are fragile and can be washed away during storms. Bar - If longshore drift continues to extend the length of the spit, it may join back with the coastline on the other side of an opening such as a bay. This results in the creation of a bar with a lagoon behind. Tombolo Where a spit stretches to an island, joining it to the coastline, the feature created is known as a Tombolo. Practice Questions 1. Outline how coastal regions are eroded (3) 2. Compare constructive and destructive waves (3) 3. Describe the process of longshore drift (4) 4. Using annotated diagrams, explain how weathering and erosion lead to the formation of wave-cut platforms are formed (6) (3 SPAG) 1.2 Coastal landforms are subject to change Factors which affect the rate of cliff recession.

9 Why are some of Britain s coastlines receding faster than others? 1) Fetch - Coasts that face a major ocean have a very long fetch and the winds are strong and persistent. This produces destructive waves with high energy that can erode cliffs at a faster. 2) Rock Type (Geology) Some rocks are more resistant to erosion than others affecting the rate of erosion e.g. Granite (hard); Clay (Soft). 3) Coastal Management Coastal management can be used to slow rate of erosion. The effects of cliff recession case study: Durlston Bay, Swanage Between 1968 and 1988 the cliff receded 12 metres, ending up only 25 metres away from a number of properties. Then in 2000/01 severe storms and high-energy waves led to a further retreat of 12 metres. In Durlston Bay: Cliff front property can no longer get insurance. House prices in affected areas have collapsed. Electricity and photo cables have been re-routed to avoid the collapse zone. Some roads are no longer passable. Sections of the coastline are no longer open to tourist.

10 Prediction and prevention of the effects of coastal flooding by forecasting, building design, planning and education In the UK, we are warned of coastal floods to enable us to take precautions: The Met Office predicts the likelihood of a coastal flood and gives this information to the public through weather forecasts online and on the television. On the Environment agency website there will be information on the likelihood of a flood, identified through a system of warning codes (shown right). There are also a number of websites run by the government to give advice to the public in areas prone to flooding. DEFRA (the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) has the responsibility of deciding which areas of the coastline are going to be defended against coastal flooding. The Environment Agency then organises for the defences to be built and maintained. The Storm Tide Forecasting Service provides the Environment Agency with forecasts of coastal flooding which the Environment Agency then communicates to the public via their website or phone line. The effects of flooding can also be minimised by building design and control. Before houses can be built the local authority has to give planning permission this is not granted in flood risk areas unless a risk assessment has been carried out. Past Paper Questions: 1. Give two reasons why some coastlines are receding faster than others. (2) 2. Outline the impacts of a receding coastline on area you have studied. (3) 3. Describe how planning can reduce the damage caused coastal flooding. (3) 4. Explain how rock type can affect rates of coastal erosion. (4)

11 The types of hard and soft engineering used on the coastline of the UK and the advantages and disadvantages of these techniques. Hard Engineering Description Advantages Disadvantages Rip-rap Large rocks placed in front of the cliff. COST- 300 per person Dissipates wave energy Can be very cheap, depending on the rock type Effective for many years Can make the beach inaccessible to tourists Unattractive Not effective in storm conditions Recurved seawall Groynes Walls usually made of concrete, more modern ones have a recurved face. COST per metre Usually made of wood, stretch from the coastline to the sea COST each Reflects and absorbs wave energy Very obvious make residents feel safe Effective for many years Prevents Longshore drift Keeps beach in place for the tourist industry Effective for many years Ugly Expensive Can cause wave scouring if not positioned correctly Becomes difficult to walk along the beach Disrupt the natural working processes on the beach Offshore reef Revetments Enormous concrete blocks and natural boulders are sunk offshore to alter wave direction and dissipate the energy of waves. COST - 1,950 per m Slatted wooden or concrete structures built at the base of a cliff The waves break further offshore and therefore reduce their erosive power. They allow the build-up of sand due to the reduction in wave energy These absorb wave energy through slats and do not interfere with longshore drift May be removed by heavy storms Difficult to install Regular maintenance is needed. Expensive.

12 Soft Engineering Beach Replenishment - The placing of sand and pebbles on a beach. COST per 100m Looks natural Provides beach for tourists Dissipates wave energy Relatively Cheap However It may affect plant and animal life The scheme requires constant maintenance. Disruption for home-owners, large noisy Lorries full of sand regularly replenish the beach. Cliff Regrading The cliff is cut back and given a new gentle slope to stop it slumping May be covered in ecomatting to encourage vegetation growth Very natural will encourage wildlife in the area However Not effective by itself will need other defences installed at cliff s base Some homes on the cliff may have to be demolished Managed retreat Allowing the sea to gradually flood land or erode cliffs. Creates new habitats for plants and birds Little direct expense. However Upsetting for landowners who lose land How the coast is managed in a named location Swanage and Durlston Bay In Durlston Bay, several methods were used to protect cliffs from erosion and to safeguard the buildings on the cliff top. The defences included: Regrading of the cliff Installing drainage to reduce mass movement Placing rip-rap Swanage Bay needed different methods of defence: Sea wall Cliff regrading Groynes Beach replenishment Practice Questions 1. Name two forms of hard engineering (2) 2. Give two advantages of using soft techniques to manage coastal retreat (2) 3. Outline how groynes reduce coastal erosion? (3) 4. For a named coastal area, explain the management measures used. (6)

13 1.2 Coastal landforms are subject to change Differing rates of cliff recession. Why are some of Britain s coastlines receding faster than others? 4) Fetch - Coasts that face a major ocean (e.g. the SW coast of England), have a very long fetch and the winds are strong and persistent. This produces destructive waves with high energy that can erode cliffs at a faster rate than waves with a smaller fetch and less energy. 5) Rock Type (Geology) - The geology of South-West England is mainly granite, which is a very resistant rock; making the actual rates of erosion very slow. Coastlines with a less resistant rock type, such as clay, will erode much faster. 6) Coastal Management -The final factor that affects these rates is coastal management. If coastal defences such as sea walls protect weak geology then rates of erosion will be much slower. Granite boulders (rip rap) are often placed in front of weak cliffs to protect them. The boulders absorb the energy of the waves protecting the cliff. The effects of cliff recession: Durlston Bay, Swanage Many houses, hotels and apartment blocks are built on cliff-tops to take advantage of the sea views. Cliff recession has put these properties at risk of collapse into the sea. At present in the UK, loss of property to cliff recession is not covered by home insurance policies. In Durlston Bay: Between 1968 and 1988 the cliff receded 12 metres, ending up only 25 metres away from the apartment block Purbeck Heights. In 2000/01 severe storms and high-energy waves led to a further retreat of 12 metres, putting many properties at risk. These properties have become uninsurable and have crashed in value. Durlston Country Park also lies on the cliff top and is home to over 250 different species of birds, including Puffins and Falcons that nest on the cliff. Their habitat and breeding is put at risk by cliff recession. Some roads and utility networks (e.g. power cables) have had to be re-route to prevent damage from future cliff collapse. Some section of the coastline have been sectioned off as they present a danger to walkers and tourists. This has discouraged some tourists from visiting the area.

14 Prediction and prevention of the effects of coastal flooding by forecasting, building design, planning and education In the UK, we are warned of coastal floods to enable us to take precautions: The Met Office predicts the likelihood of a coastal flood and gives this information to the public through weather forecasts online and on the television. On the Environment agency website there will be information on the likelihood of a flood, identified through a system of warning codes (shown right). There are also a number of websites run by the government to give advice to the public in areas prone to flooding. DEFRA (the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) has the responsibility of deciding which areas of the coastline are going to be defended against coastal flooding. The Environment Agency then organises for the defences to be built and maintained. The Storm Tide Forecasting Service provides the Environment Agency with forecasts of coastal flooding which the Environment Agency then communicates to the public via their website or phone line. The effects of flooding can also be minimised by building design and control. Before houses can be built the local authority has to give planning permission this is not granted in flood risk areas unless a risk assessment has been carried out. Past Paper Questions: 1) Define the term fetch (2 marks) 2) For an area you have studied, describe the impact of coastal retreat (4 marks) 3) Outline the actions taken in the UK to limit the damage caused by coastal flooding (4 marks) 4) Examine why some coasts retreat faster than others (9 marks)(spag 4)

15 The types of hard and soft engineering used on the coastline of the UK and the advantages and disadvantages of these techniques. Hard Engineering Description Advantages Disadvantages Rip-rap Large rocks placed in front of the cliff. COST- 300 per person Dissipates wave energy Can be very cheap, depending on the rock type Effective for many years Can make the beach inaccessible to tourists Unattractive Not effective in storm conditions Recurved seawall Groynes Walls usually made of concrete, more modern ones have a recurved face. COST per metre Usually made of wood, stretch from the coastline to the sea COST each Reflects and absorbs wave energy Very obvious make residents feel safe Effective for many years Prevents Longshore drift Keeps beach in place for the tourist industry Effective for many years Ugly Expensive Can cause wave scouring if not positioned correctly Becomes difficult to walk along the beach Disrupt the natural working processes on the beach Offshore reef Revetments Enormous concrete blocks and natural boulders are sunk offshore to alter wave direction and dissipate the energy of waves. COST - 1,950 per m Slatted wooden or concrete structures built at the base of a cliff The waves break further offshore and therefore reduce their erosive power. They allow the build-up of sand due to the reduction in wave energy These absorb wave energy through slats and do not interfere with longshore drift May be removed by heavy storms Difficult to install Regular maintenance is needed. Expensive.

16 Soft Engineering Beach Replenishment - The placing of sand and pebbles on a beach. COST per 100m Looks natural Provides beach for tourists A beach is the best form of natural defence it dissipates wave energy Cheap However It may affect plant and animal life in the area The scheme requires constant maintenance. It can all be washed away in as little as a year. Disruption for home-owners, large noisy Lorries full of sand regularly replenish the beach. Cliff regarding The cliff is cut back and given a new gentle slope to stop it slumping May be covered in ecomatting to encourage vegetation growth Very natural will encourage wildlife in the area However Not effective alone need other defences at cliff base Some homes on the cliff may have to be demolished Managed retreat Allowing the sea to gradually flood land or erode cliffs. Creates new habitats for plants and birds Cheap However Upsetting for landowners who lose land Difficult to estimate the extent of sea movement especially with rising sea levels. How the coast is managed in a named location Swanage and Durlston Bay In Durlston Bay, several methods were used to protect cliffs from erosion and to safeguard the buildings on the cliff top. Erosion mainly occurred at one particular point, where there was a major weakness in the rock. The defences included: Regrading of the cliff Installing drainage removing excess water, so that the slope was not as heavy or as well lubricated after rain. Placing rip-rap Swanage Bay needed different methods of defence, because the erosion occurred over a large stretch of cliff rather than at one point. Homes and hotels on the cliff top needed protecting from the danger of cliff collapse. The methods used were: Sea wall built in the 1920s and acted as a promenade for tourists as well as a wave barrier. Cliff regrading a series of steps were made in the cliff to reduce slope angles Groynes, installed in the 1930s. 18 have recently been replaced. Beach replenishment 90,000 cubed metres of sand was dredged from Studland Bay and pumped onto the beach at Swanage. The cost of the recent beach replenishment and groyne replacement was around 2.2m.

17 Practice Questions 1. Outline how sea walls prevent coastal retreat (3) 2. Explain how groynes protect cliffs from erosion by the sea? (4) 3. What are the disadvantages associated with using hard engineering to manage coastal retreat (3) 4. For a named area, describe the effects of coastal retreat (4) 5. using examples, explain how soft engineering can be used to manage coastal retreat (6)

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