THE VALUE OF CONFIRMATION LIGHTS AND THEIR UNINTENDED IMPACT ON DRIVER COMPLIANCE AND/OR DETERRENCE TO RUN A RED LIGHT

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1 0 THE VALUE OF CONFIRMATION LIGHTS AND THEIR UNINTENDED IMPACT ON DRIVER COMPLIANCE AND/OR DETERRENCE TO RUN A RED LIGHT Kwaku F. Boakye *, Eric J. Fitzsimmons, Steven D. Schrock and Tomas E. Lindheimer * Graduate Research Assistant and Corresponding Author Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Tennessee - Knoxville John D. Tickle Building Knoxville, TN Phone: () kboakye@vols.utk.edu Visiting Assistant Professor Department of Civil Engineering Kansas State University Fiedler Hall Manhattan, KS 0 Phone: () -0 fitzsimmons@k-state.edu Associate Professor Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering The University of Kansas W th Street, Learned Hall B Lawrence, KS 0 Phone: () - schrock@ku.edu Tomás E. Lindheimer Associate Transportation Researcher Texas A&M Transportation Institute (TTI) TAMU College Station, TX Phone: () - tlindheimer@tti.tamu.edu Submission Date: November, Total words =, + 0* ( Figure + Tables) =, Submitted for presentation and publication at the th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board

2 Boakye, et al. 0 ABSTRACT Red light running (RLR) continues to be a safety concern for many communities with signalized intersections in the United States. In, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety reported that RLR resulted in fatalities and,000 injury-related crashes nationwide. Confirmation lights have been deployed in many communities as a countermeasure to aid law enforcement in reducing red light running violations. However, their effectiveness has not been well reported. This research study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of confirmation lights at signalized intersections to reduce RLR violations. Confirmation lights were installed for the protected left-turn movements at two signalized intersections in Lawrence, Kansas. In addition to the two treatment sites, comparison sites were studied including six spillover intersections and five control intersections. A before-after analysis was conducted using field-based violation data. Without changing the local traditional red light running enforcement program by the police departments during the study period, video data were collected prior to installation, one month and three months after installation. A test of proportions found a statistically significant percent reduction in left-turning RLR violations three-months after the installation of confirmation lights at the treatment sites. An analysis of RLR time into red using a Chi-Square tests indicated that the system were less effective in changing the time from the onset of red until the mean RLR violation occurred. Overall, the presence of the confirmation lights at the signalized intersection indicated effectiveness in both reducing red light running violations and also changing driver behavior. Key words: Red light running, Confirmation lights, Enforcement, Test of proportions, Chi-Square test, Intersection safety

3 Boakye, et al. 0 BACKGROUND Red light running (RLR) continues to be a safety concern at signalized intersections for many communities in the United States. Running a red light is a common event where a driver proceeds through a signalized intersection either intentionally or unintentionally after the red signal is shown. In, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) reported that RLR resulted in fatalities and over,000 injury crashes nationwide based on data (). Approximately one-half of the fatalities reported in this study were not the drivers but were passengers, pedestrians, cyclists and other road users. The consequences of RLR crashes have also had a negative economic impact in the United States. In 0, the Federal Highway Administration reported that RLR had an annual societal cost of approximately $ billion (). The seriousness and increased probability of a RLR event to occur has led many communities to implement strategies to reduce RLR violations. A wide range of countermeasures have been evaluated over the last decade including engineering, enforcement, intersection operational and geometric improvements (-). Similar to other states and communities, Kansas currently has legislation that does not allow for the use of automated enforcement which results in many Kansas communities relying on traditional RLR enforcement at signalized intersections. Targeted enforcement for RLR requires at least two police officers at an identified signalized intersection. One officer will observe the RLR violation and the second officer will pull over the violating vehicle and issue a ticket. In a situation where there is a single police officer monitoring RLR at a signalized intersection, safety concerns arise when the officer must chase a violating vehicle through the intersection after witnessing the violation. Confirmation light is one type of low-cost strategy designed to bridge these two situations by aiding a single officer watching RLR violations from a safe location. Prior research as to the effectiveness or the value of confirmation lights is limited. This research was designed to evaluate the effectives of confirmation lights at two signalized intersections in Lawrence, Kansas. The following section provides a brief description of previous literature that has investigated RLR enforcement countermeasures at signalized intersections. LITERATURE REVIEW As stated previously, there are many countermeasures available to target RLR. Previous research recommends that before implementation of any countermeasure, an understanding of the intersection including possible engineering or operational improvements be considered to understand why the violations are occurring (). The review of literature focused on enforcement-based countermeasures which are designed to either be automated, aiding the police officer, or self-enforcing. Automated Red Light Camera Enforcement Automated enforcement is a highly effective method of capturing RLR violations using cameras and sensors at intersection approaches. Depending on state legislation, a driver s face and vehicle (including license plate) will be captured by the system and processed by a commercial vendor and local police jurisdiction. As of, the IIHS estimated that approximately 0 communities in the U.S. operated RLR cameras programs (). Previous studies have indicated the effectiveness of RLR cameras. In a study conducted in Council Bluffs, Iowa, Fitzsimmons et al. found, 0 and 0 percent reductions in total, right-angle and rear-end crashes, respectively

4 Boakye, et al. 0 (). Similarly, a study conducted in North Carolina at RLR camera-equipped intersections resulted in a percent reduction in total crashes, a percent reduction in RLR related crashes, a percent reduction in angle crashes and a percent reduction in rear-end crashes (). Studies in Oxnard, California and Fairfax, Virginia found red light cameras reduced RLR violations by approximately 0 percent (, ). Several other research studies have reported similar effectiveness of automated enforcement, both for speed and RLR. Targeted Police Officer Enforcement Targeted enforcement campaigns are designed to utilize police department funding or federal/state grants to increase enforcement at signalized intersections or corridors where RLR has been identify as a problem through a crash and/or violation study. Targeted enforcement typically requires multiple police officers at a single signalized intersection. One officer must monitor the signalized intersection while a second or third officer will chase the violating vehicle through the intersection, or radio downstream to a waiting officer to pull over the driver. Cooper found a percent reduction in RLR violations in a before-after study at six intersections using highly visible police targeted enforcement (). A study conducted by Marsh () investigated multiple targeted RLR enforcement campaigns in four communities and found a reduction of violations of between and percent. The author noted that program sustainability, or long term effectiveness is difficult to quantify. Confirmation Light Systems Confirmation lights are designed to aid targeted enforcement by providing law enforcement an indication of when a red light is shown for a certain approach. A full explanation of the confirmation light used and how it works is explained in the following sections. The research team was only able to find a limited number of previous studies that investigated confirmation lights. Reddy et al. investigated white enforcement lights at intersections in Hillsborough County, Florida (). The study used a before-after violation and crash studies analysis. Five months prior to installation of the lights and three months after installation, the researchers collected violation data at intersections on weekdays during morning and evening peak hours. They also obtained three years of before-period crash data (00 to 0) and three years of after-period crash data (0-0) from the Florida Department of Transportation. Considering all the intersections, they recorded a total of violations in the before period and violations in the after period. From a matched-pair t-test, the authors found the reduction in violations to be statistically significant at the 0.0 level of significance. Out of the crashes per year they analyzed for the before period, crashes per year were due to RLR and out of the 0 crashes per year for the after period, crashes per year were due to RLR. Upon further investigation, the authors found a reduction in RLR crashes from approximately 0 crashes per year to crashes per year at approaches with white enforcement lights. The Minnesota Local Technical Assistance Program summarized a completed study conducted by the University of Minnesota and City of Burnsville, Minnesota, to evaluate confirmation lights installed at two signalized intersections on County Roads and. Results of the study saw the daily violation rate reduced by percent (). The research team found a significant gap in the state of the practice when targeted enforcement and/or the use of confirmation lights were used to aid targeted enforcement. The study is designed to fill this gap by investigating the use of confirmation lights at two Kansas intersections, and determine short and long term effectiveness using RLR violation data.

5 Boakye, et al. CONFIRMATION LIGHTS The research team selected Pelco confirmation lights for this study which range from $-$0 each depending on the mounting bracket. The City of Lawrence specified to the research team that they wanted the light to be mounted by a cable as shown in Figure. FIGURE Blue confirmation light activated. As shown in Figure, excess cable and wire were strapped to the mast arm and sign bracket. The confirmation light comes in multiple colors including blue, red, and clear. A single LED bulb was used in each light and the plastic dome was sealed by rubber weather stripping. A bright blue band can be seen in the daylight, and the lights become even brighter during nighttime hours. Installation time ranged from five to ten minutes per light. A small public awareness campaign for the research study was disseminated prior to activation of the confirmation lights; however, this was not evaluated as part of the research study. METHODOLOGY A before-after violation study was used in place of a crash study. The change in RLR violations before and after the installation of the confirmation lights was used as a crash surrogate to evaluate the effectiveness of the system. If a decrease in RLR violations were found it was assumed there would be less exposure for a crash, thus indicating a potential reduction in intersection crashes. Site Selection The research team identified possible intersections in Lawrence, Kansas for confirmation light installation. The identified intersections were located within the city limits, had similar traffic operations, and no work zones planned during the study period. The intersections were reduced to candidate sites upon further investigation. A set of variables identified by the research team for this reduction included: approach geometry, a posted speed limit between and 0 mph, presence of a protected and/or protected/permitted left-turning lanes, a safe location

6 Boakye, et al. where officers can enforce the intersection, and similar peak hour volumes. The research team then met with officials from the City of Lawrence to agree on the two treatment sites where the confirmation lights would be installed. Other intersections selected were to be investigated for possible spillover effects and global changes in RLR violations in Lawrence using control sites. Thirteen signalized intersections were selected for the study including two treatment sites, six spillover sites, and five control sites as shown in Figure. FIGURE Layout showing the treatment, spillover and control sites (Google maps, ). At the request of the city, confirmation lights were installed only for the protected leftturn movements at both treatment intersections. It should be noted that one treatment intersections had protected/permitted left-turn operations on two approaches, and so the confirmation lights were not installed (this would have provided confusing indications to the officers as the confirmation lights would have been active while a green left-turn arrow would have been displayed). As stated previously, the research team selected spillover intersections directly adjacent to the treatment intersections. Previous research relating to automated enforcement indicated that if an intersection is treated with a device (e.g. automated RLR camera), similar effects can be observed at nearby intersections (), thus terming the phrase spillover effect or halo effect. It was expected that if a reduction in RLR violations occurred at the treatment intersections, then a reduction might also be observed at these six intersections. Additionally, five control sites were selected for the study and were located outside of the study corridor but were still within city limits. The purpose of the control sites were to determine if there was any significant RLR changes in Lawrence. Data Collection and Reduction Video data were collected using high-definition cameras on tripods at each intersection approach. The camera setups were located near intersections but were hidden near fixed objects (trees, shrubs, light poles, etc.) to minimize possible changes in driver behavior prior to arriving

7 Boakye, et al. 0 at the intersection. The research team also contacted the Lawrence Police Department on the days of data collection so that targeted enforcement would not occur to possibly affect the data. The before video data were collected on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, or Thursdays during the morning peak hours ( a.m. to a.m.) and evening peak hours ( p.m. to p.m.). A similar data collection methodology was used for the after study periods. The dates, in which video data were collected, including the installation date are as follows: Before study October to November, ; Confirmation light installation July to July, ; One-month after study August to August, ; and Three-month after study October to November,. A total of hours of video data were collected for the research. Video data were reduced manually by undergraduate student research assistants. Set guidelines were developed and given to each student to ensure accurate reduction of the video data which included the following: A vehicle that proceeded through (or crossed the stop line), made a right turn, or made a left turn after the red signal was shown was considered a RLR violation. A vehicle that crossed the stop line during the yellow interval, or was in the intersection when the signal showed yellow or red was not considered a RLR violation (e.g. permitted left turns). If a vehicle was found running a red light, it was determined how long into the red light the vehicle made the violation. While monitoring a single approach for RLR violations, traffic volumes for each lane were also recorded. After a student completed the video reduction for all four approaches of an intersection, the reduced video data were given to one of the members of the research team to perform a quality control check. Quality control included verifying the RLR violation and time into red were accurate. After completing the video data reduction, violation and operational data were aggregated in a database for further analysis. Prior to installation and activation of the blue confirmation lights at both intersections, the City of Lawrence consulted with the city and county traffic judges and prosecutors to explain how the system worked so that if the court system saw the words blue light on a citation, it would not create confusion. Additionally, through press release and television broadcast, the public was made aware of the addition of the blue light on the mast arm. The public awareness campaign was a means of explaining how the system worked. However, the effectiveness of the public awareness campaign was not a part of, or quantified in this study. ANALYSIS Analysis of the Confirmation Lights for Left-Turning Traffic The change in RLR violation rates was the performance metric used to evaluate the confirmation lights. Violation rates were expressed as violations per,000 entering vehicles (TEV) for each approach. A Z-test of proportions which measures the difference between two sample

8 Boakye, et al. proportions was selected for analyzing the violation data. The change in violation rates were tested at the 0.0 level of significance and the results of the analysis are shown in Table. TABLE Results of the RLR Violation Analysis for Left Turning Movements Site Category Number of Violations Number of Vehicles Violations/TEV Percent Change Treatment Site (Treated App.) Before mo mo Before mo mo Before mo mo mo mo rd Street & Iowa Street (NB) B,00,0, rd Street & Iowa Street (SB) B,,, rd Street & Iowa Street (WB) B,,, rd Street & Iowa Street (EB) B 0,,, A -. rd Street &Louisiana Street (WB) B,,, rd Street & Louisiana Street (EB) B 0,,, A Total 0,0,,.. -. A -. A Treatment Site (Non-Treated App.) rd Street & Louisiana Street (NB) B,,, rd Street & Louisiana Street (SB) B 0 0,,, 0 0. Total,,, Spillover Sites rd Street & Ousdahl Road,0,, th Street & Iowa Street,0,0, A -0. th Street & Louisiana Street,,, Clinton Parkway & Crestline Drive 0 0 0,,, th Street & Iowa Street 0,,, rd Street & Alabama Street 0,,, Total,,, A -. Control Sites th Street & Kasold Drive,,,.... th Street & Michigan Street,,, st Street & Iowa Street 0,,, 0.. th Street & Wakarusa Drive 0,0,0, Clinton Parkway & Kasold Drive,0,,.... Total A Change in violation rate is statistically significant at the 0.0 level of significance. B NB, SB, WB, EB denotes northbound, southbound, westbound, and eastbound, respectively. As shown in Table, the intersection of rd Street and Louisiana Street had two approaches not treated with the blue confirmation light due to the presence of a protected/permitted left-turn signal and these were considered immediate spillover sites. The changes in violations for left-turn movements and through movements were evaluated separately. Overall, the research team found that the confirmation lights showed effectiveness in reducing left-turning RLR violations at the treatment intersections. Considering all of the treatment approaches, a statistically significant reduction in violations at the 0.0 level of significance (. percent reduction for one month after installation, and. percent reduction three months after installation) was found and is consistent with the other two studies mentioned in the review of literature section (, ). The immediate spillover northbound approach at the intersection of rd Street and Louisiana Street had a minor decrease (one month after) and a large increase (three months after) in left-turning RLR violations. Investigating the spillover intersections, it was found that overall a significant reduction in violations (. percent) occurred one month after the confirmation light installation. The

9 Boakye, et al. same intersections saw a reduction in violations for the three months study (. percent). However, this reduction was not found to be statistically significant at the 0.0 level of significance. At the control sites, the research team found a. percent reduction in violations for the one month after study and a percent reduction for the three months after study. Both were found to not be statistically significant at the 0.0 level of significance. Analysis of RLR Violations for Through Movement Traffic As stated previously, the confirmation lights were only installed for the left-turn protected movements for six intersection approaches at two signalized intersections. The research team also investigated the adjacent through movements to determine if the confirmation lights had an effect on these movements. The results of the analysis are shown in Table. TABLE Results of the RLR Violation Analysis for Through Movements Site Category Number of Violations Number of Vehicles Violations/TEV Percent Change Treatment Sites Before mo mo Before mo mo Before mo mo mo mo rd Street & Iowa Street,0,, A -. rd Street & Louisiana Street,,, Total,,, A. Spillover Sites rd Street & Ousdahl Road,0,, th Street & Iowa Street,0,0, th Street & Louisiana Street 0 0,,, 0 0 Clinton Parkway & Crestline Drive,,, th Street & Iowa Street,,, rd Street & Alabama Street,,,.... Total,,, A Control Sites th Street & Kasold Drive,,,.... th Street & Michigan Street,,,..... A st Street & Iowa Street 0,,, th Street & Wakarusa Drive,0,0,.... Clinton Parkway & Kasold Drive,0,,.... Total,,0,..... A A Change in violation rate is statistically significant at the 0.0 level of significance. As shown in Table, the treatment intersections saw a decrease in violations (approximately percent) during the one month after study that was significant at the 0.0 level of significance. However, the same intersections saw an increase in violations for the three month after study. The spillover intersections saw overall decrease in violations (. percent) for the one month after study and an increase in violations (. percent) for the month after study which was found to be significant at the 0.0 level of significance. Considering the control intersections, it was found that through movement RLR violations increased in both study periods, with the overall three month after percentage (. percent) being statistically significant at the 0.0 level of significance. In general, the blue confirmation lights had a positive impact on the RLR violations for the through-movement traffic at the treatment and spillover intersections in the short term period even though the lights were only installed for the left-turn movements.

10 Boakye, et al. Analysis of Time into Red for Left Turning Traffic An important aspect in RLR safety research is the time into the red the violation occurred. Violations found within the all-red time (generally one to two seconds) are most likely due to a driver caught in the intersection indecision zone or at the end of a platoon and intentionally ran the red light. However, drivers that enter the intersection past the all-red phase create a more dangerous situation, particularly as the conflicting movement would then have a green light (,). A secondary performance metric that the research team used in evaluating the confirmation lights was the violation time into red. The research team investigated the beforeafter effect on RLR violation time into red to determine whether confirmation lights could change this driver behavior. Figure (a), (b), and (c) shows the distribution of the time into red for left-turning traffic at treatment, spillover and control sites, respectively.

11 Number of Violations Number of Violations Number of Violations Boakye, et al. 0 0 < to < to < to < to < > Time Into Red (seconds) (a) Before month After Study months After Study 0 0 < to < to < to < to < > Time Into Red (seconds) (b) Before month After Study months After Study 0 0 < to < to < to < to < > Time Into Red (seconds) Before month After Study months After Study (C) FIGURE Left-turn movement time into red at (a) Treatment (b) Spillover and (c) Control intersections.

12 Boakye, et al. 0 As shown in Figure at the treatment sites (a), spillover sites (b), and control sites (c), most of the violations occurred less than one second after the onset of the red light. At the treatment sites, the total number of violations was reduced after the confirmation lights were installed with no violation occurring after four seconds into red. From Figure (b), the overall number of violations at the spillover sites was less than the violations at the two treatment intersections and no violations occurred in the after periods between two and five seconds. However, the spillover sites saw vehicles running a red light more than five seconds into the red before and after the confirmation lights were installed. Similar to the spillover intersections, the control intersections saw violations occurring after five seconds into the red light before and after the confirmation lights were installed at the treatment intersections. Further investigation was conducted using a Chi-Square Test of Independence to measure the before-after effect of the confirmation lights on RLR violation time into red. RLR violations for the left-turn movements were categorized into two groups for each site category (treatment, spillover and control). Group consisted of all the RLR violations which occurred within two seconds after the onset of the red signal and Group consisted of the violations which occurred more than two seconds after the red indication. Two seconds was set as the baseline because in the City of Lawrence, a minimum of. seconds is used for the all-red clearance interval at most signalized intersections. This implies that a RLR violation occurring after. seconds into red was more likely to result in a crash. The test was conducted at the 0.0 level of significance. Overall, the research team found no significant change in the violation time into red after the installation of this countermeasure indicating that confirmation lights appear unable to change driver behavior as to when RLR violations occur. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY OF FINDINGS This field study was designed and conducted at signalized intersections in Lawrence, Kansas, to evaluate how blue confirmation lights could aid police officers in enforcing RLR. Installations of the confirmation lights were found to have a significant reduction in left-turning movement RLR violations at both the treatment and spillover sites (intersections near the treatment sites). Although the confirmation lights were installed only for left-turn movements, decreases in the through movement RLR violations at the treatment and spillover sites one month after installation were also observed. Despite the effectiveness of the system in reducing RLR violations, confirmation lights had any impact on the RLR violation time into red. It was found that a significant number of vehicles who run a red light enter the intersection less than two seconds into the red. In many cases, the traffic signal would show an all-red phase. However, the research team did find that many vehicle entered the intersection after five seconds at both spillover and control intersections, but not at the treatment intersections. This may indicate but cannot be concluded at this time that the confirmation lights may deter an intentional red light running violation. Independent of whether the public education and enforcement were related to the reduction of the frequency of the RLR violations, the confirmation lights heightened drivers attention to the red signal indication and also provided increased safety for law enforcement and the motoring public. In addition to the safety, the blue confirmation lights also resulted in the reduction of the number of officers and hours required for enforcement. This study has shown a

13 Boakye, et al. 0 positive result that, confirmation lights, when used in combination with enforcement efforts are effective in reducing RLR at signalized intersections. To strengthen the findings of this study, a future violation study one year or more after installation of the confirmation lights is recommended by the research team. Having a one-year study will help determine if confirmation lights have long lasting impacts on reducing RLR violations and also to avoid any seasonal changes that may be present in this current research. Additionally, a long-term study examining actual crash records would also provide insight into long-term trends. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank for the Mid-American Transportation for funding support of this research. The authors acknowledge the help from individuals with the City of Lawrence traffic engineering department and Lawrence Police Department. REFERENCES. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. Q&A Red light Cameras. Accessed April,.. Federal Highway Administration. Red Light Camera Systems Operational Guidelines. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 0. Accessed February,.. Hallmark, S., N. Oneyear, and T. McDonald. Toolbox of Countermeasures to Reduce Red Light Running. Center for Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa,.. Bonneson, J., and K. Zimmerman. Red Light Running Handbook: An Engineer's Guide to Reduce Red Light Related Crashes. Report FHWA/TX-0/0--P. Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 0.. McGee, H.W., K. Eccles, J. Clark, L. Prothe, and C. O'Connell. Making Intersections Safer: A Toolbox of Engineering Countermeasures. Informational Report. Federal Highway Administration, Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, D.C., 0.. Federal Highway Administration. Red-Signal Enforcement Lights. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 0. Accessed January,.. Fitzsimmons, E.J., S. Hallmark, T. McDonald, M. Orellana, and D. Matulac. The Effectiveness of Iowa's Automated Red Light Running Enforcement Programs. Center for Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, 0.

14 Boakye, et al.. Cunningham, C.M., and J.S. Hummer. Evaluating the Use of Red Light Running Photographic Enforcement Using Collisions and Red Light Running Violations. Institute for Transportation Research and Education, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, 0.. Retting, Richard A., A.F. Williams, C. M. Farmer, and A. F Feldman. Evaluation of Red Light Camera Enforcement in Oxnard, California. In Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol., No.. pp. -.. Retting, Richard A., A. F. Williams, C. M. Farmer, and A.F. Feldman. Evaluation of Red Light Camera Enforcement in Fairfax, VA, USA. In ITE Journal, Vol., No.,. pp. -.. Cooper, P.J. Effects of Increased Enforcement at Urban Intersections on Driver Behavior and Safety. In Transportation Research Record 0, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.,, pp. -.. Marsh, B. Law Observance and Enforcement Methods. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.,.. Reddy, V. M. Abdel-Aty, and S. Pinapaka. Evaluation of Innovative Safety Treatments; Volume : A Study of the Effectiveness of White Enforcement Lights. Report B-D00, Florida Department of Transportation, Tallahassee, Florida, 0.. Minnesota Local Technical Assistance Program. 0 Local Operational Research Assistance (OPERA) Program Annual Report. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 0.. Nicolson, A.J. The Variability of Accident Counts. Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol., No.,, pp. -.. McGee, H.W. and K.A. Eccles. NCHRP Report : Impact of Red Light Camera Enforcement on Crashes. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 0.. Hallmark, S., N. Oneyear, and T. McDonald. Toolbox of Countermeasures to Reduce Red Light Running. Center for Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa,.

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