The Decline of the Artisanal Fisheries in Mediterranean Coastal Areas: The Case of Cap de Creus (Cape Creus)

Transcription

1 Coastal Management, 34: , 2006 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: print / online DOI: / The Decline of the Artisanal Fisheries in Mediterranean Coastal Areas: The Case of Cap de Creus (Cape Creus) SÍLVIA GÓMEZ Université de Montpellier I Montpellier, Languedoc-Roussillon, France JOSEP LLORET MONTSERRAT DEMESTRE Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC) Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain VICTÒRIA RIERA Autonomous Government of Catalonia Department of Environment Natural Park of Cap de Creus El Port de la Selva, Catalonia, Spain This article examines the sociocultural, economic, and environmental causes of the decline of the artisanal fisheries in the rocky coast of Cape Creus (NW Mediterranean) over the past decades. The changes that have occurred over time have favored trawlers, purse-seiners, shellfish fisheries, and tourism activities, to the detriment of artisanal fisheries. This article shows that the establishment of a marine reserve in 1998 could not reverse the observed decline in the artisanal fisheries. This raises the necessity of implementing a fishery management plan integrated into a coastal management plan, which should accompany the habitat protection. These plans could assist in the maintenance and the sustainable development of the artisanal fishing sector in Cape Creus as well as in other Mediterranean coastal areas where artisanal fisheries are also declining. Keywords artisanal fisheries, Cape Creus, marine reserves, Mediterranean Received 30 September 2005; accepted 13 November We thank all artisanal fishermen from Llançà, Port de la Selva, Cadaqués and Roses who contributed to this study and to Nuria Zaragoza for her assistance during the interviews. We also thank two anonymous referees who revised and improved the article. Address correspondence to Dr. Josep Lloret, Intitut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Pg. Marítim 37-49, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. lloret@icm.csic.es 217

2 218 S. Gómez et al. Introduction Historically, artisanal fisheries have been a major source of food, employment, and economic benefits to the inhabitants of the Mediterranean coastal villages. Although smallscale fishing is still important for some communities that live from it (about 80 percent of the Mediterranean fleet is made of small vessels measuring less than 12 meters in length according to the European Commission, 2004), this type of fishery is declining in many parts of the Mediterranean. In the French regions of Languedoc-Roussillon and Provence- Alpes-Côte d Azur, the number of artisanal boats nearly halved between 1986 and 1996 (Guillou & Crespi, 1999). In the Cilento area (Italy) a reduction of around 25 percent for the artisanal fleet between and 2001 was observed (Colloca et al., 2004). The exploited stocks of the Mediterranean Sea are facing increased levels of pollution disturbance by human activities such as fishing and tourism, which cause coastal degradation, and overexploitation with implications for both target and non-target species and habitats. Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been used for many years to conserve exploited populations and fisheries. In the absence of intense harvesting pressure, MPAs are supposed to be an effective tool to prevent over-exploitation and to restore fish populations. It has been demonstrated that abundance, mean size of individuals, and spawning biomass of exploited populations tend to be usually (but not always) greater inside the MPA than in comparable areas subjected to intensive harvesting (reviewed by Roberts and Polunin, 1991; Guénette et al. 1998; Rowley, 1994). In the Mediterranean Sea, there is substantial research on the effects of reserve protection on abundance, biomass, fish size, and energy reserves (e.g., Lloret et al., 2005; Lloret & Planes, 2003; García-Charton & Pérez-Ruzafa 2001; Planes et al., 2000; Francour, 1997; Dufour et al. 1995; García-Rubíes & Zabala, 1990). In the rocky coast of Cape Creus (northwestern Mediterranean; Figure 1), artisanal fisheries provided for centuries economic impetus for entire local communities. Since the second half of the 20th century, however, semi-industrial fleets (trawlers and purse seiners), and especially tourism, developed in the area and grew in importance to the detriment of traditional artisanal fisheries (Pi-Sunyer, 1977). Today, a small number of artisanal fishermen still persist, but the economy of these villages is almost exclusively based on tourism. Shallow marine bottoms surrounding the peninsula of Cape Creus are mostly rocky whereas most deep areas are muddy. The different types of bottom sediments are an important delimiting factor for the association of exploited fish species in different communities (Demestre et al., 2000). This area is very productive due to strong river runoff and vertical mixing in winter. The large freshwater input in the area comes mainly from the Rhône River, whose mouth is situated about 150 km north of the study area and whose catchment basin is about km 2, and also from the rivers Muga and Fluvià, whose mouths are situated about 10 km south of Cape Creus and whose catchment basins are about km 2 each. Intense water mixing is induced by the predominant, strong, dry, and cold northwesterly winds (the so-called Tramuntana), which are responsible for important oceanographic features taking place in the northwestern Mediterranean (e.g., deep water formation and water mixing). These rough meteorological and oceanographic conditions make fishing conditions in these villages very tough. The bulk of the fishing fleet of Cape Creus is composed of artisanal vessels up to 6 meters in length. Fishermen catch many fish and invertebrate species using several gear types that are placed at sea, usually on rocky bottoms or close to them, and picked up after some hours or days (depending on the gear type and species). The use of electronic

3 Decline of Artisanal Fisheries in Cape Creus 219 Figure 1. Map of Cape Creus showing the position of the fishing villages, the marine protected area, and the sandy bay. devices such as positioning systems and echo-sounders by the artisanal fishermen has evolved slowly. Artisanal fishermen compete with recreational activities due to the large number of tourists visiting this area. The main recreational activities are swimming, diving, boating, and fishing (spear fishing and angling). Five recreational (yachting) ports have been built in this area, with a capacity for more than 8,000 boats. These boats have a significant impact on the socioeconomic and environmental situation of the area because boat anchoring damages seagrass meadows and because there is fierce

4 220 S. Gómez et al. competence between tourists and fishermen for the natural resources (recreational against professional fishermen). The Natural Park of Cap de Creus (Figure 1) was established in 1998 to protect the environment and the traditional activities in this area, and to help rebuild exploited stocks. For these reasons, trawling and purse-seining were banned. This marine protected area (henceforth called marine protected area or MPA) encompasses about 11,000 ha of land (peninsula of Cape Creus) and about 3,000 ha of sea (waters surrounding the cape). Three coastal villages Roses, Cadaqués, and Port de la Selva (Figure 1), have jurisdiction over the protected sea. Although the neighboring fishing village of Llançà is member of the Natural Park, only the terrestrial part of this village is protected. The declaration of the Natural Park of Cap de Creus in 1998 entailed a discussion about the most appropriate system of management of artisanal fisheries and recreational marine activities taking place in the park. The managers of the MPA have committed themselves recently to making fishermen communities of the Park more socially visible. A recent initiative tends to involve the fishermen knowledge and experience to contribute, together with the biological studies, to the fisheries management in the MPA. This initiative is part of a Fisheries Management Plan that the Natural Park is currently designing and that will consider the historical role of the fishermen community organizations (socalled Confraries) in the regulation of local fisheries. These fishermen associations have historically had an important role in the co-management process of marine resources of Cape Creus (Pi-Sunyer, 1977) and elsewhere in the Mediterranean (see, e.g., Dufour, 1988; Alegret, 1995; Weber, 1992). This interdisciplinary study aims to achieve an integrated view of the environmental, sociocultural, and economic evolution of the artisanal fisheries in Cape Creus. The article explores the factors that have contributed to its progressive decline in the last decades by gathering and analyzing sociocultural, biological, and economic data, and analyzes the effects of the MPA creation. Methodology Collection of Sociocultural Data We used methods of maritime socio-anthropology (Acheson, 1981; Cadoret, 1984; Galvan- Tudela, 1988; Geistdoerfer, 1984) to analyze the most important social attributes of artisanal fishermen of Cape Creus. Maritime socio-anthropology is emerging as a new research field that contributes to the assessment and management of fisheries activities, especially in marine protected areas (Carter, 2003; Himes, 2003). The way coastal communities and artisanal fishermen perceive, mentally represent, and express their own problems is one of the main concerns of this research field. This is because an increasing number of sociologists and anthropologists are getting involved in environmental research, focusing particularly on the relationships between human societies and their environment. As a first step, the number of fishermen from Roses, Cadaqués, Port de la Selva and Llançà that fish in Cape Creus, regularly or occasionally, was determined. From those fishing inside waters from Cape Creus, we collected data with standard anthropological field methods during summer The main instrument used during the qualitative research survey was a semi-structured face to face interview. Semi-structured questioning involved extended conversations with the fishermen following a set of open-ended questions. With the semi-structured interview format, the interviewer had the flexibility

5 Decline of Artisanal Fisheries in Cape Creus 221 to change ordering and wording of questions to suit the respondent and situation. Individuals were asked to respond to several questions concerning their knowledge and beliefs about their activity in Cape Creus and giving them the opportunity to state their opinions and feelings about the creation of the Natural Park. More specifically, the questions were planned to assess: (1) the knowledge and attitudes of fishermen about their jobs, (2) their beliefs about the natural resources, (3) the impacts they suffered from the recent social, environmental, and economic changes (e.g., establishment of the MPA, presence of tourists, changes in the fisher s family structure, emergence of new fishing strategies), (4) their actual socioeconomic situation, (5) their presence in Cape Creus over the year, (6) the fishing gear used and the species caught, and (7) their thoughts about co-management in the MPA. Co-management is a model for fisheries management in which fishermen are directly involved in making and implementing the regulations in order to achieve a sustainable utilization of natural resources (see, e.g., Holm et al., 1989; Jentoft & McCay, 1998). Overall, we interviewed during July, August, and September 2003 a total of 34 fishermen, which were all men between 18 and 65 years old. Furthermore, the director (Patró Major) of each of the four fishermen associations (Confraries) was interviewed. Furthermore, in-depth interviews were made to the most experienced/ aged fishermen to gather their opinions and perceptions and allowing the researcher and respondent to explore in detail specific issues. To account for the errors and biases inherent in this kind of qualitative data collection, we searched out answers that stood out or did not fit with the rest, and we relied on our ability to be intimately acquainted with fishermen (as the interviewer became a friendly figure, the likelihood of valid and reliable responses increased). Collection of Biological and Economic Data A series of annual landings, mean prices, and revenues for the most important species (in terms of landings and income) caught by the artisanal fishermen from Port de la Selva and Roses in the waters inside Cape Creus were available for the period (Department of Agriculture and Fisheries of the Government of Catalonia). However, we could not obtain landings of two species that are mainly caught in Cape Creus by artisanal fishermen, stripped red mullet (Mullus surmuletus) and forkbeard (Phycis phycis), because they are mixed with landings of other species of the same genus (Mullus barbatus and Phycis blennoides, respectively) that are mainly fished outside the study area. Furthermore, we did not consider those species whose landings were mainly from trawlers and purse seiners fishing outside Cape Creus, for example, hake (Merluccius merluccius), axillary seabream (Pagellus acarne), and conger (Conger conger), as statistics did not separate landings by fishing strategy. Because the number of boats remained nearly stable over this period, landings can be considered as proximate measure of the catch-per-unit of effort (CPUE). The Confraries of both harbors record the total catch and revenues by species by means of the auction process. Because landings are not auctioned in Cadaqués, data was not available there. Total revenues by species were adjusted for the Catalan inflation since the beginning of the time series (1991) to obtain the adjusted gross income, which represents a measure of the fishermen s real income measured in terms of buying power. Landings and incomes are, however, subestimated because of misreporting, that is, direct sale of catches by the fishermen to the restaurants or to the public without being previously auctioned and registered by the Confraries. In order to assess the impact of the establishment of the MPA in Cape Creus in 1998 on the evolution of total landings and income, Student s t-test for independent samples was

6 222 S. Gómez et al. used to statistically test the differences between mean landings and revenues before and after Sociocultural Aspects Sociocultural Characteristics and Evolution of the Artisanal Fisheries of Cape Creus The four villages studied (Roses, Cadaqués, Port de la Selva, and Llançà) have 78 fishermen, of whom 34, or 45%, use the fishing grounds off Cape Creus. Typically each fisher has his own boat. The age distribution of the 34 fishermen of Cape Creus is skewed toward the older ages, with many fishermen older than 50 and young fishermen nearly absent (Figure 2). The sociocultural characteristics of the fishermen of Cape Creus differ between the four villages studied. The differences are driven by environmental factors mainly: they are originated by the different meteorological and oceanographic conditions in the fishing grounds of each village. These particular sociocultural characteristics have influenced the evolution of fishing activities and fishermen in each village. Roses limits to the south with a sandy, unprotected bay and to the north with a rocky coast. Because of these geographic features, the fishermen from this village can choose between two different fishing grounds: sandy (Bay of Roses) and rocky (Cape Creus). This gives them the choice to exploit different marine species and communities inhabiting these two habitats. Consequently, one of the principal and more ancient features of the fishing activities in Roses was the all-purpose nature of the fishing gear, which were used to fish in sandy and rocky habitats. In former times, the common pattern was to fish prawn (Penaeus kerathurus) from June to August and cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) from February to May on the sandy bay (coinciding with the reproduction Number of fishermen Age group (yr) Figure 2. Age distribution of all the artisanal fishermen fishing in Cape Creus (2003).

7 Decline of Artisanal Fisheries in Cape Creus 223 season of these species), and to fish a large number of species, for example, white seabream (Diplodus sargus) and scorpionfish (Scorpaena sp) on the rocky grounds during the rest of the year. At present, fishing practices in the sandy bay and the rocky coast are more differentiated than before, entailing a specialization that distinguishes those fishermen who fish in the bay from those who fish in the rocky coast. Although some fishermen still combine both fishing grounds, the alternation between rocky and sandy bottoms is less practiced. Thus, only 9 artisanal boats over 36 (i.e., 25% of the total artisanal boats from this village) fish in waters inside Cape Creus, which are the only ones to follow the old tradition of combining the rocky grounds of Cape Creus with the sandy grounds of the bay (Figure 3). From these nine boats, only seven of them fish in Cape Creus occasionally (3 to 6 months a year) and the other two fish there frequently (more than 10 months a year). The reminding 27 boats (ca 75% of total) operate exclusively in the sandy bay, where they target several shellfish species, such as murex (Bolinus brandaris) and donax clam (Donax trunculus). The presence of fishermen in Cape Creus is higher during summer and autumn (June November) and decreases during winter because of the bad weather conditions thereby. All ten artisanal fishermen from Cadaqués work inside waters from Cape Creus (Figure 3). This is compared to ca 75 artisanal fishermen that, according to historical data from the Municipal Archive of the village, existed in the beginning of the 19th century. At present, fishing is just a complementary activity for most fishermen of the village (7 of 10), as they primarily work in tourism activities during summertime. In Port de la Selva, from the 19 artisanal boats based in this port, 13 fish in Cape Creus (the rest are longliners that fish offshore; Figure 3). However, only 3 boats are active in Cape Creus all year round (the rest stop fishing in summer and shift their jobs toward tourism business). In Llançà, only 2 of the 13 artisanal boats based in this port fish in Cape Creus (the rest are longliners, gill-netters, and trammel netters that fish outside; see Figure 3). 40 Number of boats Total number of artisanal boats Artisanal boats fishing in Cape Creus Roses Port de de la la Selva Cadaqués Llançà Figure 3. Total number of artisanal boats by village and number of boats from each village that fish in Cape Creus (2003).

8 224 S. Gómez et al. Factors that Contribute to the Decline of Artisanal Fisheries in Cape Creus The emergence of tourism and the development of semi-industrial fisheries (trawling and purse-seining) in the 1960s represented new job opportunities for some artisanal fishermen of Cape Creus, who shifted their jobs to trawling and tourism business. During the last decades, however, different factors have contributed to shift away artisanal fishermen from the rocky coast of Cape Creus. In Roses, there has been a progressive shift of fishermen from the rocky coast of Cape Creus toward the sandy bottoms of Roses Bay. In contrast to the rocky bottoms of Cape Creus, the sandy grounds of the bay are easier to fishermen because they are structurally less complex (i.e., it s easier to set the fishing gear), and because they are protected against the strong northerly winds and currents that characterize the area. Furthermore, new artisanal fisheries have developed in the sandy bottoms of the bay during the last 20 years, which are very profitable. These new fisheries target several shellfish species, for example, donax clam (Donax trunculus) and murex (Bolinus brandaris), with dredges, and octopus (Octopus vulgaris) with pot traps. Family tradition is also an important factor that explains the activity of the fishermen in the rocky coast of Cape Creus. Usually, those who fish in the rocky coast are those whose progenitors (grandparents or parents) already fished there. This is strongly related to the environmental characteristics of Cape Creus: the rocky bottoms and rough weather and oceanographic conditions that characterize Cape Creus require a good knowledge about the environment, which is only acquired by family transmission. Transmission of knowledge between members of fishing communities has been shown in other areas (see, e.g., Delbos & Jorion, 1984; Diegues, 1998; Reis & D Incao, 2000). Furthermore, the rocky coast from Cape Creus represents a hostile, risky environment, which entails a great investment in fishing time and expenditures because the fishing gear are often broken. To spare time and budget, the collaboration of other members of the family to repair the nets is essential. In former times, women did this task, while men went fishing. At present, many women have other jobs and thus fishermen s tasks become more complicated. Thus, family tradition (knowledge of the environmental characteristics and help from family members), is a decisive aspect to go fishing in the rocky coast: if a fisherman does not have this family tradition he will not fish in Cape Creus. In Cadaqués and Port de la Selva, the development of tourism activities has been the most important factor contributing to the displacement of the artisanal fishermen of both villages from Cape Creus. The artisanal fishermen from these two villages did not have the opportunity to switch their fishing practices to sandy grounds like the fishermen from Roses had because these two villages stand in the middle of the rocky coast. Tourism and semi-industrial fisheries have represented a source of opportunities but also of conflicts for the artisanal fishermen of Cape Creus. Conflicts between artisanal fishermen and trawlers, purse seiners, and tourists over access to marine resources and fishing grounds are common not only in Cape Creus but also in other Mediterranean coastal zones (see, e.g., Granzotto et al., 2004). The large number of tourists and recreational activities (e.g., boating, diving, angling, and spear fishing) in the area drives many artisanal fishermen away during summer from their fishing grounds. Spear fishing is seen by the artisanal fishermen as the most harmful activity because many recreational fishermen target ecologically and economically important fish species such as dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus). Although trawling and purse seining in Cape Creus is prohibited, incursions of trawlers and purse seiners inside the protected bottoms

9 Decline of Artisanal Fisheries in Cape Creus 225 occur occasionally and originate many disputes between both fishermen collectives. Finally, the possible poor status of the exploited populations in Cape Creus may have contributed to the fishery decline. Although there is no historical quantitative data to demonstrate that populations from Cape Creus are overexploited at the moment, many fishermen stated during the interviews that actual fishing yields are much lower than they were 30 or 40 years ago. Biological studies have demonstrated that the populations of a number of coastal species that are important for the artisanal fisheries have declined in many parts of the Mediterranean owing to environmental and anthropogenic causes such as habitat loss, pollution, and overfishing (e.g., spiny lobster; Soldo et al., 2001; Quetglas et al., 2003). Apart from all these reasons that contributed to the decline of artisanal fisheries in Cape Creus, there are some criteria that explain the willingness of some fishermen to continue fishing in Cape Creus. Firstly, many fishermen argue for the higher quality and quantity of fish and the higher diversity of marine species that can be caught on the rocky bottoms of Cape Creus. Secondly, many species that are targeted by fishermen in waters off Cape Creus are very valuable (i.e., they reach very high prizes). Tourism has even changed the fishing practices and today the most targeted species are those that are demanded by the restaurants in summer. Finally, some fishermen had their own sentimental arguments (e.g., they preferred to fish in the nice landscape of Cape Creus or simply they refused to quit their profession). The Point of View of Artisanal Fishermen Concerning the Establishment of the MPA The opinions from the fishermen of Cape Creus gathered during the face to face interviews concerning the MPA can be summarized as follows: Artisanal fishermen agree with the declaration of the MPA, but claim to be taken into account as the most ancient managers of this coast, and that their own traditions (fishing practices, customs of access to natural resources, and self-regulation systems) should be respected. Their livelihoods have relied on the natural resources of this coast for centuries and they have knowledge that has been transmitted from one generation to another. This knowledge has been used in part to self-regulate the exploitation of marine resources within the Confraries, along with the state legislation. Thus, 65% of fishermen would like to be involved in the management and decision-making process of the MPA, 21% are hesitant to collaborate in the co-management process, and only 14% refuse to collaborate with the MPA. For these fishermen who were reluctant or refused to collaborate with the MPA, the main reason was that they distrust the public administration as they feared it will restrict or control more strictly their fishing practices. During the interviews, however, fishermen welcomed the opportunity to assess the current status of their fishing activities. All fishermen agreed that specialized patrols should conduct the surveillance of fishing activities inside the MPA. These patrols should be made of persons who know fishermen s traditions and the local environment. In a recent study conducted in the Italian MPAs of Egadi Islands and Gulf of Castellammare (Himes, 2003), the opinions from the artisanal fishermen were very similar to those collected in Cap de Creus: fishermen felt alienated from the management process, and

10 226 S. Gómez et al. would feel more comfortable with reserve managers and regulations if they were involved in management. In the past, the neglect of community participation in management has been an important factor in decreasing support of fishermen toward MPAs (Cordell, 1984). The need for community involvement in management has been widely proposed as an important element in sustainability of fishery resources (Gezelius, 2002). Biological and Economic Aspects Evolution of Landings and Revenues Although landings are made of a large number of species, few species are important in terms of yield. The most important species in terms of landings and revenues caught in Cape Creus by the artisanal fishermen from Port de la Selva and Roses are shown in Table 1. The most important gears for artisanal fisheries in this area are gillnets and trammel nets, followed by longlines and traps. These gears are used to target different species according to the season. The predominance of gillnets, trammel nets, and longlines in the artisanal fishery is a common pattern in the whole western-central Mediterranean (Coppola, 2003). Table 2 displays the mean landings and revenues (in percentages) in Port de la Selva and Roses over two different periods: (before the establishment of the marine reserve) and (afterward). In Port de la Selva, octopus (Octopus vulgaris) represents ca 70% and 55% of the total landings and the total adjusted gross income, respectively, in both time periods (Table 2). The 30% of landings and 45% of income left are distributed among eight other species, that is, Atlantic bonito (Sarda sarda), white seabream (Diplodus sargus), European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax), scorpionfish (Scorpaena sp), common dentex (Dentex dentex), gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas) and leer fish (Lichia amia). In Roses harbor, white seabream (Diplodus sargus), scorpionfish (Scorpaena sp), gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), and spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas) represented Table 1 List of the most important species in terms of landings and revenues caught by the artisanal fishermen of Roses and Port de la Selva in Cape Creus, together with the main gear types used to catch these species and the high fishing season Species Species High fishing (common name) (scientific name) Gear type season Octopus Octopus vulgaris Traps January June Atlantic bonito Sarda sarda Anchored floating March November gillnet or bolitxa White seabream Diplodus sargus Longline, gillnet, April September fishing rod European seabass Dicentrarchus labrax Longline, gillnet October November Scorpionfish Scorpaena sp Longline, trammel net May October Common dentex Dentex dentex Longline, gillnet April November Gilthead seabream Sparus aurata Longline, gillnet October April Spiny lobster Palinurus elephas Trammel net March July Leer fish Lichia amia Gillnet October April Dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus Longline May November Comber Serranus cabrilla Trammel net All year

11 Decline of Artisanal Fisheries in Cape Creus 227 Table 2 Mean percentage contribution to total landings (kg) and adjusted gross income (constant, adjusted for the inflation) of the most important species caught by artisanal fishermen from Port de la Selva and Roses in waters inside Cape Creus, before ( ) and after ( ) the establishment of the marine reserve Landings Income Landings Income Port De La Selva Sarda sarda Scorpaena sp Dentex dentex Palinurus elephas Dicentrarchus labrax Sparus aurata Lichia amia Octopus vulgaris Diplodus sargus Roses Sparus aurata Scorpaena sp Diplodus sargus Palinurus elephas Epinephelus marginatus Serranus cabrilla more than 90% of the total landings and the total adjusted gross income whereas dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus) and comber (Serranus cabrilla) contributed to less than 10% (Table 2). Results show the relative importance of the Sparidae (seabreams) and Serranidae species in Roses follows the same pattern observed in the western-central Mediterranean (Coppola, 2003), where the members of these two families are among the most important species caught with ca 30% and 6% of the total. The relative importance of spiny lobster and scorpionfish in Roses total landings, and octopus and Atlantic bonito in Port de la Selva s total landings is, however, higher than the overall mean computed in the western-central Mediterranean for these species by Coppola (2003). Thus, the Cape Creus may be a favorable habitat for these four species. The auction prices of the species targeted by the artisanal fishermen in Cape Creus are relatively high, ranging from ca 3 4 /kg for the comber, the leer fish, the octopus, and the Atlantic bonito to ca /kg for the dusky grouper and the spiny lobster; Figure 4). The overall mean price of the species caught by the artisanal fishermen of Roses and Port de la Selva inside waters from Cape Creus is ca 10 /kg compared with an overall mean price of ca 6 /kg and 1.5 /kg for the species caught in waters outside Cape Creus by trawlers and purse seiners of these villages, respectively. The total landings and gross revenues of all targeted species in Roses and Port de la Selva show that both landings and revenues fluctuated quite synchronously over the

12 228 S. Gómez et al. 35 MEAN PRICES Mean prize ( /kg) Port de la Selva Roses 5 0 Sarda sarda Scorpaena sp Dentex dentex Palinurus elephas Dicentrarchus labrax Sparus aurata Lichia amia Octopus vulgaris Diplodus sargus Epinephelus marginatus Serranus cabrilla Figure 4. Mean ( ) auction prices of the most important species caught in Cape Creus by artisanal fishermen from Port de la Selva and Roses. period , reflecting the importance of fish biomass to the fishermen income (Figure 5). However, there is not any important trend in any port. Landings and gross income are higher in Port de la Selva than in Roses because there are more fishermen in the first harbor than in the second, and because fishermen of Port de la Selva catch octopus inside waters from Cape Creus with traps whereas fishermen from Roses catch it outside (in the Bay of Roses) with pot traps. Impact of the Establishment of the Marine Reserve on Landings and Revenues Our results show no evidence that the creation of the MPA in Cape Creus in 1998 had a positive impact on the overall landings and revenues (Figure 5). There were not significant differences (t-test) between landings and revenues obtained in Port de la Selva (t = 0.388, p = and t = 0.858, p = respectively) and Roses (t = 0.173, p = and t = 0.088, p = 0.932, respectively) before and after the establishment of the MPA. Therefore, the creation of the MPA did not significantly influence the evolution of the artisanal fisheries in Cape Creus. Our findings indicate, however, that some species have benefited from the MPA creation whereas others have suffered. In Port de la Selva, the proportion of leer fish (Lichia amia), gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax), dentex (Dentex dentex), and Atlantic bonito (Sarda sarda) in total landings and revenues increased after the establishment of the MPA in detriment of octopus (Octopus vulgaris), white seabream (Diplodus sargus), scorpionfish (Scorpaena sp), and spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas). In Roses, the proportion of dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus) and gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) in total landings and revenues increased after the establishment of the MPA in detriment of scorpionfish (Scorpaena spp), white seabream (Diplodus sargus), and spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas). Thus,

13 Decline of Artisanal Fisheries in Cape Creus PORT DE LA SELVA kg constant Landings (kg) Adjusted gross income (constant ) ROSES kg constant Landings (kg) Adjusted gross income (constant ) 0 Figure 5. Annual time series of landings and adjusted gross income in Port de la Selva and Roses, (all species shown in Table 2 by port together). some relatively high mobile species such as gilthead seabream, dentex, European seabass, Atlantic bonito, and leer fish seem to have benefited from habitat protection (i.e., their landings have proportionally increased) in detriment of the less mobile species (e.g., octopus, white seabream, scorpionfish, and spiny lobster). This might indicate a negative impact of increasing recreational activities (e.g., spear fishing, anchoring) on the sedentary species. Only landings of dusky grouper, a sedentary and territorial species, have increased since the establishment of the MPA. This species is known, however, to have benefited from sea warming that occurred in the northwestern Mediterranean during the last decades (Bodilis et al., 2003).

14 230 S. Gómez et al. Conclusions The progressive disappearance of the artisanal fisheries from the rocky coast of Cape Creus owes to different factors, some of which are common for all fishing villages whereas others are particular to each community of Cape Creus. The sociocultural changes occurred over the last decades, which are linked to economic and environmental aspects, have favored semi-industrial fleets (trawlers and purse-seiners), shellfish fisheries outside Cape Creus and tourism activities, in detriment of artisanal fisheries in Cape Creus. The development of tourism activities has attracted many artisanal fishermen from Port de la Selva and Cadaqués, who have totally or partially quit fishing practices. In Roses, the loss of family tradition (knowledge of environmental characteristics and help from family members) and the attractiveness of the sandy grounds of the Bay of Roses (easy fishing bottoms and profitable mollusk fisheries) followed the progressive shift of fishermen from the rocky fishing grounds of Cape Creus toward the sandy fishing grounds of the bay. Conflicts between artisanal fishermen, tourists, and semi-industrial fishermen have also contributed to the decline of artisanal fisheries in Cape Creus. The critical situation of the artisanal fisheries in this area is shown by an aging population, despite landings and gross incomes have not dropped significantly over the period studied ( ). Persisting fishermen benefit, however, from the relative high prices of some commercial species they caught, a fact that has probably mitigated the crisis of the artisanal fishermen of Cape Creus. Although MPAs have been shown in many (but not all) cases to help artisanal fisheries by increasing biomasses and sizes of animals inhabiting the protected areas (Gell & Roberts, 2003; Côté et al., 2001; Sumaila et al., 2000; Roberts & Polunin, 1991), we found no evidence that the creation of the marine reserve in 1998 significantly altered the evolution of the artisanal fisheries in Cape Creus. The establishment of the MPA seems to have benefited some species and adversely affected others, but did not affect the overall landings and revenues and could not reverse the decline of the artisanal fisheries observed during the last decades. Considering all these aspects, the continuity of artisanal fisheries of Cape Creus in the medium term (next fifty years) is not guaranteed. Although most fishermen do not refuse to collaborate with the MPA, many of them feel alienated from the management process and state they do not know precisely the existent regulations. The declaration of a marine reserve alone does not guarantee a positive impact on artisanal fisheries, but should be accompanied by a fisheries management plan. This plan, which the managers of the MPA are currently designing, has to implement new technical measures to help overexploited species rebuild their populations and has to involve fishermen in the management process through the Confraries (co-management). Due to the multiple use of littoral areas and the particular pressure on coastal regions in the Mediterranean, the fisheries plan should be part of an integrated coastal management plan, which would a basic tool not only for the protection and enhancement of fishing activities but also for their harmonious integration with environmental concerns and other human uses (e.g., diving, aquaculture, recreational boating). This integrated coastal management plan must control strictly any sort of harmful activities (e.g., trawling, purse seining, spear fishing, and boat anchoring) and should explore alternatives to extractive practices such as the participation of fishermen in ecotourism activities. These plans would be unique tools to preserve not only the marine resources of Cape Creus, but also the cultural patrimony that the artisanal fishermen represent.

15 Decline of Artisanal Fisheries in Cape Creus 231 References Acheson, J. M Anthropology of fishing. Annual Review of Anthropology 10: Alegret, J. L Co-management of resources and conflict management: the case of the fishermen s confreries in Catalonia. MARE Working Paper No. 2. Hojbjerg, Denmark. Bodilis P., A. Ganteaume, and P. Francour Presence of one year old dusky groupers along the french Mediterranean coast. Journal of Fish Biology 62: Cadoret, B Sources pour l ethnographie maritime. Terrain 2: Carter, D. W Protected areas in marine resource management: Another look at the economics and research issues. Ocean and Coastal Management 46: Colloca F., V. Crespi, S. Cerasi, and S. R. Coppola Structure and evolution of the artisanal fishery in a Southern Italian coastal area. Fisheries Research 69: Coppola, S. R Inventory of Artisanal Fishery Communities in the Western-Central Mediterranean. FAO-COPEMED technical report. 81 pp. Available online at Cordell, J. C Defending customary inshore sea rights. Senri Ethnological Studies 17: Côté, I. M., I. Mosquera I., and J. D. Reynolds Effects of marine reserve characteristics on the protection of fish populations: A meta-analysis. Journal of Fish Biology 59(Supl.A): Delbos G., and P. Jorion La transmission des savoirs. Paris: Édition de la Maison des Sciences de l Homme. Demestre, M., Sánchez, P., and P. Abelló Demersal fish assemblages and habitat characteristics on the continental shelf and upper slope of the north-western Mediterranean. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 80: Diegues, A Environmental impact assessment: The point of view of artisanal fishermen communities in Brazil. Ocean and Coastal Management 39: Dufour, A. H Pêcheurs et prud hommes. A propos des Salins d Hyères. Terrain No. 11 (in French). Dufour, V., J. Y. Jouvenel, and R. Galzin Study of a Mediterranean reef fish assemblage. Comparison of population distributions between depths in protected and unprotected areas over one decade. Aquatic Living Resources 8: European Commission Fishing in Europe Magazine No 21. Mediterranean: guaranteeing sustainable fisheries. Available online at < Francour, P Fish assemblages of Posidonia oceanica beds at Port-Cros (France, northwestern Mediterranean): Assessment of composition and long-term fluctuations by visual census. Marine Ecology 18: Galvan-Tudela, A La Antropología de la pesca: problemas, teorías y conceptos. In Actas del Coloquio de Etnografía Marítima. Garcia-Charton, J. A., and A. Perez-Ruzafa Ecological heterogeneity and the evaluation of the effects of marine reserves. Fisheries Research 42:1 20. García-Rubíes, A., and M. Zabala Effects of total fishing prohibition on the rocky fish assemblages of Medes Islands marine reserve. Scientia Marina 54: Geistdoerfer, A Ethnologie des activités halieutiques. Anthropologie Maritime 1:5 10. Gell F. R., and C. M. Roberts Benefits beyound boundaries: The fishery effects of marine reserves. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18(9): Gezelius, S Do Norms Count? State Regulation and Compliance in a Norwegian Fishing Community. Acta Sociologica 45(4): Granzotto, A., S. Libralato, F. Pranovi, S. Raicevich, and O. Giovanardi Comparison between artisanal and industrial fisheries using ecosystem indicators. Chemistry and Ecology 20(1): Guénette S., T. Lauck, and C. Clarck Marine reserves: From Beverton and Holt to the present. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 8: Guillou, A., and V. Crespi Enquete-cadre concernant la répartition, la composition et l activité des petits métiers dans le Golf de Lion. Rapport IFREMER DRV/RH/RST/ pp. Available online at Himes, A Small-scale Sicilian fisheries: Opinions of artisanal fisheries and sociocultural effects in two MPA case studies. Coastal Management 31(4): Holm, P., A. R. Stein, and B. Hersoug Fisheries co-management: Delegating responsibility to fishermen s organizations. Marine Policy 13: Jentoft, S., and B. J. McCay Social theory and fisheries co-management. Marine Policy 22: Lloret, J., and S. Planes Condition, feeding and reproductive potential of white seabream (Diplodus

16 232 S. Gómez et al. sargus) as indicators of habitat quality and the effect of protection in the northwestern Mediterranean. Marine Ecology Progress Series 248: Lloret, J., R. Galzin, L. Gil de Sola, A. Souplet, and M. Demestre Habitat related differences in lipid reserves of some exploited fish species in the north-western Mediterranean continental shelf. Journal of Fish Biology 67: Pi-Sunyer, O Two states of technological change in a Catalan fishing community. In Those Who Live From the Sea (pp ), edited by M. E. Smith. Saint Paul: West Publishing Co. Planes, S., R. Galzin, A. Garcia-Rubies, R. Coñi, J. G. Harmelin, L. Le Direach, P. Lenfant, and A. Quetglas Effects of marine protected areas on recruitment processes with special reference to Mediterranean littoral ecosystems. Environmental Conservation 27:1 18. Quetglas, A., A. Gaamour, O. Reñones, H. Missaoui, T. Zarrouk, A. Elabed, and R. Goñi Spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas Fabricius 1787) fishery in the western Mediterranean: A comparison of Spanish and Tunisian fisheries. COPEMED technical paper. Avaliable online at < en/virtlib/copemed/titles.htm>. Reis, E., and F. D Incao The present status of artisanal fisheries of extreme Southern Brazil: An effort towards community-based management. Ocean and Coastal Management 43: Roberts, C. M. and N. V. C. Polunin Are marine reserves effective in management of reef fisheries? Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 1: Rowley, R. J Marine reserves in fisheries management. Aquatic and Conservation Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 4: Soldo, A., P. Cetinic, J. Dulcic, I. Jardus, and A. Pallaoro The lobster fishery with gillnets in the Eastern Adriatic. Rapport de la Comission Internationale pour l Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Méditerrannée 36: Sumaila, U. R., S. Guénette S., J. Alder J., and R. Chuenpagdee Addressing ecosystem effects of fishing using marine protected areas. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: Weber, J Le rôle des organisations professionnelles dans la gestion des pêches en Méditerranée (Espagne, France, Italie, Greece). ASCA, Report. Contract D.G. XIV European Commission. No. XIV- 1/MED/91/010.