ROAD MAP FOR THE CONSERVATION OF THE AFRICAN WILD ASS EQUUS AFRICANUS

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1 Tel: (+49) / 02 Fax: (+49) cms.secretariat@cms.int UNEP promotes environmentally sound practices globally and in its own activities. This publication is printed on FSC paper, that is produced using environmentally friendly practices and is FSC certified. Our distribution policy aims to reduce UNEP s carbon footprint. Road Map for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus Africanus CMS Technical Series Publication No. 34 UNEP / CMS Secretariat UN Campus Platz der Vereinten Nationen 1 D Bonn Germany ROAD MAP FOR THE CONSERVATION OF THE AFRICAN WILD ASS EQUUS AFRICANUS CMS Technical Series Publication No. 34 N W E

2 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus CMS Technical Series No. 34 September 2017 Prepared with funding from

3 Support for this action plan: The development and production of this action plan has been achieved with the financial support of the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany, through the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit; BMUB). Additional support provided by: IUCN Equid Specialist Group Compiled by: David Mallon UNEP / CMS Secretariat, United Nations Premises, Platz der Vereinten Nationen 1, Bonn, Germany. for correspondence: secretariat@cms.int Recommended citation: UNEP/CMS Conservation Road Map for the African Wild Ass Equus africanus CMS Technical Series No. 34. Bonn, Germany. ISBN Picture on the cover: Patricia D. Moehlman 1998 Disclaimer: The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP/CMS concerning the legal status of any State, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of their frontiers and boundaries. ISBN Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus

4 CONTENTS Executive Summary... 4 Acknowledgements... 5 Abbreviations and Acronyms... 6 Foreword Introduction Status review Taxonomy Geographic Range Population Genetics Habitat and Ecology Threats Habitat loss and degradation Direct mortality Hybridization Small population size Predation Mining Infrastructure development Drought and climate change Inadequate coverage of Protected Areas Lack of capacity Conservation action International agreements National legislation and policy Protected areas International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Ex situ Conservation Road Map Goal Strategic directions Objectives and actions Eritrea Ethiopia Other Range States Ex situ population Regional References ANNEXES Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus 3

5 Executive Summary The African Wild Ass (Equus africanus) was once widespread in north and north-east Africa, but its range and numbers have been drastically reduced. It is currently confirmed in Eritrea and Ethiopia; there is possible presence in Djibouti, Egypt, Somalia, and Sudan. African Wild Ass play a vital role in the health of their arid ecosystems and can serve as flagship species for the conservation and maintenance of important landscapes. The object of this Roadmap is to outline in broad terms the geographic range, population, habitat and ecology of African Wild Ass and the threats that they are facing. This Roadmap builds on information discussed at the Range State meeting held in March 2017 in Bonn, Germany, and a commenting process that followed. Included are background information on the species, a summary of current threats, and suggested conservation measures, to coordinate international conservation of African Wild Ass across their range. Objectives and actions were developed separately for Eritrea and Ethiopia (the two key Range States), other Range States, captive population, and regional coordination. It is intended for this Roadmap to be the tool used to coordinate African Wild Ass conservation for the period of Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus

6 Acknowledgements In 2016, the CMS Secretariat invited the Range States for the African Wild Ass to the first-ever international meeting dedicated solely to this species, to bring together experts from the region, and decide on the way forward to conserving this critically endangered species. As a result of this initiative, we were able to produce the Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass. We would like to thank the many individuals who contributed their time and expertise to the creation of this Roadmap: Firstly, great thanks are due to the Government of Germany, specifically Elsa Nickel, Oliver Schall, Christiane Paulus, Gerhard Adams, and Dana Wiemann, who were endlessly supportive of everything to do with this species for nearly a year and a half leading up to the publication of this document. Without their funding or support, this document would not exist. Many thanks are also due to the tireless work by the Co-Chair of the IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist group, Patricia Moehlman for her willingness to continuously share knowledge and advice, as well as her compiling of the status review included in this report. A warm thank you needs to be extended to Gertrud Denzau and Helmut Denzau, and their tireless championing of the global conservation of wild asses in general, and the African Wild Ass in particular. Thank you to all the participants at the workshop, both government representatives, as well as researchers and representatives of NGOs, as well as those who could not attend but provided comments on this document. Figure 1. Participants at the workshop in Bonn, March Fanuel Kebede 2017 An enormous amount of work was done by David Mallon, who took on the task of facilitating the meeting, compiling the resulting output into this document, and adding all the comments after the consultation process. Finally, much thanks are owed to our two interns who took care of many tasks, from correspondence, to research, to taking notes and helping with PowerPoints during the meeting: Kalliopi Epitzoglou and Harry Matthews. Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus 5

7 Abbreviations and Acronyms AZA AZAA BMUB CBD CITES CMS DoW EAZA ESG EIA ESIA ESHIA EWCA FWA GIZ IUCN KfW MoEM: MoA: MoI MoMR MoLWE MoTC NP PA SSC SSP EEP WS Association of Zoos and Aquariums Arabian Zoo and Aquarium Association Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety of Germany) Convention on Biological Diversity Convention on International Trade in Wild Species of Flora and Fauna Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals Department of Water (Eritrea) European Association of Zoos and Aquaria IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist Group Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Environmental, Social and Health Impact Assessment Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority Forestry and Wildlife Authority (Eritrea) Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (German International Cooperation) International Union for the Conservation of Nature Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (German Development Bank) Ministry of Energy and Mines (Eritrea) Ministry of Agriculture (Eritrea) Ministry of Information (Eritrea) Ministry of Marine Resources (Eritrea) Ministry of Land, Water and Environment (Eritrea) Ministry of Transport and Communications (Eritrea) National Park Protected Area Species Survival Commission AZA Species Survival Plan European Endangered Species Programme Wildlife Sanctuary 6 Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus

8 Foreword By Dr. Elsa Nickel On behalf of the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB) The African Wild Ass is highly threatened by extinction and one of the most endangered mammal species in the world. If urgent and meaningful action is not taken, there is the great and imminent risk that this fascinating ungulate of the deserts will disappear from the last part of its natural range. Historically occupying a range of arid areas stretching from Morocco to Somalia, hunting pressure and various other human impacts have caused its drastic and sad decline. The last known remnants of this species are nowadays restricted to some regions in Ethiopia, Eritrea and perhaps a few bordering areas. So we must act now, and fast. I am delighted to see that there is a glimpse of hope on the horizon. Thanks to the initiative of the German Wild Ass experts Gertrud and Helmut Denzau and with the engaged help of the CMS Secretariat, a workshop was initiated in March 2017 with a grant from my Ministry. At this workshop, the Range States agreed on a strategy and an action plan to enable the survival and recovery of the last African Wild Ass populations. The success of this meeting was in particular made possible due to the engagement from both Ethiopia and Eritrea, the two major Range States of the African Wild Ass, the invaluable expertise from the IUCN Equid Specialist Group co-chaired by Patricia Moehlman as well as the competent guidance of David Mallon, who facilitated the workshop. With sincere acknowledgments and thanks to all involved let us jointly make sure that the urgently needed measures outlined in this Roadmap will be implemented, so that we will ensure the survival of this wonderful species. Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus 7

9 1. Introduction The African Wild Ass Equus africanus was once widespread in north and north-east Africa, but its range and numbers have been drastically reduced. Small remnant populations are currently found only in Eritrea and Ethiopia, with the remote possibility of small remnants populations elsewhere. The African Wild Ass has been affected by hunting, habitat loss, competition with livestock for water and grazing, and inadequate conservation infrastructure. African wild ass play an important role in the health of their arid ecosystems and they can serve as flagship species for the conservation and maintenance of important landscapes. Their conservation and management need to be based on good science and the participation of local communities. This Conservation Road Map was developed at a workshop held in Bonn, Germany on 6-7 March The workshop was convened by the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) Secretariat and funded by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany, through the Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit; BMUB). More than 20 participants from governments, NGOs, universities, and technical aid agencies attended the workshop. A workshop report is provided in Annex 1 and a list of participants in Annex 2. The Road Map was developed according to the principles set out in the IUCN Species Conservation Strategy handbook (IUCN 2008). The workshop draft was circulated to participants for comments, amended accordingly and then finalized. 2. Status review 2.1. Taxonomy Three subspecies have been described: Nubian Wild Ass, E. a. africanus, Somali Wild Ass, E. a. somaliensis, Atlas Wild Ass, E. a. atlanticus. Research on ancient DNA indicates that the Nubian Wild Ass is one of the ancestors of the domestic donkey and that based on mtdna the Nubian Wild Ass is distinct from the Somali Wild Ass (Kimura et al. 2011). 2.2 Geographic Range Historic Distribution The African Wild Ass was originally widespread from the Atlas Mountains across northern Africa to the Sudanese and Somali arid zones (Sidney 1965, Ansell 1974, Groves 1986). The northern part of the range was occupied by the Atlas Wild Ass E. a. atlanticus which is believed to have become extinct around 300 AD / 1700 bp (Groves 1986). Wild asses have been reported in northern Chad, southern Algeria and the Hoggar Massif of the Central Sahara, but the identity of these animals has been disputed and they may be feral donkeys. The Nubian Wild Ass E. a. africanus lived in the Nubian desert of south-eastern Egypt and Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the shores of the Red Sea, extending south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea (Fig. 2). During aerial surveys in the 1970s, African Wild Asses were seen in the Barka Valley of Eritrea and in the border area between Eritrea and Sudan (Klingel 1980, Watson 1982). The Nubian wild ass is probably extinct, though a few may survive in northern Eritrea or possibly Sudan or Egypt (Moehlman et al. 2015). 8 Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus

10 The Somali Wild Ass E. a. somaliensis was found in the Dankelia region of Eritrea, western Djibouti, the Danakil Desert and the Awash River Valley in the Afar region of northeastern Ethiopia and across northern Somalia, including Meit and Erigavo to the Nugaal Valley (Simonetta and Simonetta 1983, Yalden et al. 1986, Moehlman et al. 2015; Figures 2, 3). Denzau & Denzau (1999, 2016) provide a comprehensive summary of published reports of African Wild Ass across North Africa dating from the early nineteenth century onwards. Yalden et al. (1986) provided the most precise documentation and geographic coordinates for the historical presence of African wild ass in north-eastern Africa from 1844 to Bauer et al (1994) provided the same information with the addition of records from Funaioli and Simonetta (1966) for Somalia. However, because African Wild Ass and feral donkeys can be difficult to distinguish in the field, historical records should be treated with some caution Current Distribution Confirmed occurrence of the African Wild Ass is now restricted to Eritrea and Ethiopia (Fig. 2). Some animals may persist in Somalia, Djibouti, Sudan or Egypt, but there are no recent confirmed records from any of those countries (Moehlman et al. 2015). The current range of the African Wild Ass in Ethiopia and Eritrea covers approximately 23,000 km 2 (Teclai Kebede 2013). Figure 2. Historic and current distribution of African Wild Ass (Moehlman et al. 2016) Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus 9

11 Figure 3. Historical distribution of the African Wild Ass in northeast Africa (Bauer et al. 1994). Eritrea Research indicates that African Wild Ass inhabits approximately 11,000 km² in the Denkelia (Danakil) Desert (Teclai 2006, Hagos 2015) but the main study site in the northern Red Sea Zone covers 100 km² (Moehlman et al. 1998, Moehlman 2002). Surveys and geospatial analyses of suitable habitat are needed to determine the distribution and density of African Wild Ass in this larger area. The Messir Plateau is a critical area for reproduction. A survey in the Yob area in the far north of Eritrea in January 1996 did not document the presence of African Wild Ass, but local people reported that they had been observed in the area (Moehlman and Yohannes pers. comm.). If confirmed, this may represent the only known population of Nubian Wild Ass. Ethiopia In 2007, a survey of the historic range of the African Wild Ass in Ethiopia (Kebede et al. 2007) determined that they had been extirpated from the Yangudi-Rassa NP and the Somali Region and that the only remaining population was in the north-eastern Afar Region, concentrated in the Serdo and Afdera areas. The survey results confirmed that the species distribution is restricted to these few localities in the Danakil. 10 Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus

12 Djibouti Historically the African Wild Ass occurred at several localities in Djibouti (Yalden et al. 1986; Figure 3). Jeannin (1945) said it occurred on the Gammaré Plateau between Tewao and As-Eyla and included a photo of a Wild Ass shot there. There are no confirmed recent records and Laurent and Laurent (2002) reported that they had not encountered the species during 12 years of field work in the country, ). The species has been recently documented in the Gamari Mountains in Ethiopia near the Djibouti border (Kebede 2013) so may persist in western Djibouti or occur there as an occasional visitor. Egypt The species formerly occurred in the southeast corner of the country, east of the Nile and adjacent to the border with Sudan (Moehlman 1997). Osborn & Helmy (1980) mapped four records of Nubian Wild Ass between 1950 and Nubian Wild Ass are reportedly still present in Gebel Elba National Park (35,600 km 2 ). In March 2015, animals were reported, in five groups; photos of these animals were posted on the internet by Moss ad Sultan: However, the precise identity of these animals has not been confirmed. Collection of samples for DNA analysis of all herd members, whether showing typical morphology or varying in coat colour or anatomy is urgently needed. Somalia Yalden et al. (1986, 1996) and Bauer et al (1994) mapped records of African Wild Ass across northern Somalia in the Somaliland, and Puntland regions (Fig. 2,3). In the last 30 years, most reports have come from Meit (Maydh) on the north coast, near Erigavo, and in the Nugaal valley (Simonetta & Simonetta 1986, Moehlman et al. 1998). In 1997, local pastoralists said that there were fewer than ten African Wild Ass left in the Nugaal Valley (Moehlman et al. 2013). Surveys in 2006 and 2010 did not yield any local reports or documentation of African Wild Ass (Killeh and Wirth 2006, Moehlman et al. 2013, Mallon and Jama 2015). More recent surveys in Somaliland conducted in 2016 and 2017 also found no evidence that they persist, although a few reports in the Nugaal Valley were documented (Evangelista et al. In review). The current status of African Wild Ass in Somalia is unknown. During a visit to Garowe in Puntland in January 2015 people from local and international NGOs working in the area reported a few Somali Wild Ass in the Nugaal area and said they had seen two individuals several times; a ground survey using local people is needed to ascertain the presence of the species (Osman Gedow in litt. September 2017). Sudan The Nubian Wild Ass formerly occurred in the Nubian Desert of northeastern Sudan, east of the river Nile to the shores of the Red Sea and south across the Atbara River into northern Eritrea (Moehlman 2002). Very little detailed information is available on former occurrence in the country. A few were seen in the Red Sea Hills around Jebel Adaramai, not far from the Eritrean border in 1936 and 1938 and numbers were roughly estimated at (Mason 1959). In the late 1990s about 30 in four groups were seen in the Red Sea Hills of the south-east (Hashim 1998, 1999) Population Ethiopia An aerial survey in of the Teo area (5,280 km²), the Tendaho-Serdo area (4,270 km²), and the Lake Abbe area (6,650 km²) resulted in an estimate of 3,000 African Wild Ass, or 18.6 per 100 km² (Klingel 1972). The Teo area which is now part of the Yangudi-Rassa NP had the highest density, 30 African Wild Ass per 100 km². However, Watson (1982) thought that this was an undercount and that the total population was 6,000 to 12,000. In 1976, an aerial survey in some of the same areas reported estimates of 675 in Yangudi-Rassa NP, i.e. approximately 21 African Wild Ass per 100 km² and recorded 725 individuals in the southern Danakil and 75 in the Danakil depression (Stephenson 1976). These figures are not directly comparable with those of Klingel (1972) because Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus 11

13 they were based on different survey methods, but they suggest that the population may be declining sharply. In January 1994, no African Wild Ass were seen on a ground survey of Yangudi-Rassa NP, although local Issa pastoralists reported that they were present but rare and occurred at an approximate density well below one animal per 100 km 2 (Moehlman 1994, Kebede 1995). Issa pastoralists were utilizing the Yangudi-Rassa NP and in some areas their herds of sheep and goats exceeded 50 per km² (Thouless 1995). Surveys conducted in in an area of 2,000 km² indicated approximately 0.5 Wild Ass per 100 km² (Moehlman 2002). In 2007, a survey of the historic range of the African Wild Ass in Ethiopia determined that they had been extirpated from the Yangudi-Rassa NP and the Somali Region and that the only remaining population was in the northeastern Afar Region (Kebede et al. 2007). The total number of African Wild Ass observed during this survey was 25 in an area of 4,000 km² yielding an approximate density of animals per 100 km². In 2009 and 2010, Kebede (2013) carried out quarterly ground surveys in African Wild Ass range and sampled 17% of the total African Wild Ass range in Ethiopia (12,300 km 2 ). The density figures obtained were extrapolated to the area of suitable habitat using a Maxent model to estimate the population (Kebede et al. 2014). The current population estimate is 112 +/- 4 individual African Wild Ass in the Danakil Desert of the northeastern Afar region (Kebede 2013), representing approximately one African Wild Ass per 100 km² and indicating a significant decline (~95%) since the 1970s Eritrea There are limited long-term data for Eritrea. From individual identification, it has been estimated that 47 African Wild Ass occurred in the 100 km² main study site in the Northern Red Sea Zone (Moehlman et al. 1998, Moehlman 2002). Although this estimate is outdated, it is the highest population density found anywhere in the current range and is similar to densities recorded in Ethiopia in the early 1970s (Klingel 1977). Surveys have identified that the African Wild Ass range is approximately 11,000 km 2 (Teclai 2006, Hagos 2015). Further surveys and spatial modelling (e.g. Maxent) of suitable habitat are needed to determine the distribution and density of African Wild Ass in the whole range. A rough estimate of African Wild Ass population size in Eritrea would yield a total of possibly 400 individuals Somalia Aerial surveys in northern Somalia in , estimated 4,000-6,000 African Wild Ass in the area from the Nugaal Valley to the Djibouti border (Watson 1982). Given the area covered by the survey, this would indicate approximately six African Wild Ass per 100 km 2. In Simonetta and Simonetta (1983) estimated that there were about 250 African Wild Ass in the northwestern Nugaal Valley and about 50 near Meit, with scattered groups in the Erigavo region. In 1989 a ground survey supported by limited aerial reconnaissance in the Nugaal Valley yielded population estimates of roughly 135 to 205 Wild Asses or approximately 2.7 to 4.1 African Wild Ass per 100 km² (Moehlman et al. 1998). This indicates a significant reduction in the African Wild Ass population during the decade between those surveys. In 1997, local pastoralists said that there were less than ten African Wild Ass left in the Nugaal Valley (Moehlman et al. 2013). It is not known if African Wild Ass currently persists in Somalia Global population In summary, the total number of observed African Wild Ass in Eritrea and Ethiopia is roughly 70 individuals. There may be as many as 600 individuals in these two countries, but this figure is a very rough extrapolation from more intensely studied areas. The number of mature individuals is approximately 30-50% of the population (Feh et al. 2001, Moehlman et al. 2015, Hagos 2015), hence the minimum number of mature individuals is 23 and the maximum might be 300. In Ethiopia, in the last 35 years there has been a population decline of approximately 95% and in the last 12 years the African Wild Ass has been extirpated from roughly 50% of its range (Kebede et al. 2007). In Eritrea, the population is stable and slowly increasing. However, it is difficult to predict population trends far into the future. 12 Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus

14 2.4. Genetics Research on faecal samples collected from animals in Eritrea and Ethiopia identified five mitochondrial DNA haplotypes (group of polymorphisms): one haplotype specific to the Eritrean population (haplotype D); one specific to the Ethiopian population (E); and three shared (A, B, and C). These results suggest that there has been gene flow between the subpopulations (Afdera, Serdo) in Ethiopia and Eritrea (Oakenfull et al. 2002). Additional faecal samples were collected from African wild ass in Eritrea and Ethiopia. Polymorphic microsatellite markers (N=10) were used to assess levels of genetic diversity, population structure and demographic parameters. The results revealed the absence of geographic structuring among extant African Wild Ass. The Eritrean population had the highest values of genetic diversity (HE=0.63; Na=4.7). FST among these populations was estimated at 0.10 (P<0.05), confirming a scenario of low population structure. Bidirectional historical migration as well as recent migration were detected between the Ethiopian and Eritrean populations. Effective population sizes for both Ethiopian (Ne = 26.2) and Eritrean (Ne = 25.6) populations were low, confirming that these populations are extremely vulnerable. There was no evidence of hybridization in the wild population. However, one domestic donkey in Eritrea was identified as a first-generation hybrid (Hagos 2016; Rosenbom et al. 2017) Habitat and Ecology Habitat The primary habitat is arid and semi-arid bushland and grassland. In Eritrea and Ethiopia, the African Wild Ass lives in the volcanic landscape of the Great Rift Valley where it ranges from below sea level in the Dalool Depression to 1,500 m (Yalden et al. 1996) Adaptations Research on domestic donkeys (descendants of the African Wild Ass) documented that they have physiological adaptations to life in arid habitats. They can sustain a water loss of up to 30 per cent of their body weight and can drink enough water in two to five minutes to restore fluid loss (Maloiy 1970). Tomkiewicz (1979), using temperature-sensitive implants, determined that feral donkeys varied their body temperature from 35.0 to 41.5 C, depending on air temperature. Females maintained higher body temperatures and thus may have lost less water due to sweating. Tomkiewicz (1979) also found that the biological half-life of water for females was one day longer than for males, indicating that their water use was more efficient. Such information indicates that the ancestral species, the African Wild Ass, is probably even more physiologically adapted to life in the deserts. However, the African Wild Ass still needs access to surface water. The movements of lactating females are more constrained by availability of water and forage than those of non-lactating females Social dynamics Typical of arid habitat wild equids, a female and her offspring form the only stable groups. Females do associate with other females and/or with males, but even temporary groups are small (<5 individuals). Female foals often stay with their mother and are residents in their natal area. Adult males are frequently solitary, but also associate with other males. Some adult males are territorial and are dominant over other males in these areas (Klingel 1977). In more arid environments, limited food availability (both spatially and temporally) usually does not permit females to forage in close proximity and/or to be associated consistently. Females tend to come into oestrus asynchronously which allows territorial males to mate with multiple females. Territorial males establish their territories in and around areas with critical resources, i.e. forage and/or water. Thus they indirectly obtain access to females that need these resources. Territorial males are dominant on their territories and are the only males observed to mate with oestrous females (Teclai 2006). The African Wild Ass can live up to 31 years in zoos (Steck 2017). Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus 13

15 Reproduction The African Wild Ass has a resource-defence polygynous mating system (Emlen & Oring 1977, Moehlman 1998, 2002, Klingel 2005). The species is polyoestrous and foals are usually born from October to April after a gestation period of months (Steck 2017). Although further research is needed, seasonality of births in Eritrea is associated with rainfall conditions on the Messir Plateau (Teclai 2006). A known-age African Wild Ass had her first live foal at six years, although they are sexually matured at approximately two years of age. Some females may have a surviving foal every other year and natality correlates with rainfall during the period of gestation (Moehlman et al 2013). In zoos, the youngest age at reproduction is 2 years 3 months (females) and 2 years 11 months (males) and the oldest ages 23 years and 28 years for females and males respectively (Steck 2017) Diet In Eritrea and Ethiopia, limited observations indicate that African Wild Asses are primarily grazers, but that they will also utilize browse. Dental wear analyses indicate that African Wild Ass are grazers and browse-graze intermediate feeders (Schulz and Kaiser 2013). In the Mille-Serdo Wild Ass Reserve the preferred forage is Aristida sp., Chrysopogon plumulosus, Dactyloctenium schindicum, Digitaria sp., Lasiurus scindicus, and Sporobolus iocladus (Kebede 1999, Moehlman 2002, Moehlman et al. 2013). In Eritrea, Panicum turgidum is an important forage species (Teclai 2006) Predators Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) and Lions (Panthera leo) are potential predators, particularly of foals and yearlings. Since 2009, Spotted Hyenas are reported to have increased their range in the area from Shukoray oasis to the Messir Plateau Species function and values A large-sized, non-ruminant herbivore that lives in an arid ecosystem. The species can serve as a flagship species for the conservation of desert ecosystems and their biodiversity African Wild Ass persist in one of the harshest climates and terrains in the world. These arid habitats are also home to human populations that are also at risk from climatic extremes. The African Wild Ass is the ancestor of the domestic donkey which has served mankind for millennia as a valuable animal of burden and has considerable cultural value 3. Threats 3.1. Habitat loss and degradation In Ethiopia and Eritrea, the major threat to the African wild ass is limited access to drinking water and good forage (largely due to competition with livestock). Reproductive females and foals less than three months old are most at risk. It is important to determine critical water supplies and basic forage requirements, allowing management authorities to determine (in consultation with local pastoralists) how to conserve the African Wild Ass (Kebede 1999, 2007; Moehlman 2002; Teclai 2006; Moehlman et al. 2013, Hagos 2015) Direct mortality In Ethiopia and Somalia, African Wild Ass are used for food and medicinal purposes; for example, body parts and soup made from bones are used for treating tuberculosis, constipation, rheumatism, backache, and bone ache (Moehlman et al. 1998, Kebede 1999, Moehlman 2002, Moehlman et al. 2013). Research by Kebede (1999) revealed that 72% of 65 adult male Afar pastoralists had killed African Wild Ass for food and/or medicine. Their explanation was that they could not afford to buy medicine or that they were too far from medical facilities. In 2002, discussions were made with the respected religious leader of the Afar region, Sultan Ali Mirah, who played a key role in supporting conservation in the region. The Sultan urged the local elders to actively engage in conservation of 14 Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus

16 natural habitats and wildlife reminding them that eating equid flesh was haram, forbidden (Kebede et al. 2007). In Eritrea, local Afar pastoralists do not harm wildlife and guns are strictly controlled Hybridization Interbreeding with domestic donkeys is a potential threat to the survival of the African Wild Ass (Moehlman 2002, Moehlman et al. 2013). However, there is no scientific evidence indicating introgression of domestic donkey genes into African Wild Ass populations (Hagos 2016; Rosenbom 2017) Small population size The remaining wild populations in Eritrea and Ethiopia are small and their effective population sizes (Ne) much smaller still (see section 2.4). Small populations are inherently more vulnerable to stochastic events, outbreaks of disease and adverse genetic factors Predation Predation by Spotted Hyena on wild ass is reported to have become a problem on the Messir Plateau since Mining The Danakil Basin contains huge deposits of potash. Several exploration licenses, and recently some production licences, have been reviewed and approved in both Eritrea and Ethiopia. The potential impacts of the mining activities on Wild Ass habitat, including on water levels, and the heavy traffic caused by future potash haulage are as yet unknown. Impact assessments have been carried out (e.g. ERM 2012)) and these have taken into account African Wild Ass habitat in planning, road development and water needs Infrastructure development Construction of settlements, road and railroad developments all present potential threats to African Wild Ass habitat and risk increasing fragmentation of subpopulations. Specifically, construction of road and rail transport in Ethiopia will link Dallol to the newly developed bulk port at Tadjoureh in Djibouti, and road transport in Eritrea will link Colluli with the port of Massawa. The proposed route of this road lies some way from the two main African Wild Ass breeding areas but passes between them and close to a freshwater oasis Drought and climate change The desert habitat in both Eritrea and Ethiopia suffers from recurrent and extreme droughts (Kebede 1999). These conditions are likely to be exacerbated by global climate change Inadequate coverage of Protected Areas In Ethiopia, most of the extant African Wild Ass range lies outside formal Protected Areas (PAs). In Eritrea, there are no Protected Areas in the African Wild Ass range; Buri-Irrori-Hawakil Nature Reserve (8,670 km 2 ) has been proposed but not yet officially gazetted Lack of capacity Technical and financial capacity in habitat management, modern survey methodologies and regular monitoring is limited and hinders effective conservation. Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus 15

17 4. Conservation action 4.1. International agreements Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) The African Wild Ass is listed on CITES Appendix I which prohibits international trade in specimens or parts of the species (except when the purpose of the import is not commercial e.g. for scientific research) Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) CMS is a framework environmental treaty under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme, and the only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats and migration routes. During the workshop, a proposal to list the African Wild Ass under CMS was suggested. Proposals to list the African Wild Ass under Appendix I and Appendix II were developed and submitted by Eritrea and Ethiopia. The African Wild Ass was accepted for listing under Appendix I of CMS during Plenary at the 12 th Conference of Parties (CMS COP 12) on 28 October The listing enters into force 90 days after the COP National legislation and policy The African Wild Ass has full legal protection in Eritrea and Ethiopia. In Eritrea, African Wild Ass is protected under the Forestry and Wildlife Conservation and Development Proclamation No 156/2006. A revised National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) has been developed (The State of Eritrea 2015). A conservation strategy for African Wild Ass in Eritrea was produced in 2011 (Ministry of Agriculture 2011). In Ethiopia, the Development, Conservation and Utilization of Wildlife proclamation no. 541/2007 and the Ethiopian Wildlife Development and Conservation Authority Establishment proclamation no. 575/2008, the Wildlife Conservation, Development and Utilization Council of Ministers Regulation 163/2008 are among the legal frameworks used for implementation of wildlife conservation. The biodiversity conservation law, environmental protection law and forestry law supplement and support sustainable natural resource use and conservation. A revised National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) has been developed (Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute 2015). An Ethiopian National Equid Action Plan was produced and officially approved in 2017 (Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority and IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist Group 2017) Protected areas In Eritrea, the Buri-Irrori-Hawakil Nature Reserve (8,670 km 2 ), which includes important African Wild Ass breeding habitat on the Messir Plateau, has been proposed. It is supported by a UNDP-GEF project to develop the Protected Areas system in Eritrea (The State of Eritrea 2014) and is included among the targets of the revised National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (The State of Eritrea 2015). In Ethiopia, the Yangudi-Rassa NP (4,731 km²) and the Mille-Serdo Wild Ass Reserve (8,766 km²) were established in 1969 mainly for the conservation of African Wild Ass. However, the former has never been officially gazetted, and both areas are utilized by large numbers of pastoralists and their livestock. These areas are remote and extremely arid. Gebel Elba NP (35,600 km 2 ) is located in the Hala ib Triangle and under administration of Egypt. 16 Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus

18 4.4. International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) IUCN Red List of Threatened Species The African Wild Ass is assessed as Critically Endangered [CR C2a(i)]. It is listed as Critically Endangered as the numbers (at best approximately 200 mature individuals) may be undergoing a continuing decline due to climate and human/livestock impact, and no subpopulation numbers more than 50 mature individuals. The species may also meet the threshold for Critically Endangered under criterion D, as there may be <50 mature individuals in the wild (Moehlman et al. 2015) IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist Group (ESG) The IUCN/SSC ESG is responsible for assessing the status of equid species for the IUCN Red List The broad aim of IUCN/SSC ESG is to promote the long-term conservation of wild equids. In Ethiopia, IUCN/SSC ESG has worked with the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority since 1994 to provide support for research, training and conservation. This cooperative agreement has included support for post graduate training, scouts, workshops and educational materials. Since 1995 the IUCN/SSC ESG has had a cooperative research, training and conservation programme with the Eritrean Ministry of Agriculture, Hamelmalo Agricultural College, and the Forestry and Wildlife Authority, supporting postgraduate training, research, and local community participation Ex situ The 2016 international studbook (ISB) reported a total of 271 African Wild Ass maintained in human care, 107 males and 164 females, kept in 53 institutions (Steck 2017). These animals are the descendants of five individuals (three males and two females) captured in the Nugaal Valley of Somalia and sent to Basel Zoo in Switzerland in July 1970 and 12 individuals captured in 1972 from the Serdo area in the Afar Region of Ethiopia and sent to Hai-Bar in Israel (Moehlman 2002). Not all 17 founders are currently represented in the zoo population. The exact number of founders is unknown; ideally at least 30 founders are needed. One herd of about 25 animals in Qatar is included in the ISB; no others are known in the Middle East (Arabian Zoo and Aquarium Association, B. Steck, in litt.). A further possible African Wild Ass are held at three private facilities in the USA. These animals are descended from a separate import and may represent a new bloodline, possibly including Nubian Wild Ass. The owners are willing to permit genetic research on this population which should be conducted as a matter of urgency (H. & G. Denzau, in litt.). Most zoo animals are managed under collaborative breeding programmes (SSP in North America and EEP in Europe). The North American zoo population has been growing for the last several years and is currently at an all-time high in terms of the number of animals and facilities holding this species Growth of the zoo population elsewhere has slowed, mainly due to the difficulty in finding new holding institutions. Pagan et al. (2009) provide important management recommendations and veterinary information gathered over several decades at Basel Zoo. African Wild Ass have been documented with the following diseases in zoos: sarcoid tumours and Equine Herpes Virus EHV1 and EHV9 (Abdelgawad 2015, Ulrich et al. 2016). Sarcoids are mainly a problem in Europe but have also been recorded in the USA; they have not been observed in wild populations. African Wild Ass are mainly carriers of EHV and cases of disease are rare to non-existent in the zoo population, but there is risk of transmission to other species in zoos, and possibly also in the wild. 5. Conservation Road Map 5.1. Goal The overall Goal of the Conservation Road Map is to coordinate conservation of the African Wild Ass across their range. Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus 17

19 5.2. Strategic directions A set of broad strategic directions was agreed, based on discussions of the current threats and conservation measures: Reduction in competition with livestock for water and forage Protection of known populations. Surveys for remnant populations Research on demography, ranging and genetics Increased coverage of Protected Areas Engagement with local communities Building technical capacity for research, monitoring and management Mitigating the effects of fragmentation and infrastructure development Education and awareness programs at global and local levels Closer links between ex situ and in situ conservation 5.3. Objectives and actions Objectives and actions were developed separately for Eritrea and Ethiopia (the two key Range States), Other Range States, captive populations and regional coordination. Sets of Objectives and Actions are shown below in logframe format. 18 Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus

20 Eritrea Vision: We envision viable, genetically diverse and ecologically functioning populations of African Wild Ass. These populations will flourish in a healthy ecosystem where they are appreciated and cherished by the local communities who derive economic development and food security benefits. Support by national environmental policy and the building of capacity for both local and national experts is fundamental to the conservation of the African Wild Ass. Goals: 1. Development of a strategic, science- based National Action Plan and management programme for the African Wild Ass and the ecosystem it inhabits. 2. Enhance conservation policies through participatory planning that mitigate the level of competition between African Wild Ass and livestock and promote sustainable use of key resources (forage and water) in critical ranges. Threat Objective Action Indicator Stakeholders Time 1. Habitat degradation, inadequate forage and water 1.1. Develop a Denkelia Ecosystem Conservation programme 1.2 Monitor the effects of mining development on the Denkelia ecosystem Research on the range and ecological requirements of the African Wild Ass and livestock Establish a sanctuary on Messir Plateau-Irrori Plain Contribute to the Irrori-Buri Protected area management plan Carry out habitat assessments in key sites and compile habitat restoration plans where appropriate Improve access to water and forage at key sites Establish a ground water monitoring system Monitor implementation of mitigation plans specified in EIAs African wild ass spatial and dietary overlap with livestock established. Messir plateau sanctuary delineated. PA management plan produced. Critical sites identified and restoration plan developed. Key water and forage sites delineated. Data on ground water levels recorded Mining EIAs evaluated reports. FWA, MoA, MoLWE and Academia FWA, MoA, MoLWE, local communities, local government, partners FWA, MoLWE, MoA, MoMR, local government FWA, local government, local communities, partners FWA, local communities, partners DoW, MoLWE FWA, MoA, MoLWE, MoEM 3 years 6 months 1 year 3-5 years 1 year 1 year 5-10 years Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus 19

21 Threat Objective Action Indicator Stakeholders Time 2. Climate 2.1 Mitigate the effects of climate Conduct long-term research on Impact assessment MoLWE, MoA, 3-5 years change and drought change and drought on forage and African Wild Ass impacts of climate change and drought Establish meteorological stations at strategic points in the African Wild Ass range reports Number of meteorological stations established FWA, MoTC FWA, MoTC 1 year 3. Direct mortality 4. Small population size 3.1 Reduce impact of Spotted Hyena predation on African Wild Ass Conduct research focused on hyena populations, distribution and impact of predation Temporary control programme in emergency conditions, if appropriate 3.2. Reduce impact of disease Organize a short course for wildlife veterinarians Conduct research (including faecal sampling) on the frequency and impact of disease and parasites 4.1 Increase population viability Research the population dynamics in Denkelia 4.2 Photographic documentation and identification of all individuals photographs and id sheets of all individuals and record of birth and death non-invasive genetics research on all populations 4.3 Population genetics of all populations 4.4. Research nutritional status Take nutritional analyses of faecal samples 4.5. Research morphology Collect all skulls and skeletal material and monitored. MSc research funded and implemented Spotted Hyena predation significantly reduced Number of wildlife veterinarians trained Data analysed and published Population viability assessment report All individuals in photographic record Genetic analyses of faecal samples Samples analyzed Morphological analyses conducted FWA and MoA FWA and MoA FWA, MoA and Academia FWA, MoA and Academia FWA, MoA and Academia FWA, MoA and Academia FWA, MoA and Academia FWA, MoA and Academia FWA, MoA and Academia 2 years On-going 2 years 2-3 years On-going since 1995 On-going On-going On-going On-going 20 Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus

22 Threat Objective Action Indicator Stakeholders Time 5. Incomplete knowledge of distribution 5.1. Survey areas for undocumented populations Survey the Hagar Plateau Survey southern Denkelia Survey conducted and reports produced Local scouts engaged FWA, MoA, local government, local communities, 2-4 months 6. Human wildlife conflict 7. Lack of awareness 6.1 Produce an integrated Community Development Programme at key sites 7.1 Increase awareness of the importance of the African Wild Ass and Denkelia ecosystem Analyse alternative sources of income for local communities Conduct socio-economic analysis of local communities Organise an awareness campaign for the general public including press, radio, TV, social media Hold education workshops for local residents, administrators, policy makers, military, and mining employees Continue to produce posters, conservation information pamphlets, etc Establish an African wild ass display at the National Museum Support Diploma and BSc curriculum development and short courses in wildlife and ecology Support ongoing MSc research programmes Provide support and training and equipment for wildlife scouts Alternative sources of income formulated Socio-economic report produced Number of awareness campaigns Number of training workshop conducted & measured impacts Number of posters, etc produced Academia FWA, MoA, local government, local communities FWA, MoI, partners FWA, local government, local communities, partners FWA, local government, local communities FWA, National Museum FWA and Academia Museum display established 8. Lack of 8.1 Develop a capacity Curriculum technical capacity development programme developed and short courses conducted Number of MSc students supported Number of wildlife FWA, MoA, Local scouts trained and Government, Local equipped communities Abbreviations: FWA- Forestry and Wildlife Authority; MoA- Ministry of Agriculture; MoTC- Ministry of Transport and Communications; MoLWE- Ministry of Land, Water and Environment; MoEM- Ministry of Energy and Mines; MoMR- Ministry of Marine Resources; MoI- Ministry of Information. 5 years 1-2 years On-going On-going On-going 1-2 years 3-week courses ongoing 5-10 years Roadmap for the Conservation of the African Wild Ass Equus africanus 21