P R I N C I P L E S O F TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING PARTHA CHAKROBORTY ANIMESH DAS
Principles of Transportation Engineering Partha Chakroborty Professor Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Animesh Das Professor Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur New Delhi - 110 001 2012
PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Partha Chakroborty and Animesh Das 2003 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-2084-0 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Sixth Printing...... July, 2011 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Mudrak, 30-A, Patparganj, Delhi-110091.
To my father Durgadas Chakroborty Partha Chakroborty To my mentor Prof. B.B. Pandey Animesh Das
Contents Preface xv 1. Introduction 1 16 1.1 Transportation Engineering 1 1.2 Classification of Transportation Studies 3 1.2.1 Modal Classification 4 1.2.2 Elemental Classification 11 1.2.3 Functional Classification 12 1.3 Organization of the Book 13 Part I TRAFFIC ENGINEERING 2. Properties of Traffic Engineering Elements 17 29 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Vehicle Characteristics 17 2.2.1 Size, Weight, Axle Configurations and Power-to-Weight Ratio 17 2.2.2 Turning Radius and Turning Path 18 2.2.3 Vehicle as a Source of Pollution 19 2.2.4 Design Vehicle 19 2.3 Human Factors and Driver Characteristics 20 2.3.1 Perception Reaction Process 20 2.3.2 Psychological Characteristics 20 2.3.3 Comfort 22 2.3.4 Vision 23 2.3.5 Design Driver 24 2.4 Road Characteristics 25 2.4.1 Surface Conditions 25 2.4.2 Slopes 25 2.4.3 Curves 27 2.5 Control Mechanisms 28 2.6 Terminal Facilities 28 Exercises 28 v
vi Contents 3. Highway Geometric Design 30 54 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Typical Road Cross-section 30 3.3 Horizontal Curves 32 3.3.1 Radius and Superelevation 33 3.3.2 Available Sight Distance 38 3.3.3 Transition Curves 41 3.3.4 Curve Widening 44 3.4 Vertical Curves 45 3.4.1 Length of Vertical Curves 46 3.4.2 Geometry of Curves 47 3.5 Channelization Design 53 Exercises 53 4. Traffic Flow 55 122 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Fundamentals of Traffic Flow 55 4.2.1 Flow Characterization 55 4.2.2 Fundamental Relation of Traffic Flow 60 4.3 Uninterrupted Traffic Flow 61 4.3.1 Stream Characteristics 61 4.3.2 Data Collection 62 4.3.3 Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models 66 4.3.4 Microscopic Traffic Flow Models 73 4.3.5 Capacity and Level-of-Service Analysis of Basic Freeway (Expressway) Sections 83 4.4 Fundamentals of Interrupted Traffic Flow 88 4.4.1 Shock Waves 88 4.4.2 Traffic Flow at Signalized Intersections 95 4.4.3 Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersections 113 4.4.4 Data Collection 117 Exercises 121 5. Design of Traffic Facilities 123 167 5.1 Introduction 123 5.2 Freeways (or Expressways) 124 5.3 Intersections 126 5.3.1 Unsignalized Intersections 127 5.3.2 Signalized Intersections 134 5.4 Interchanges 151 5.4.1 Warrants for Interchanges 152 5.4.2 Design of Interchanges 153
Contents vii 5.5 Parking Facilities 155 5.5.1 Parking Demand 156 5.5.2 On-street Parking 157 5.5.3 Off-street Parking 159 5.5.4 Parking Stalls 159 5.5.5 Vehicle Circulation 159 5.6 Road Signs 161 5.6.1 Text of the Sign 162 5.6.2 Lettering, Letter Sizes, and Colour 162 5.6.3 Placement 163 Exercises 165 Part II PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION 6. Transit System Operations 171 197 6.1 Introduction 171 6.1.1 Para-transit Systems 171 6.1.2 Street Transit Systems (or Transit Systems) 171 6.1.3 Rapid Transit Systems 172 6.2 Route Development 172 6.2.1 Properties of a Good Route Set 172 6.2.2 Determination of a Good Route Set 175 6.3 Stop Location and Stopping Policy 178 6.3.1 Stopping Policy 178 6.3.2 Stop Location 180 6.4 Schedule Development 184 6.4.1 Properties of a Good Schedule 185 6.4.2 Determination of a Good Schedule 185 Exercises 197 7. Capacity of Transit Systems 198 204 7.1 Introduction 198 7.2 Capacity of Rapid Transit Systems 198 7.2.1 Line Capacity of RTS 198 7.3 Capacity of Street Transit Systems 203 Exercises 204 Part III TRANSPORTATION PLANNING 8. Transportation Planning Process 207 215 8.1 Introduction 207 8.2 Elements of Transportation Planning 207 8.3 Definition of Goals and Objectives 208
viii Contents 8.4 Identification of Needs 210 8.5 Generation of Alternatives 210 8.6 Evaluation of Alternatives 211 8.7 Implementation of Alternatives 214 Exercises 214 9. Transportation Demand Analysis 216 250 9.1 Introduction 216 9.2 Nature and Analysis of Transportation Demand 216 9.3 Sequential Demand Analysis 219 9.3.1 Trip-generation Models 221 9.3.2 Trip-distribution Models 223 9.3.3 Modal Split Model 234 9.3.4 Traffic-assignment Models 236 9.4 Collection of Transportation Demand Data 248 Exercises 249 Part IV PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 10. Pavement Materials and Characterization 253 328 10.1 Introduction 253 10.2 Soil 253 10.2.1 Characterization 253 10.2.2 Some Tests on Soil 256 10.3 Stone Aggregates 264 10.3.1 Source 264 10.3.2 Characterization 265 10.3.3 Tests on Aggregates 267 10.3.4 Aggregate Gradation 275 10.3.5 Batch Mixing Problem 279 10.4 Bituminous Material 280 10.4.1 Source 280 10.4.2 Composition 280 10.4.3 Characterization 281 10.4.4 Other Forms of Bitumen 281 10.4.5 Tests on Bituminous Binder 283 10.5 Bituminous Mixes 293 10.5.1 Mix Volumetrics 294 10.5.2 Mix Design 299 10.5.3 Stiffness Modulus and Fatigue Performance of Bituminous Mixes 310
Contents ix 10.6 Cement 315 10.6.1 Composition 315 10.6.2 Manufacture 315 10.6.3 Tests 316 10.7 Cement Concrete 316 10.8 Stabilized Soil and Other Cemented Materials 317 Exercises 318 Annexure I 320 Annexure II 326 11. Pavement Analysis 329 346 11.1 Introduction 329 11.2 Pavement Composition 329 11.2.1 Bituminous Pavement 329 11.2.2 Concrete Pavement 330 11.3 Parameters for Pavement Analysis 334 11.3.1 Elastic Modulus 334 11.3.2 Poisson s Ratio 334 11.3.3 Wheel Load, Wheel Configuration, and Tyre Pressure 335 11.3.4 Temperature 335 11.4 Analysis of Bituminous Pavement Structures 336 11.4.1 Elastic Half-Space Solution 336 11.4.2 Layered Elastic Solution 340 11.5 Analysis of Concrete Pavement Structures 343 11.5.1 Slab on Elastic Foundation 343 11.5.2 Stresses in Concrete Pavements 344 Exercises 346 12. Pavement Design 347 410 12.1 Introduction 347 12.2 Design Parameters 348 12.2.1 Material Properties 348 12.2.2 Traffic Characteristics 349 12.2.3 Environmental Characteristics 357 12.2.4 Design Life 359 12.3 Philosophies of Design 360 12.3.1 CBR Method 360 12.3.2 California (Hveem) Method 360 12.3.3 Limiting Shear Failure Method 361 12.3.4 Limiting Deflection Method 361 12.3.5 Regression Method Based on Pavement Performance 361 12.3.6 Mechanistic Method for Bituminous Pavement Design 362
x Contents 12.4 Present Trends in Bituminous Pavement Design 371 12.4.1 Shell Method 371 12.4.2 Asphalt Institute Method 373 12.4.3 Austroads Method 375 12.4.4 South African Method 375 12.4.5 Road Note 29 Method 375 12.4.6 The AASHTO Design Method 378 12.4.7 Japan Roads Association Method 379 12.4.8 Indian Roads Congress Method 380 12.4.9 Closing Remarks 384 12.5 Present Trend in Concrete Pavement Design 385 12.5.1 PCA Method 385 12.5.2 Austroads Method 386 12.5.3 AASHTO Method 386 12.5.4 Indian Roads Congress Method 387 12.5.5 Closing Remarks 393 12.6 Drainage Considerations in Pavement Design 394 12.6.1 Surface Drainage 395 12.6.2 Sub-surface Drainage 397 12.6.3 Further Discussion on Drainage Considerations 402 12.7 Frost Damage in Pavement Design 402 12.8 Other Design Concepts 403 12.8.1 Bituminous Pavement with Cemented Base/Sub-base 404 12.8.2 Stage Construction 406 12.8.3 Airport Pavement 407 12.8.4 Reinforced Concrete Pavement 407 12.8.5 Full Depth Bituminous Pavement 408 12.8.6 Pavement Shoulders 408 Exercises 409 13. Highway Construction 411 447 13.1 Introduction 411 13.2 History of Road Construction 411 13.2.1 Trésaguet Pavement 412 13.2.2 Telford Pavement 413 13.2.3 McAdam Pavement 413 13.3 Equipment used in Highway Construction 414 13.3.1 Earth Moving Equipment 414 13.3.2 Aggregate Spreaders 414 13.3.3 Rollers 415 13.3.4 Nuclear Gauge 417 13.3.5 Road Brooms 417 13.3.6 Sprayers or Binder Distributors 417 13.3.7 Paver Finisher 418
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