Scnd J Med Sci Sports 2012: : doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01473.x 2012 John Wiley & Sons A/S Mster trithletes hve not reched limits in their Ironmn trithlon performnce M. Stiefel 1, B. Knechtle 1,2, R. Lepers 3 1 Institute of Generl Prctice nd for Helth Services Reserch, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerlnd, 2 Gesundheitszentrum St. Gllen, St. Gllen, Switzerlnd, 3 INSERM U1093, Fculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, Frnce Corresponding uthor: Bet Knechtle, MD, Fchrzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gllen, Vdinstrsse 26, 9001 St. Gllen, Switzerlnd. Tel: +41 0 71 226 82 82, Fx: +41 0 71 226 82 72, E-mil: et.knechtle@hispeed.ch Accepted for puliction 2 April 2012 The purpose of this study ws to nlyze the prticiption nd performnce trends of mle trithletes in the Ironmn Switzerlnd from 1995 to 2010. Prticiption trends of ll finishers ged etween 18 nd 64 yers were nlyzed over the 16-yer period y considering four 4-yer periods 1995 1998, 1999 2002, 2003 2006, nd 2007 2010, respectively. The 3.8-km swimming, 180-km cycling, 42-km running times, nd totl rce times were nlyzed for the top 10 trithletes in ech ge group from 18 to 64 yers. The prticiption of mster trithletes ( 40 yers old) incresed over the yers, representing on verge 23%, 28%, 37%, nd 48% of totl mle finishers during the four 4-yer periods, respectively. Over the 1995 2010 period, trithletes older thn 40 yers significntly improved their performnce in swimming, cycling, running, nd in the totl time tken to complete the rce. The question whether mster Ironmn trithletes hve yet reched limits in their performnce during Ironmn trithlon should e rised. Further studies investigting trining regimes, competition experience, or sociodemogrphic fctors re needed to gin etter insights into the phenomenon of the reltive improvement in ultr-endurnce performnce with dvncing ge. Nowdys, in society with n incresing prt of older dults, successful geing is of highest importnce for the whole popultion (Lee & Tnk, 1997; Wright & Perricelli, 2008). Regulr physicl ctivity is eneficil for overll helth (Lee & Tnk, 1997; Trppe, 2007; Rnsdell et l., 2009), protects from diseses like dietes or hypertension (Willims, 2009) nd even very intense exercise increses longevity (Snchis-Gomr et l., 2011). Athletes who mintin n ctive lifestyle ge grcefully with few helth prolems, while those who lpse into inctivity regress towrd generl popultion norms for fitness, weight control, nd helth prolems (Fulkner et l., 2008). Some studies even hypothesized tht lifestyle fctors hve stronger influences on physiologicl cpcity thn ge (Leyk et l., 2007, 2009). Therefore, mster thletes, defined s thletes who exceeded the ge requisite for success in elite competition, i.e., typiclly 35 to 40 yers (Rnsdell et l., 2009), represent n intriguing model for successful geing (Tnk & Sels, 2008; Wright & Perricelli, 2008; Armptzis et l., 2011). Helth enefits nd fitness re long with socil fctors, enjoyment, nd competition resons for msters prticiption in endurnce events (Reurn & Dscome, 2008). Recent studies hve ccounted for the enormous increse in prticiption of mster thletes (Rnsdell et l., 2009). Mster thletes prticiption rte incresed in different running events; from mrthon (Jokl et l., 2004; Lepers & Cttgni, 2011) to -km (Knechtle et l., 2011d) nd 161-km ultr-mrthons (Hoffmn et l., 2010), while the prticiption rte of younger thletes decresed. It hs een shown tht mster runners represented ~55% of the totl field in mrthon running (Leyk et l., 2009; Lepers & Cttgni, 2011), while their proportion reched ~70% in ultrmrthons (Hoffmn et l., 2010; Knechtle et l., 2011d). The ge-relted decline in performnce in mster thletes relted to chnges in physiologicl (e.g., oxygen crrying cpcity, muscle strength) nd morphologicl (e.g., muscle mss, percentge of ody ft) functionl chrcteristics, hs een evidenced y numerous studies (Rogers et l., 1990; Pollock et l., 1997; Hwkins et l., 2001; Pimentel et l., 2003; Fulkner et l., 2008; Korhonen et l., 2009). In generl, pek endurnce performnce is mintined until 35 yers of ge, followed y modest decreses until 50 60 yers of ge, nd progressively steeper decline therefter (Tnk & Sels, 2003, 2008; Trppe, 2007; Reurn & Dscome, 2008; Wright & Perricelli, 2008; Rnsdell et l., 2009). The 1
Stiefel et l. rtes of the decline in performnce with ge differ etween the sports depending on the specific demnds of the event (Tnk & Sels, 2003; Wright & Perricelli, 2008). In mrthon running (Jokl et l., 2004; Leyk et l., 2007; Lepers & Cttgni, 2011), s well s in long-distnce trithlon (Lepers & Mffiuletti, 2011; Lepers et l., 2012), pek endurnce performnce level is usully ttined t n ge comprised etween 20 nd 40 yers while for ultr-running the ge of pek performnce moves to older ges, i.e., 30 50 yers (Hoffmn, 2010; Knechtle et l., 2011d). Despite the numerous studies on the ge-relted decline in endurnce performnce, there re few investigtions on the performnce trends over time of mster thletes. Msters performnce trends hve een previously investigted t the New York City Mrthon (Jokl et l., 2004; Lepers & Cttgni, 2011). These studies showed for exmple tht over the 1983 1999 period, mle runners older thn 50 yers of ge improved their running performnce (Jokl et l., 2004), while regrding the 1980 2009 period, only runners older thn 65 yers improved their performnce. In contrst, performnce times of younger mrthoners t the New York City Mrthon remined quite stle over the lst three decdes (Lepers & Cttgni, 2011). Ironmn trithlon involving successively 3.8-km swimming, 180-km cycling, nd 42.2-km running is often considered s one of the world s most chllenging endurnce events nd represents n intriguing model of ultr-endurnce performnce (Lepers, 2008; Lepers et l., 2010; Knechtle et l., 2011). Compred to mrthon running, Ironmn trithlon is reltively young in the field of endurnce events where the first event ws held in Hwii in 1978 (Lepers, 2008). It hs een previously shown tht for elite trithletes, fter n initil phse of rpid improvement of Ironmn trithlon performnce during the 1980s, there ws reltive plteu, ut t lest in running nd cycling, there were smll improvements (Lepers, 2008). However, the performnce nd prticiption trends of mster thletes in this multi-sport ultrendurnce event hve not een previously investigted. Therefore, the im of the present study ws to nlyze the prticiption nd performnce trends of mle Ironmn trithletes, with specil emphsis on mster trithletes (i.e., 40 yers of ge), t the Ironmn Switzerlnd from 1995 to 2010. Respecting existing literture on running, we hypothesized oth n increse in prticiption nd n improvement in mster trithletes performnce over the 16-yer studied period. Mteril nd methods This study ws pproved y the institutionl review ord of St. Gllen, Switzerlnd, with wiver of the requirement for informed consent given tht the study involved the nlysis of pulicly ville dt. The dtset from this study ws otined from the rce wesite (http://www.ironmn.ch) nd from the rce director. The ge t the time of competition nd swimming, cycling, running, nd totl time performnces of the mle finishers t the Ironmn Switzerlnd were nlyzed from 1995 to 2010. Femles were not ccounted in this study ecuse their prticiption in tht ultr-endurnce event ws low (~10% of the totl field). We focused on the Ironmn Switzerlnd s qulifying event for the Ironmn Trithlon World Chmpionship held every yer in Kon, Hwii (http://www.ironmn.com). The Ironmn Switzerlnd is with its 50 75 qulifying plces for the Ironmn Hwii trithlon comprle to the other world s gretest Ironmn events. Between its inception in 1995 nd 2010, totl of 15 939 mle trithletes finished the Ironmn Switzerlnd. The rce is held ech yer in the city of Zurich during July. The rce consists of 3.8-km swim (two lps) in the lke of Zurich where wetsuits re llowed; 180-km cycling course (two lps) with totl ltitude difference of 1260 m; nd completely flt running course over the mrthon distnce (four lps). Dt nlysis Becuse there is very smll numer of finisher trithletes older thn 64 yers, we considered only mle trithletes ged from 18 to 64 yers. The ge groups distinguish the ctegories s follows: 18 24 yers, 25 29 yers, 30 34 yers, 35 39 yers, 40 44 yers, 45 49 yers, 50 54 yers, 55 59 yers, nd 60 64 yers, respectively. Since the numer of finisher trithletes in the ge group 60 64 yers ws frequently lower thn 10, the ge-relted chnges in performnce were nlyzed for ge groups comprised etween 18 nd 59 yers. Swimming, cycling, running, nd totl performnce times were converted to minutes nd verged cross the first 10 trithletes of ech ge group. In order to simplify the nlysis over the 16 yers studied period (1995 2010), we pooled dt into four periods of 4 yers: 1995 1998, 1999 2002, 2003 2006, nd 2007 2010, respectively. Therefore, for ech ge group nd ech 4-yer period, 40 time performnces were considered. Sttisticl nlysis Dt re reported s mens stndrd devition (SD) in the text. One-wy nlysis of vrince (ANOVA) ws used to compre the men swimming, cycling, running, nd totl times etween the different ge groups during the 1995 2010 period. A two-wy ANOVA with etween fctors of ge nd 4-yer group ws used to compre percent of finishers per ge groups, nd swimming, cycling, running, nd totl times etween the 4-yer periods cross the ge groups. Performnces of one suject could hve een nlyzed severl times, inducing dt is ut ecuse of the low proility tht it hppens, we still considered our groups s independent. Tukey s post hoc nlyses were used to test differences within the ANOVAs when pproprite. A significnce level of P < 0.05 ws used to identify sttisticl significnce. Results Prticiption trends The numer of totl mle finishers incresed cross the four 4-yer periods: 1995 1998: 1819 finishers; 1999 2002: 2992 finishers; 2003 2006: 4364 finishers; nd 2007 2010: 6764 finishers, respectively. The men ge distriution of the mle finishers over the 4-yer periods is displyed in Fig. 1. The men numer of finishers older thn 30 yers of ge incresed during the four 4-yer periods (Fig. 1). During the lst 4-yer period, i.e., 2007 2010, the 5-yer ge rckets with the lrgest prticiption hve een 35 39 yers nd 40 44 yers 2
Mster trithletes improved their performnce () Numer of finishers 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 50 0 1995-1998 1999-2002 2003-2006 2007-2010 60-64 () 35 Finishers (% totl) 30 25 20 15 10 c 5 0 60-64 Age groups (yers) Fig. 1. () Men numer of mle finishers per ge group for the four periods 1995 1998, 1999 2002, 2003 2006, nd 2007 2010 t the Ironmn Switzerlnd trithlon. () Men percentge of mle finishers per ge group for the four periods 1995 1998, 1999 2002, 2003 2006, nd 2007 2010 t Ironmn Switzerlnd trithlon. Vlues re mens SD., significntly different from 1995 1998, P < 0.05., significntly different from 1995 1998 nd 1999 2002, P < 0.05. c, significntly different from 1995 1998, 1999 2002, nd 2003 2006, P < 0.05. with on verge more thn 400 finishers per yer. Over the studied period, the percentge of finishers significntly decresed etween 25 nd 34 yers, remined stle for ge group 35 39 yers since 1999 2002 nd significntly incresed etween 40 nd 49 yers (Fig. 1). Mster trithletes ( 40 yers old) represented on verge 23%, 28%, 37%, nd 48% of totl mle finishers during the 1995 1998, 1999 2002, 2003 2006, nd 2007 2010 periods, respectively. Age-relted chnges in performnces The reltive contriution of ech prt of the overll Ironmn trithlon performnce remined constnt cross the ges. On verge, the 3.8-km swimming, 180-km cycling, nd 42-km running represented 10.7 0.5%, 53.5 1.3%, nd 35.0 0.8% of the totl time, respectively. The men ge-relted chnges for swimming, cycling, running, nd totl performnces throughout the 1995 2010 period re shown in Fig. 2. For the three disciplines nd totl rce time, the performnce times incresed in curviliner mnner with dvncing ge. There ws significnt ge effect for swimming (F = 51.7; P < 0.001), cycling (F = 33.6; P < 0.001), running (F = 82.4 P < 0.001), nd totl (F = 64.8; P < 0.001) times. Swimming, running, nd totl time performnces were significntly lower in the ge groups 40 44-yer nd older compred to younger ge groups rnging from 18 to 39 yers for swimming nd from 25 to 39 yers for running nd totl time. Cycling performnces were significntly lower in the ge groups 45 49 yer nd older compred to younger ge groups. Figure 3 shows the ge-relted chnges in swimming, cycling, running, nd totl performnces cross the four 4-yer periods. There ws significnt ge group 4- yer period interction for swimming (F = 6.2; P < 0.001), cycling (F = 11.2; P < 0.001), running (F = 9.5; P < 0.001), nd overll rce time (F = 22.3; 3
Stiefel et l. Swim time (min) 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 NS Swim time (% est performnce) 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 1995-1998 1999-2002 2003-2006 2007-2010,,c, 50 400 140 Cycle time (min) 380 360 340 320 300 NS Cycle time (% est performnce) 135 130 125 120 115 110 105,,,c,,c 280 300 170 Run time (min) 280 260 240 220 200 180 NS Run time (% est performnce) 160 150 140 130 120 110,,,,,c,,c 160 800 160 Totl time (min) 750 700 650 600 550 NS Totl time (% est performnce) 150 140 130 120 110,,,,c,,,c 500 Age groups (yers) Age groups (yers) Fig. 2. Age-relted chnges in swimming, cycling, running, nd totl performnces t Ironmn Switzerlnd trithlon. Dt were pooled from 1995 to 2010. Vlues re mens SD. NS, nonsignificnt difference etween ge groups. Fig. 3. Age-relted chnges in swimming, cycling, running, nd totl performnces cross the four periods 1995 1998, 1999 2002, 2003 2006, nd 2007 2010 t Ironmn Switzerlnd trithlon. For clrity resons, SDs were not shown., significntly different (P < 0.01) from 1995 1998 period., significntly different (P < 0.01) from 1999 2002 period. c, significntly different (P < 0.01) from 2003 2006 period. 4
Mster trithletes improved their performnce Totl time (min) 800 750 700 650 600 18-24 yers 25-29 yers 30-34 yers 35-39 yers 40-44 yers 45-49 yers 550 500 1995-1998 1999-2002 2003-2006 2007-2010 Periods 50-54 yers 55-59 yers Fig. 4. Chnge in totl time performnces of the different ge groups cross the four periods 1995 1998, 1999 2002, 2003 2006, nd 2007 2010 t Ironmn Switzerlnd trithlon. For clrity resons, SDs were not shown. P < 0.001) performnces. Swimming performnce times for ge groups older thn 45 49 yers significntly decresed over the four periods. Cycling, running, nd totl performnces times for ge groups older thn 40 44 yers significntly decresed over the four periods. The chnges in totl time performnces of the different ge groups cross the four periods re shown in Fig. 4. The performnce improvement ppered much lrger etween the lst two periods 2003 2006 nd 2007 2010 thn etween ny other period for the oldest ge groups 50 54 nd 55 59 yers, respectively. Discussion The min findings of the present study were () n increse in prticiption of mle mster Ironmn trithletes; they represented during the 2007 2010 period lmost 50% of the totl field; nd () n improvement of mster trithletes performnces during the 16-yer studied period, while performnces of trithletes younger thn 40 yers old remined quite stle. Chnges in prticiption of mster trithletes It should e mentioned tht the rce orgniztion of Ironmn Switzerlnd hs limited strt plces during the lst yers, nd this entry cp hs incresed over the yers reching 2200 prticipnts in 2010. However, this limittion would proly not chnge the reltive proportion etween the different ge ctegories. Sociologicl nd demogrphic chnges my explin the increse in mster thletes prticiption in Ironmn trithlon. The development nd encourgement of helth nd sport policy ws common gol in the developed world during the pst five decdes (Lee & Tnk, 1997). The helthier wy of life resulted itself in higher rte of ctive dults nd is min fctor for the incresed life expectncy s well (Svidn et l., 2010), wht increses the proility of older competing in endurnce events too (Lee & Tnk, 1997; Rnsdell et l., 2009). Figure 5 shows the reltionship etween the chnges in percentge of the mle Ironmn Switzerlnd finishers nd the chnges in percentge of the Swiss generl popultion per ge group etween the two periods 1995 1998 nd 2007 2010, respectively. During the 16-yer studied period, the percentge of ge groups older thn 40 yers incresed for oth Ironmn Switzerlnd finishers nd Swiss popultion, while the percent of ge groups comprised etween 18 nd 34 yers remined stle or decresed. This finding suggests tht the increse in older trithletes prticiption in Ironmn Switzerlnd my e linked to the demogrphic chnges in generl popultion. Interestingly, the reltive proportion of dults older thn 40 yers represented 52.5% of the Swiss popultion in 2010 (http://www.fs.dmin.ch), wht is close to their recent reltive Ironmn prticiption rte. However, the proportion of older mster thletes incresed more thn the proportion of those ge groups in the generl Swiss popultion, suggesting tht older people hve chnged their wreness nd lifestyle during these lst two decdes. Indeed, the etter considertion y older people of the positive effects of physicl ctivity upon helth with dvncing ge, i.e., etter 5
Stiefel et l. Swiss popultion (%) 25 20 60-64 15 55-59 40-44 10 45-49 18-24 5 50-54 0 - -75-50 -25-5 0 25 50 75 125 150 175 Ironmn Switzerlnd finishers (%) 25-29 -10-15 -20 35-39 30-34 -25 r ² = 0.53, P = 0.026 Fig. 5. Reltion etween the chnges in percentge of mle Ironmn Switzerlnd finishers nd the chnges in percentge of the Swiss generl popultion per ge group (18 24 yers, 25 29 yers, 30 34 yers, 35 39 yers, 40 44 yers, 45 49 yers, 50 54 yers, 55 59 yers, nd 60 64 yers) etween the two periods 1995 1998 nd 2007 2010. Dt of the Swiss generl popultion were otined from http://www.sttistik.dmin.ch geing, might e the primry reson for this high prticiption rte (Lee & Tnk, 1997). The high prticiption rte of mle mster Ironmn trithletes my lso e due to gret prt of thletes who hve strted lter in their life with trithlon. The Ironmn trithlon is young in the field of ultr-endurnce event with the first Ironmn Hwii trithlon in tking plce in 1978 (Lepers, 2008). A study on Ironmn Lnzrote in Spin found tht Ironmn competitors hd on verge 6 yers of experience in trithlon, nd they cme from vriety of sporting ckgrounds with most from running ckground, i.e., 28%, followed y swimming nd cycling with 14% nd 13%, respectively (Gulin & Gffney, 1999). The ide of short trining histories is confirmed y n investigtion on mrthoners showing tht the mjority of mster thletes hve trining histories of less thn 7 yers of running (Leyk et l., 2009). Mster thletes were responsile for the considerle increse in totl mle finishers. We could expect tht the prticiption rte of mster trithletes will still increse in the future nd will soon e greter thn the prticiption rte of younger trithletes. Age-relted chnges in performnces The highest Ironmn trithlon performnce level of trithletes ged etween 25 nd 39 yers nd the lesser ge-relted decline in cycling performnce compred with running nd swimming performnces in trithlon re in ccordnce with previous studies (Bernrd et l., 2010; Lepers et l., 2010, 2012; Lepers & Mffiuletti, 2011). Physiologicl (e.g., concentric muscle contrctions) nd mechnicl (e.g., reltion etween mechnicl power output nd velocity, non-weight-ering spect) specificities of cycling compred with the two other disciplines my explin the lower ge-relted decline in cycling performnce (Bernrd et l., 2010; Lepers et l., 2010). Reductions in mximl oxygen uptke (VO 2mx ) re long with the decrese in lctte threshold, the loss of muscle mss, nd the increse in percent ody ft primry resons for the decline in functionl endurnce with ge (Pollock et l., 1997; Hwkins et l., 2001; Reurn & Dscome, 2008; Tnk & Sels, 2008; Korhonen et l., 2009; Rnsdell et l., 2009). The potentil slowing of some of the geing processes through thletic trining is known since the 1960s (Jokl et l., 2004). Physiologicl chrcteristics such s eroic cpcity (e.g., VO 2mx ) nd muscle strength decline t similr rte with incresing ge in mster thletes nd helthy controls (Rogers et l., 1990; Pollock et l., 1997; Person et l., 2002; Michelis et l., 2008). However, the higher seline levels in trined thletes represent n pprent ge dvntge of severl yers compred with ge-mtched sedentry dults (Person et l., 2002; Pimentel et l., 2003; Tnk & Sels, 2003, 2008; Michelis et l., 2008). Endurnce-trined dults hve impressive higher levels of VO 2mx compred to their sedentry counterprts, i.e., ~50 ml/kg/min vs ~33 ml/kg/min t the ge of ~60 yers (Rogers et l., 1990; Pollock et l., 1997; Hwkins et l., 2001; Pimentel et l., 2003). The numer of muscle fiers nd motor units decreses fter the ge of 50 yers, with greter loss from the fst-contrcting type II muscle fiers (Fulkner et l., 2008; Korhonen et l., 2009). Lifelong 6
Mster trithletes improved their performnce physicl ctivity does not pper to hve n impct on the loss in fier numer, ut the loss of fiers cn e uffered to some degree y hypertrophy of fiers tht remin. Especilly, older thletes who do weight trining seem to etter mintin their muscle mss (Pollock et l., 1997). Body ft is ~10% higher in sedentry compred to endurnce trined dults nd it increses over lifespn, in trined from ~10% to ~20%, while in untrined from ~20% to ~30% (Pollock et l., 1997; Pimentel et l., 2003). Chnges in performnce of mster trithletes According to our hypothesis, the mster trithletes improved their performnce cross the 16-yer study period. The economic development, with mjor technologicl, nutritionl, nd medicl dvnces, offered constnt elevtion of life resources in developed countries (Berthelot et l., 2008). This implied for thletes n improvement of trining fcilities, coching, trining techniques, nutritionl strtegies, nd equipment. Becuse of sociologicl chnges, older thletes ttined more nd more ccess to these improved trining possiilities (Rnsdell et l., 2009). Recent mster thletes re likely to hve hd longer nd etter ccess to these improved trining possiilities thn mster thletes in erlier yers. Wright nd Perricelli (2008) found in demogrphic survey of ~2600 prticipnts in the Ntionl Senior Olympic Gmes, tht most of the prticipnts were middle clss nd well educted. Approximtely 80% hd grduted from college studies nd 32% held postgrdute degrees. They concluded tht the Senior Olympic Gmes prticipnts my reflect the helth enefits of their socioeconomic sttus. Performnce improvements lso hppened ecuse of the considerle increse of mster Ironmn trithletes prticiption. It is ovious tht the higher prticiption rte increses the possiility of hving etter thletes. More successful thletes retin higher intrinsic motivtion to trin nd re more likely to compete in endurnce events (Medic et l., 2007). Accordingly, the etter condition of older thletes is likely to increse the competitive spirit, the prticiption, nd the performnce (Medic et l., 2007; Rnsdell et l., 2009). The dvncement of trining qulity is in ll proility reson for these performnce trends. The performnce improvements of mster trithletes in such n ultrendurnce discipline re mzing. Erlier investigtions suggested tht the performnce decline with dvncing ge ws ecuse of decresed trining volumes nd intensity. The reduced trining ws result of sociologicl fctors like incresed work nd fmily commitments, ehviorl fctors such s less intrinsic drive to trin hrd, nd physiologicl fctors like longer time needed to recover nd higher risk for injuries (Reurn & Dscome, 2008; Tnk & Sels, 2008; Korhonen et l., 2009; Rnsdell et l., 2009). Trining for n Ironmn trithlon is very demnding (O Toole, 1989; Gulin & Gffney, 1999; Knechtle et l., 2011c). It hs een shown tht recretionl Ironmn Switzerlnd prticipnts spend every week lmost 14 h trining; e.g., 2.4 h for swimming, 6.7 h for cycling, nd 4.7 h for running (Knechtle et l., 2011c). For comprison, hlf mrthoners spend 4 h (Knechtle et l., 2010) nd -km ultr-runners spend 7 h per week running (Knechtle et l., 2011). It is ovious tht to plce in the top 10 of n ge group ctegory, oth lrge trining volume nd high trining intensity re required (Gulin & Gffney, 1999; Knechtle et l., 2011, 2011c). However, it hs een suggested tht mster thletes could optimize their qulity of trining, so they could reduce their trining volume to sve time for dequte recovery nd sty free of injuries (Rnsdell et l., 2009). It hs een shown tht sport disciplines presented their highest progression curvture during their erly phse (Desgorces et l., 2008). Although Ironmn trithlon is young ultr-endurnce event, elite Ironmn trithletes seem to hve reched their performnce limits (Desgorces et l., 2008; Lepers, 2008) s it is oserved in more trditionl sports like mrthon (Jokl et l., 2004; Lepers & Cttgni, 2011). This rpid evolution of performnce in Ironmn trithlon my e sed on the rpidly growing populrity of the event nd enefits from the dvnces previously mde in the three sports involved in trithlon (Desgorces et l., 2008). In ddition, the fct tht some elite swimmers, cyclists, nd runners my strt Ironmn trithlon competitions lter in their life, hs nd could help to increse the level of performnce in mster thletes. Unfortuntely, we hve no informtion out the sportive ckground of these successful mster trithletes. Even if recretionl mster thletes hd reltively short trining histories nd little experience in trithlon (Gulin & Gffney, 1999; Leyk et l., 2009), these successful thletes proly hve lifelong histories of physicl ctivity (Wright & Perricelli, 2008). Methodologicl considertions We re wre of some unvoidle limittions of our study. First, femles were not ccounted ecuse of their lower prticiption rte. Previous studies on the gerelted decline in performnce concluded greter decline in femles thn in mles, ut it ws confounded y the reltive smller numer of femle vs mles especilly in the older ge groups (Tnk & Sels, 2003, 2008; Rnsdell et l., 2009; Lepers & Mffiuletti, 2011). Second, there ws no informtion out the individul fctors, like physiologicl (e.g., eroic cpcity) nd nthropometric (e.g., ody weight, len ody mss) prmeters, trining regimes, nd competition experience. Third, the influence of environmentl conditions such s wether conditions nd chnges in sport equipment ws unknown. Fourth, estimting the chnge in 7
Stiefel et l. percent of dropout in the different ge groups cross the yers would hve een interesting ut unfortuntely in the present study, we did not hve the exct numer of strters. Despite these limittions, the gret numer of mle trithletes considered in the present study my give new insight on the ge-relted decline in ultr-endurnce performnce. Perspectives The prticiption of mle mster Ironmn trithletes in Ironmn Switzerlnd incresed over the 1995 2010 period, nd it will proly still grow in future. The improvement of mster trithletes performnce suggests tht these thletes my not rech their limits in Ironmn trithlon performnce. It would e interesting to nlyze the chnges in ge-relted decline in performnce t the World Ironmn trithlon chmpionship tking plce ech yer in Hwii during the lst three decdes nd to compre with the present results oserved on qulifying event. Further studies investigting trining regimes, competition experience, or socio-demogrphic fctors re needed to gin etter insights into the phenomenon of the reltive improvement in ultr-endurnce performnce with dvncing ge. Key words: geing, ge-relted decline, sport, endurnce performnce. Acknowledgements We thnk Mrk Klenthous, London, Englnd, for his help in trnsltion. References Armptzis A, Degens H, Bltzopoulos V, Rittweger J. Why do older sprinters rech the finish line lter? Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2011: 39: 18 22. Bernrd T, Sultn F, Lepers R, Husswirth C, Brisswlter J. Age-relted decline in Olympic trithlon performnce: effect of locomotion mode. Exp Aging Res 2010: 36: 64 78. Berthelot G, Thiult V, Tfflet M, Escolno S, El Helou N, Jouven X, Hermine O, Toussint JF. The citius end: world records progression nnounces the completion of rief ultr-physiologicl quest. PLoS ONE 2008: 6: e1552. Desgorces FD, Berthelot G, El Helou N, Thiult V, Guillume M, Tfflet M, Hermine O, Toussint JF. From Oxford to Hwii ecophysiologicl rriers limit humn progression in ten sport monuments. PLoS ONE 2008: 3: e3653. Fulkner JA, Dvis CS, Mendis CL, Brooks SV. The ging of elite mle thletes: ge-relted chnges in performnce nd skeletl muscle structure nd function. Clin J Sport Med 2008: 18: 501 507. Gulin JP, Gffney PT. Ultrendurnce trithlon prticiption: typicl rce preprtion of lower level trithletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1999: 39: 12 15. Hwkins SA, Mrcell TJ, Victori Jque S, Wiswell RA. A longitudinl ssessment of chnge in VO 2mx nd mximl hert rte in mster thletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001: 33: 1744 1750. Hoffmn MD. Performnce trends in 161-km ultrmrthons. Int J Sports Med 2010: 31: 31 37. 8 Hoffmn MD, Ong JC, Wng G. Historicl nlysis of prticiption in 161 km ultrmrthons in North Americ. Int J Hist Sport 2010: 27: 1877 1891. Jokl P, Sethi PM, Cooper AJ. Mster s performnce in the New York City Mrthon 1983 1999. Br J Sports Med 2004: 38: 408 412. Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Lepers R. Prticiption nd performnce trends in ultr-trithlons from 1985 to 2009. Scnd J Med Sci Sports 2011: 21: e82 e90. Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemnn T, Senn O. Sex differences in ssocition of rce performnce, skin-fold thicknesses, nd trining vriles for recretionl hlf-mrthon runners. Percept Mot Skills 2010: 111: 653 668. Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemnn T, Senn O. Wht is ssocited with rce performnce in mle -km ultr-mrthoners nthropometry, trining or mrthon est time? J Sports Sci 2011: 29: 571 577. Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rüst CA, Rosemnn T. A comprison of nthropometric nd trining chrcteristics of Ironmn trithletes nd Triple Iron ultr-trithletes. J Sports Sci 2011c: 29: 1373 1380. Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Rosemnn T, Lepers R. Age-relted chnges in -km ultr-mrthon running performnce. Age (Dordr) 2011d: doi: 10.7/s11357-011-9290-9 Korhonen MT, Mero AA, Alén M, Sipilä S, Häkkinen K, Liikvinio T, Viitslo JT, Hverinen MT, Suominen H. Biomechnicl nd skeletl muscle determinnts of mximum running speed with ging. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2009: 41: 844 856. Lee MS, Tnk K. Significnce of helth fitness pprisl in n ging society. Appl Humn Sci 1997: 16: 123 131. Lepers R. Anlysis of Hwii Ironmn performnces in elite trithletes from 1981 to 2007. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008: 40: 1828 1834. Lepers R, Cttgni T. Do older thletes rech limits in their performnce during mrthon running? Age (Dordr) 2011: doi: 10.7/s11357-011-9271-z Lepers R, Mffiuletti N. Age nd gender interctions in ultr-endurnce performnce: insight from trithlon. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011: 43: 134 139. Lepers R, Rüst CA, Stpley P, Knechtle B. Reltive improvements in endurnce performnce with ge: evidence from 25 yers of Hwii Ironmn rcing. Age (Dordr), 2012: 34(3): 773 781. Lepers R, Sultn F, Bernrd T, Husswirth C, Brisswlter J. Age-relted chnges in trithlon performnces. Int J Sports Med 2010: 31: 251 256. Leyk D, Erley O, Gorges W, Ridder D, Rüther T, Wunderlich M, Sievert A, Essfeld D, Piekrski C, Erren T. Performnce, trining nd lifestyle prmeters of mrthon runners ged 20-80 yers: results of the PACE-study. Int J Sports Med 2009: 30: 360 365. Leyk D, Erley O, Ridder D, Leurs M, Rüther T, Wunderlich M, Sievert A, Bum K, Essfeld D. Age-relted chnges in mrthon nd hlf-mrthon performnces. Int J Sports Med 2007: 28: 513 517.
Mster trithletes improved their performnce Medic N, Strkes JL, Young BW. Exmining reltive ge effects on performnce chievement nd prticiption rtes in msters thletes. J Sports Sci 2007: 25: 1377 1384. Michelis I, Kwiet A, Gst U, Boshof A, Antvorskov T, Jung T, Rittweger J, Felsenerg D. Decline of specific pek jumping power with ge in mster runners. J Musculoskelet Neuronl Interct 2008: 8: 64 70. O Toole ML. Trining for ultrendurnce trithlons. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989: 21: 209 213. Person SJ, Young A, Mcluso A, Devito G, Nimmo MA, Coold M, Hrridge SD. Muscle function in elite mster weightlifters. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002: 34: 1199 1206. Pimentel AE, Gentile CL, Tnk H, Sels DR, Gtes PE. Greter rte of decline in mximl eroic cpcity with ge in endurnce-trined thn in sedentry men. J Appl Physiol 2003: 94: 2406 2413. Pollock ML, Mengelkoch LJ, Grves JE, Lowenthl DT, Limcher MC, Foster C, Wilmore JH. Twenty-yer follow-up of eroic power nd ody composition of older trck thletes. J Appl Physiol 1997: 82: 1508 1516. Rnsdell LB, Vener J, Huerty J. Mster thletes: n nlysis of running, swimming nd cycling performnce y ge nd gender. J Exerc Sci Fit 2009: 7: 61 73. Reurn P, Dscome B. Endurnce performnce in msters thletes. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act 2008: 5: 31 42. Rogers MA, Hgerg JM, Mrtin WH 3rd, Ehsni AA, Holloszy JO. Decline in VO 2mx with ging in mster thletes nd sedentry men. J Appl Physiol 1990: 68: 2195 2199. Snchis-Gomr F, Olso-Gonzlez G, Corell D, Gomez-Crer MC, Vin J. Incresed verge longevity mong the Tour de Frnce cyclists. Int J Sports Med 2011: 32: 644 647. Svidn A, Junker C, Cerny T, Ess S. Premture deths in Switzerlnd from 1995 2006: cuses nd trends. Swiss Med Wkly 2010: 24 (140): w13077. Tnk H, Sels DR. Invited review: dynmic exercise performnce in msters thletes: insight into the effects of primry humn ging on physiologicl functionl cpcity. J Appl Physiol 2003: 95: 2152 2162. Tnk H, Sels DR. Endurnce exercise performnce in msters thletes: ge-ssocited chnges nd underlying physiologicl mechnisms. J Physiol 2008: 586: 55 63. Trppe S. Mrthon runners: how do they ge? Sports Med 2007: 37: 302 305. Willims PT. Lower prevlence of hypertension, hypercholesterolemi, nd dietes in mrthoners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2009: 41: 523 529. Wright VJ, Perricelli BC. Age-relted rtes of decline in performnce mong elite senior thletes. Am J Sports Med 2008: 36: 443 450. 9