Chad Ballee ESS 303 Teaching Gymnastics and Rhythmic Activities March 15, 2011 Gymnastic s Grades K-3
Introductory Activities 1) Countdown (Pangrazi, Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children, 2004, p. 22) a) Standing with arms stretched overhead, the students count down from 10 to 1 gradually moving lower into a crouch position as they get to 1. Once they finish counting, the teacher says Blast off and the students perform a locomotor movement around the gym until I say stop. You can do this many times with different locomotor skills. 2) Magic Number Challenges (Pangrazi, Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children, 2004, p. 30) a) Students put together a series of movements based on the magic numbers given. Hold up three cards with a number on each card. Students respond to the card by performing locomotor movements around the gym the specific number of times. 3) Popcorn (Pangrazi, Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children, 2004, p. 41) a) Students pair up with one person on the floor in push-up position and the other standing ready to move. On signal, the standing students move over and under the people on the floor. The person on the floor changes from a raised to a lowered push-up position each time the partner goes over or under them. On a teacher s signal, reverse positions. \ 4) New Leader Warm-Up (Pangrazi, Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children, 2004, p. 71) a) Place students in small groups of about 3 or 4 students. Groups move single file around the gym, following a leader in the group. On signal, the last person in line moves to the front of the line and becomes the leader. Leaders can use different locomotor skills and movements to vary the activity or challenge their followers. 5) One Move After (Bennett & Riemer, 1995, pp. 42-43) a) The teacher or a student repeats a locomotor movement or dance several times, and then stops. The group begins performing this movement. The leader starts a second movement. When the leader begins a third movement, the group switches to the second movement. Your students are always doing the move after the teacher or head student has completed it. 6) Talking Drum (Bennett & Riemer, 1995, p. 44)
a) Students follow the talking drum, which is the teacher beating on a drum saying which locomotor skill or movement to do. Students should change their movements according to the speed and intensity of the beats. You can suggest movement changes in directions, levels, pathways, body parts, and so on. 7) Rhythms Circuit (Bennett & Riemer, 1995, p. 55) a) Instruct students to go to the activity area of their choice and start walking, jogging, or performing dance steps. On my cue, students go to any station and do the rhythmic movement listed on the task card at the station. Do this in a 30 second to 1 minute rotations. Students switch to the next task card in a clockwise direction. 8) Crossing the River (Pangrazi, 1998, p. 35) a) Two lines about 40 feet apart designate a river. Each time the students cross the river they must perform a different movement or locomotor skill. Stress the quality of the movement, not the speed or amount of times you cross the river. 9) Secret s (Pangrazi, 1998, p. 61) a) Many different movements and/or combinations of movements are written on large flash cards. Without looking, the teacher or a student selects a card and directs the class to show me the secret movement. The students select a movement and perform it until they are signaled to stop. The card is then revealed to the class to see which students, by chance, guessed the secret movement. 10) Locomotor s with Equipment (Pangrazi, 1998, p. 72) a) Each student is given a jump rope and moves around the area using various basic locomotor movements. On signal, they drop the rope, and jump, hop, or leap over as many ropes as possible.
Skills and Progressions Rolls 1. Egg Roll (Malmberg, 2003, p. 30) a. Make yourself small b. Hold your knees tightly c. Rolling does not stop d. Rolling occurs on all body parts e. You don t have to roll in a straight line 2. Seated Roll (Malmberg, 2003, p. 31) a. Rock left and right b. Feel your weight shift from hand to hand c. Rotation is around the lengthwise axis d. Body goes from front support to side support to rear support e. Body stays rigid 3. Log Roll (Malmberg, 2003, p. 32) a. Make yourself look like a long piece of spaghetti b. Body is stretched out c. Roll is easier with rigid body but still works with a loose body d. Lie on the back with arms stretched overhead e. Roll sideways staying stretched out 4. Forward Roll (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 23) a. Stand facing forward, feet apart b. Place hands on the mat shoulder width apart i. Elbows inside of thighs c. Tuck chin to the chest and make a rounded back d. Push-off with hand and feet provides the force of the roll e. Carry the weight on the hands i. Elbows bearing weight of the thighs f. Force of the roll is transferred easily to rounded back 5. Side Roll (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 23) a. Start on hands and knees b. Drop the shoulder c. Tuck the elbow and the knee under d. Roll over completely, returning to hands and knees position
6. Back Roller (Hughes, 2003, p. 27) a. Crouch down with your knees together and hands clasped behind your neck b. Slowly fall backward and rock back and forth 7. Back Curl (Hughes, 2003, p. 27) a. Same as the back roller b. Instead of falling backwards, attempt to whip your legs over to touch your feet on the floor behind you 8. Backward Roll, Hands Clasped Position (Hughes, 2003, p. 27) a. Hands clasped behind neck, elbows out b. From a crouched position, quickly fall backward c. Whip your legs over to touch your feet to the floor d. Take as much weight on the forearms as possible Animal s 9. Walrus Walk (Hughes, 2003, p. 26) a. Start in push-up position b. Move down the mat as if your legs were limp c. Walk only with your hands and dragging your feet behind you 10. Alligator Crawl (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 22) a. Lie facedown on the floor with elbows bent b. Move along floor in alligator fashion i. Keep hands close to body and feet pointed out c. Use lateral movements first (right arm and leg move together), then move to cross lateral movements 11. Kangaroo Jump (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 22) a. Carry arms close to chest with palms facing forward b. Place a ball between your knees c. Move in different directions by taking small jumps without dropping the ball 12. Puppy Dog Run (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 22) a. Place hands on floor, bending arms and legs slightly b. Walk and run like a happy puppy i. Look straight ahead c. Keeping the head up in good position strengthens the neck
13. Bear Walk (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 41) a. Bend forward and touch the ground with both hands b. Travel forward slowly by moving the hand and foot on the same side together i. Right hand with right leg 14. Gorilla Walk (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 41) a. Bend the knees and carry the trunk forward b. Let the arms hang at your side c. Touch the fingers to the ground while walking 15. Elephant Walk (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 41) a. Bend well forward, clasping hands together to form a trunk b. End of the trunk swings close to the ground c. Walk in a slow, deliberate, dignified manner i. Keep legs straight and swing trunk from side to side Balancing Stunts 16. Stork Stand (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 42) a. Start in a standing position b. Shift all of the weight to one foot c. Place the other foot so that the sole is against the inside of the knee and thigh on the standing leg 17. Air Plane Balance (Hughes, 2003, p. 25) a. Arms out b. Lean over with one leg back i. Side, front, other side are also variations 18. No-Hands Sit-Stand (Hughes, 2003, p. 25) a. Stand with feet shoulder width apart and arms out front b. Sit down and then stand up without crossing legs, placing hands on the floor or kneeling 19. Double Knee Balance (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 23) a. Kneel on both knees, feet pointed to rear b. Lift feet from ground and balance on the knees
20. Head Touch (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 23) a. Kneel on both knees b. Feet pointed backwards and arms outstretched backwards for balance c. Lean forward slowly and touch the forehead to the mat d. Raise back to starting position 21. Pogo Stick (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 76) a. Pretend to be on a pogo stick b. Keep body stiff and jump on toes c. Hold hands in front like grasping stick 22. Corkscrew Stand (Hughes, 2003, p. 26) a. Stand with feet shoulder width apart b. Pivot and rotate on the balls of your feet a half-turn, crossing your legs and lowering yourself to the floor c. Now stand up the same way Individual Stunts 23. Tightrope Walk a. Select a line, board, or chalked line on the floor as the high wire b. Pretend to be on the high wire doing varying tasks c. Exaggerate loss of control and balance 24. Pumping Up the Balloon (Pangrazi, 2004, p. 42) a. One child, the pumper, is in the front of the other children, who are the balloons b. Pumper pretends to use a bicycle pump to inflate the balloons c. The balloons get larger and larger until the pumper shouts Bang d. Balloons collapse to the floor 25. 180 to 360 (Hughes, 2003, p. 27) a. Try to jump high while twisting your body halfway around b. Land back on your feet, facing the direction opposite of where you started c. Try it again, and see if you can get all the way around 26. Finger Touch (Hughes, 2003, p. 25) a. Stand with feet shoulder width apart b. One hand behind you with your pointer finger pointed down i. Reach around and grab your wrist
c. Try and squat down and touch the floor with your pointer finger 27. Thread the Needle (Hughes, 2003, p. 25) a. Standing, interlock your fingers in front of you b. Try to step through your clasped hands with one leg c. Next step through with the other leg while maintaining your balance d. Your arms should now be behind you Partner Stunts 28. Leapfrog (Hughes, 2003, p. 28) a. Partner A crouches on knees, head down, with arms over their head for protection b. Partner B jumps over their partner c. Partner B then goes into the position of Partner A 29. Archway (Hughes, 2003, p. 28) a. Partners lie down with their heads touching in a straight line b. Children perform a shoulder rest c. Attempt to get their feet to touch to form an archway 30. Double Stand: Face to Face (Hughes, 2003, p. 28) a. Partners sit facing each other with knees bent and toes touching each other s b. Grab partner s hands and pull backwards c. Pull backward to bring themselves to a standing position
Unit Plan Content Standards Worksheet Title: Gymnastic s Author: Chad Ballee Physical Education Standards Psychomotor Standard Standard K.1: Motor Skills and Patterns: Students demonstrate competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities. Cognitive Standard: Standard K.2 Concepts: Students demonstrate an understanding of movement concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities Affective Standard Standard K.5 Responsible Personal and Social Behavior: Students exhibit responsible personal and Physical Education Performance Indicators - K.1.1. Student will perform a roll with different variations in the shape and direction, performing the task correctly 2 out of 3 times. - K.1.4. Student will demonstrate the ability to perform a movement with a rhythm to a steady beat 3 out of every 5 beats. - K.2.1. Student will be able to understand performance cues while performing rolls to their best potential on a quiz with 70% proficiency. - K.2.3. Student will identify different ways to keep their balance during the different balancing stunts 2 out of 4 times - K.5.1. Student will stay in the area that they are given to perform rolls, stunts, and balancing activities without running around the room during the whole class period. - Student will perform partner tasks with the partner assigned to them with no displeasure all the time.
social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings. Math Standards Geometry Standard K.4. Students identify common objects around them and describe their geometric features and position Dance Standards Learning Dance Skills and the Creative Process: K.1 Students demonstrate knowledge and skills of dance elements Math Performance Indicators - K.4.1. Student will be able to describe the shape that they are making correctly after performing the skill 2 out of 3 times - K.4.2. Student will compare and group the skills by the shape their body makes on a worksheet with 80% proficiency Dance Performance Indicators - K.1.2. Student will jump to the beat of a drum while performing the pogo stick at a slow tempo 80% of the time - K.1.4. Student will hop and jump during Pumping Up the Balloons and coming down on every beat 3 out of 5 times
1. Backward Roll Scoring Rubric (Alternative ) a. Level 1: Novice The child does not identify one performance cue that they must do in order to perform the skill correctly. b. Level 2: Basic The child identifies at least one performance cue and performs the skill with small proficiency. c. Level 3: Proficient The child identifies at least two performance cues and performs the skill with very little problem. d. Level 4: Distinguished The child identifies at least three of the performance objectives and performs the skill correctly with complete proficiency. 2. Forward Roll Peer (Johnson, 2004) a. Hand Placement + ok b. Flat Hands + ok c. Transfer Weight to Neck + ok d. Legs Together during Roll + ok e. Feet and Legs Together during Landing + ok 3. Balancing Stunts Quiz (Educational Gymnastics/Balancing/Stunts ) a. What was your favorite balance stunt today and why? b. What was important during the partner balance stunts? c. To maintain a balance what were some techniques you used so you wouldn't fall down? 4. Cognitive Knowledge for Balancing Stunts Scoring Rubric (Cognitive Knowledge About PE ) a. 1 Point: i. Student needs assistance from his/her teammates when answering every question. b. 2 Points: i. Student needs some assistance from his/her teammates when answering the questions. c. 3 Points: i. Student needs no assistance from his/her teammates when answering the questions.
5. Journal Entry about Partner Stunts (Pangrazzi, 2010) a. Write about which partner stunts you enjoy and why you believe they are a good activity to do. b. How are you able to help your partner perform the stunt to the group s highest potential?
Section 1: Rolls Written Test 1. Where are your hands when performing a forward roll? a. On your Knees b. Outside your knees c. Inside your Knees 2. What is your starting position for a Side Roll? a. Standing Up b. Hands and Knees c. Laying Flat on the Ground 3. What is your starting position for a Log Roll? a. Hands and Knees b. Standing Up c. Laying Flat on the Ground 4. Which is NOT a performance cue for an Egg Roll? a. Make yourself small b. Body stays rigid c. Rolling does not stop 5. Which pair of rolls has the most similarities? a. Log Roll and Egg Roll b. Egg Roll and Forward Roll c. Back Roller and Back Curl 6. Which roll makes you look like a piece of spaghetti? a. Log Roll b. Tootsie Roll c. Egg Roll Section 2: Individual Stunts 7. Which stunt is most likely to be performed in a circus? a. Tightrope Walk b. Pumping up the Balloons c. 180 o 360 o 8. Threading the Needle involves which body part moving the most? a. Eyes b. Legs c. Ears 9. Pumping up the Balloons involves which of the following? a. A whistle b. A gallop
c. A jump 10. When performing an 180 o Jump, how far do you turn while jumping? a. ½ of a circle b. 1 full circle c. ¼ of a circle Section 3: Balancing Stunts 11. Of the following stunts, which makes your legs look like a number 4? a. Double Knee Balance b. No Hands Sit-Stand c. Stork Stand 12. Which of the following do you jump on a beat? a. Stork Stand b. One Finger Touch c. Pogo Stick 13. Which of the following stunts is referred to something that flies? a. Double Knee Balance b. Air Plane Balance c. Head Touch 14. Which stunt has you on only your two knees? a. Double Knee Balance b. Head Touch c. Pogo Stick 15. Of the following movements, which has you moving in a circular motion? a. No Hands Sit-Stand b. Corkscrew Stand c. Head Touch Section 4: Short Answer 16. Describe the performance cues for the Elephant Walk. 17. Draw a picture of how you would start a Log Roll. 18. List 4 of the Animal s that we learned over this unit.
Written Test Answer Key 1. C 2. B 3. C 4. B 5. C 6. A 7. A 8. B 9. C 10. A 11. C 12. C 13. B 14. A 15. B 16. Bend well forward, clasping hands together to form a trunk. End of the trunk swings close to the ground. Walk in a slow, deliberate, dignified manner. Keep legs straight and swing trunk from side to side. 17. Straight Line 18. Walrus Walk, Alligator Crawl, Elephant Walk, Kangaroo Jump, Puppy Dog Run, Bear Walk, Gorilla Walk
Backward Roll Scoring Rubric (Alternative ) a. Level 1: Novice The child does not identify one performance cue that they must do in order to perform the skill correctly. b. Level 2: Basic The child identifies at least one performance cue and performs the skill with small proficiency. c. Level 3: Proficient The child identifies at least two performance cues and performs the skill with very little problem. d. Level 4: Distinguished The child identifies at least three of the performance objectives and performs the skill correctly with complete proficiency.
Balancing Stunts Quiz (Educational Gymnastics/Balancing/Stunts ) a. What was your favorite balance stunt today and why? ( 3 Points) b. What was important during the partner balance stunts? (2 Points) c. To maintain a balance what were some techniques you used so you wouldn't fall down? (2 Points)
Cognitive Knowledge for Balancing Stunts Scoring Rubric (Cognitive Knowledge About Physical Education) After asking a student a question during the lesson about a balancing stunt, if the student can remember the information accordingly, they receive so many points according to their interaction within the class: a. 1 Point: b. 2 Points: c. 3 Points: Student needs assistance from his/her teammates when answering every question. Student needs some assistance from his/her teammates when answering the questions. Student needs no assistance from his/her teammates when answering the questions.
Forward Roll Peer (Johnson, 2004) Performance Cue Proficient Average Below Proficiency Hand Placement Flat Hands Transfer Weight to Neck Legs Together during Roll Feet and Legs Together during Landing
Journal Entry about Partner Stunts (Pangrazzi, 2010) Write about which partner stunts you enjoy and why you believe they are a good activity to do. How are you able to help your partner perform the stunt to the group s highest potential?
ESS 303 Teaching Gymnastics and Rhythmic Activities UNIT BLOCK PLAN Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Countdown: Standing with arms stretched overhead, the students count down from 10 to 1 gradually moving lower into a crouch position as they get to 1. Once they finish counting, the teacher says Blast off and the students perform a locomotor movement around the gym until I say stop. You can do this many times with different locomotor skills Popcorn: Students pair up with one person on the floor in push-up position and the other standing ready to move. On signal, the standing students move over and under the people on the floor. The person on the floor changes from a raised to a lowered push-up position each time the partner goes over or under them. On a teacher s signal, reverse positions Magic Number Challenges: Students put together a series of movements based on the magic numbers given. Hold up three cards with a number on each card. Students respond to the card by performing locomotor movements around the gym the specific number of times. One Move After: The teacher or a student repeats a locomotor movement or dance several times, and then stops. The group begins performing this movement. The leader starts a second movement. When the leader begins a third movement, the group switches to the second movement. Your students are always doing the move after the teacher or head student has completed it New Leader Warm- Up: Place students in small groups of about 3 or 4 students. Groups move single file around the gym, following a leader in the group. On signal, the last person in line moves to the front of the line and becomes the leader. Leaders can use different locomotor skills and movements to vary the activity or challenge their followers. Rolls: Egg Roll Seated Roll Log Roll Rolls: Forward Roll Side Roll Back Roller Rolls: Back Roller Back Curl Backward Roll Review Day: Rolls Animal s: Walrus Walk Alligator Crawl Kangaroo Jump Journal Entry Forward Roll Peer Backward Roll Scoring Rubric Cognitive Knowledge Journal Entry Rolls on Mats Consecutive Forward Roll Competition Backward Roll Contest Free Session on Performing Rolls Teacher s Zoo: Teacher says an animal, students perform the movement Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Day 10 Talking Drum: Students follow the talking drum, which is the teacher beating on a drum saying which locomotor skill or movement to do. Students should change their Rhythms Circuit: Instruct students to go to the activity area of their choice and start walking, jogging, or performing dance steps. On my cue, students go to any station and do the Crossing the River: Two lines about 40 feet apart designate a river. Each time the students cross the river they must perform a different movement or locomotor skill. Stress the quality of Secret s: Many different movements and/or combinations of movements are written on large flash cards. Without looking, the teacher or a student selects a card and directs Locomotor s with Equipment: Each student is given a jump rope and moves around the area using various basic locomotor movements. On
movements according to the speed and intensity of the beats. You can suggest movement changes in directions, levels, pathways, body parts, and so on rhythmic movement listed on the task card at the station. Do this in a 30 second to 1 minute rotations. Students switch to the next task card in a clockwise direction the movement, not the speed or amount of times you cross the river the class to show me the secret movement. The students select a movement and perform it until they are signaled to stop. The card is then revealed to the class to see which students, by chance, guessed the secret movement signal, they drop the rope, and jump, hop, or leap over as many ropes as possible Animal s: Bear Walk Gorilla Walk Puppy Dog Run Animal s: Walrus Walk Elephant Walk Alligator Crawl Review Day: Animal s Balancing Stunts: Stork Stand Air Plane Balance No-Hands Sit-Stand Balancing Stunts: Pogo Stick Double Knee Balance Head Touch Journal Entry Quiz Cognitive Knowledge Cognitive Knowledge Journal Entry Teacher s Zoo: Teacher says an animal, students perform the movement Teacher s Zoo: Teacher says an animal, students perform the movement Teacher s Zoo: Teacher says an animal, students perform the movement Educational Gymnastics: Performing the Stunts then describing ways to balance Day 11 Day 12 Day 13 Day 14 Day 15 Popcorn: Students pair up with one person on the floor in push-up position and the other standing ready to move. On signal, the standing students move over and under the people on the floor. The person on the floor changes from a raised to a lowered push-up position each time the partner goes over or under them. On a teacher s signal, reverse positions One Move After: The teacher or a student repeats a locomotor movement or dance several times, and then stops. The group begins performing this movement. The leader starts a second movement. When the leader begins a third movement, the group switches to the second movement. Your students are always doing the move after the teacher or head student has completed it Talking Drum: Students follow the talking drum, which is the teacher beating on a drum saying which locomotor skill or movement to do. Students should change their movements according to the speed and intensity of the beats. You can suggest movement changes in directions, levels, pathways, body parts, and so on Crossing the River: Two lines about 40 feet apart designate a river. Each time the students cross the river they must perform a different movement or locomotor skill. Stress the quality of the movement, not the speed or amount of times you cross the river Balancing Stations: Stations that have the students perform the stunt for a amount of time Magic Number Challenges: Students put together a series of movements based on the magic numbers given. Hold up three cards with a number on each card. Students respond to the card by performing locomotor movements around the gym the specific number of times.
Balancing Stunts: Corkscrew Stand Review Balancing Stunts Partner Stunts: Leapfrog Archway Double Stand Individual Stunts: Tightrope Walk Pump Up the Balloon 180 to 360 Individual Stunts: Finger Touch Thread the Needle Review Individual and Partner Stunts Final Review of All s: Individual Stunts Partner Stunts Balancing Stunts Animal s Rolls Quiz over Balancing Stunts Journal Entry Cognitive Knowledge Journal Entry Written Exam Balancing Stations: Stations that have the students perform the stunt for a amount of time Leapfrog Relay Races Phys. Ed. Circus: Each student performs the Tightrope, Pump up the Balloon, and 180 as a show Routine: Students must make a routine of Individual Stunts and perform for the class. Free Day for Gymnastic Activities H:\Gymn & Rhythms\Unit Block Plan Worksheet.doc
Unit Plan Checklists Unit Title Gymnastic s Author Chad Ballee Type of Checklist Performance Indicator Student will perform a roll with different variations in the shape and direction, performing the task correctly. Student will demonstrate the ability to perform a movement with a rhythm to a steady beat Student will identify different ways to keep their balance during the different balancing stunts Observation Checklist Teacher Checklist Scoring Guide Backward Roll Rubric Cognitive Knowledge Cognitive Knowledge Written Test/Worksheet Balance Quiz Presentation Bloom s Taxonomy Checklist Activity Journal Entry about Partner Stunts Balancing Quiz Forward Roll Peer Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Writing Reflections Recall information Giving Examples Importance of Cues Performing Knowing how to Assess Assessing Partner Gardener s Multiple Intelligences Checklist Class Activity Verbal/ Linguistic Inter- Personal Bodily/ Kinesthetic Musical/ Rhythmic Visual/ Spatial Logical/ Mathematical Intra- Personal Rolls on Mats x x x x x Phys Ed Circus x x x x x x Routine x x x x x x x Naturalistic H:\Gymn & Rhythms\Unit Plan Checklists Worksheet.doc
Works Cited Alternative. (n.d.). Retrieved 19 2011, April, from PE Central: http://pecentral.com/lessonideas/viewlesson.asp?id=4571 Bennett, J. P., & Riemer, P. C. (1995). Rhythmic Activities and Dance. Champaign: Human Kinetics. Cognitive Knowledge About PE. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2011, from PE Central: http://www.pecentral.org/lessonideas/viewlesson.asp?id=4574 Educational Gymnastics/Balancing/Stunts. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2011, from PE Central: http://www.pecentral.org/lessonideas/viewlesson.asp?id=6263 Hughes, J. (2003). No Standing Around in My Gym. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Johnson, R. (2004). Peer Evaluation. JOPERD, 304-311. Malmberg, E. (2003). KiDnastics. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Pangrazi, R. P. (1998). Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children (12th ed.). Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon. Pangrazi, R. P. (2004). Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children (14th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. Pangrazzi, R. P. (2010). Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary Student Children. San Francisco: Pearson Education, INC.