Plains Indians LET NATURE BE YOUR GUIDE BROKEN TREATIES BROKEN HEARTS WHERE HAVE ALL THE BUFFALO GONE? DANCING WITH GHOSTS IN PARTNERSHIP WITH
2 Native American Regions 1700s l MORE THAN 30 nations, sometimes called tribes, lived on the Great Plains. This map shows where some of the larger nations lived in the 1700s. Their names sometimes reflect what they called themselves. More often, they got their names from others. Assiniboin comes from an Ojibwa word meaning he cooks using stones. The Dakota Sioux called the Assiniboin rebels. The French called them stone warriors. Where the Buffalo Roamed Imagine a time before cities, railroads, highways, and automobiles. Once upon a time, the vast grasslands of America s Great Plains rolled on for thousands of miles with nothing to disturb them but the hooves of buffalo, deer, antelope, and elk. Thousands of years ago, small bands of hunters walked onto the Great Plains. Over time, their numbers grew. Different groups developed into different nations with different languages. Yet they still walked the plains, hunting with bows and arrows and spears and living in tepees. They honored the spirits who guided and protected them. They raised their children to do the same. These are the Plains Indians. In time, the Plains Indians settled into one of two ways of life. They were either nomadic or sedentary. Nomadic groups moved their camps to follow herds of buffalo. Sedentary groups settled down in villages, especially on the northeastern fringes of the plains. They learned farming from their eastern neighbors. But they made short trips to hunt buffalo too. These enormous, shaggy grass-eaters provided the Plains Indians with everything they needed to live.
u THE GREAT PLAINS area was formed millions of years ago, as huge glaciers large, slow-moving sheets of ice passed over the land during the Ice Age. On the eastern border of the plains are woodlands, rivers, and rolling hills. The flat central area has few trees or lakes. Before the 19th century, grasslands covered the Great Plains. To the east were areas of long grasses, called prairies. Short grasses grew on the central plains. By the early 1800s, farmers had built homesteads and plowed the grass under to create fields. As a result, the vast grasslands began to disappear. u WEATHER ON THE Great Plains was harsh. Summers were hot and dry, with strong winds and some thunderstorms and tornadoes. Winters were freezing, with hailstorms and blizzards. d ALTHOUGH LANguage and social customs united a nation, people usually traveled in smaller groups, called bands. Members of some nations also belonged to clans, groups that had a common ancestor. People in the same band didn t always belong to the same clan. Some nations had many clans. Others had only a few. 3 u THERE ARE NO more huge buffalo herds. But descendants of the Plains Indians still live in areas of the United States and Canada where the buffalo once roamed. These Arapaho women (above) live in Wyoming. What is the difference between a buffalo and a bison?
4 History of the Plains Indians Until Europeans arrived in the Americas with horses, Plains Indians hunted buffalo on foot. They used dogs to carry belongings. Some Plains Indians call the time before Europeans the Dog Days. In the 1500s and 1600s, Spanish soldiers and settlers brought horses to the Southwest. Over the next few hundred years, some horses became wild, multiplied, and spread throughout the Great Plains. By the late 1600s, Plains Indians were taming these wild horses. They used them to hunt buffalo, or they traded them. By making it easier for Plains Indians to get food, the horse created a better life for them. Some call this time the Plains peoples golden age. l AROUND 900 CE, certain Plains peoples, influenced by their eastern woodland neighbors, began to develop a more settled way of life. They created farming villages along streams, everywhere from the present-day Dakotas to Texas. After 950 CE, corn and beans became crops, brought in from the East or the Southwest. They became an important part of the food supply. The village women did the farming. Men hunted buffalo a few times a year. The sedentary people also traded their farm products to nomadic Plains people for meat. u THE FIRST PEOPLE arrived on the Great Plains about 12,000 years ago. Scientists today call these early people Paleo- Indians. Not much is known about them. We do know that they hunted mammoths, relatives of elephants (above). They also hunted other game, including a species of small horse, which later became extinct. Remains of mammoth bones and spear tips from about 11,000 years ago have been found on the southern and western plains. r PLAINS INDIANS attached wooden poles to a dog s harness. This made it possible for the dog to carry their possessions. When French explorers first saw this kind of carrier, they called it a travois (truh-vwah). The name came from the French word for work. A strong dog could pull 40 pounds about five to six miles a day. Later, they used horses to carry items. A horse pulling a travois could travel twice as far in a day as a dog, lugging up to 200 pounds.
5 SOON AFTER THEY started riding horses, Plains Indians became skilled riders and trainers. The best could shoot an arrow while clinging to the side of a horse, using the horse as a shield. They could pick up a fallen warrior from the ground while riding at a gallop. d DIFFERENT PLAINS nations spoke different languages. They developed a common sign language all could use. It allowed different nations to trade with each other, warn of danger, and make peace treaties (formal agreements). They made hundreds of signs with their hands and arms. This sign language was an early version of modern sign language, which is used by people with impaired hearing. r TO COMMUNICATE over long distances, some Plains Indians used smoke signals. The timing of the smoke puffs meant different things. Drums and flashes of sunlight (reflected off shiny objects) were also used to send messages. d PLAINS PEOPLES did not have written languages. They kept records of important events by drawing pictures on buffalo hides. Some drew one or two major events a year on a hide. These records were called winter counts. People counted their age by the number of winters that had passed since they were born. The Kiowa developed a system of picture symbols that was like a written language.
6 Hunters and Warriors Men of the Plains nations divided their time between hunting and warfare. Buffalo were their main prey. But they also hunted smaller animals. Warriors fought to score the best hunting grounds and campsites for their band. They also fought to get horses and to defend against attacks on their land. ONCE THEY HAD horses, the Plains Indians began to hunt on horseback. One well-aimed arrow could kill a buffalo weighing close to 2,000 pounds. The chase was dangerous. If a horse stumbled and fell, a stampeding buffalo could stomp its rider to death. Some hunters used spears, which took more strength and courage. In doing so, they deliberately increased the danger. r BEFORE THEY had horses, Plains hunters would crawl through tall grass to get close to a buffalo herd. Then they would shoot a buffalo with a bow and arrow. In winter, there was no tall grass, so hunters might cover themselves in buffalo skins to approach a herd. Wolf skins also worked, because a healthy buffalo didn t fear wolves. Plains hunters, on foot or horseback, sometimes stampeded a herd of buffalo over a cliff. Other hunters waiting at the bottom killed the buffalo that hadn t died from the fall. Another hunting method was to build a V-shaped corral of wood or stones. Hunters would herd stampeding buffalo from the wide end to the narrow end, where they could be killed with less risk to the hunters. u WHEN THE HUNT was over, women skinned and butchered the buffalo where they had died. Then they took the hide and meat back to camp. The man who had killed the buffalo owned the hide, but the meat was divided equally among the rest of the band.
r THE PLAINS PEOples used every part of the buffalo. Hides were made into clothing, moccasins, and tepee walls. Tendons from the neck made thread and bowstrings. The stomach was used as a water container, and the tail became a flyswatter. Bones were 7 carved into knives, spears, and other tools. Horns were used as cups and spoons. Hair was twisted into ropes. Hooves were made into glue, and the fat into soap. Ribs could make a sled frame. Sun-dried buffalo droppings were burned for fuel. d EACH NATION HAD warrior societies. These had their own songs, dances, and dress. Some were divided into age groups. Warrior societies took on such jobs as policing the campsite. u PLAINS INDIANS raided other bands to take horses. Raids were also revenge for a warrior s death. Showing bravery was more important than killing an enemy. Getting close enough to touch or strike an enemy with your hand or a stick was a great show of bravery. This was known as a coup. Plains Indians counted coup to keep track of honors gained in a raid or battle. d WARRIORS DRESSED carefully for battle. A war shirt might show signs of a warrior s coups. In some bands, the way head feathers were cut, painted, and placed had different meanings. Only a great warrior had the right to wear a warbonnet a headdress made of eagle feathers. WOUNDED OR KILLED AN ENEMY KILLED AN ENEMY WOUNDED IN COMBAT WOUNDED SEVERAL TIMES
8 In a Plains Village The two types of Great Plains villages were very different. The nomadic peoples, such as the Blackfeet, Crow, Kiowa, and Comanche, created temporary villages of tepees as they followed the buffalo herds. The farming groups, such as the Mandan, Hidatsa, Pawnee, and Osage, built permanent villages of earth lodges. A few times a year, these sedentary groups went out on the plains to hunt buffalo. Just like the nomadic hunters, they took tepees along and set up temporary camps. u IN BOTH NOMADIC and sedentary groups, the woman who made a tepee owned it. When bands traveled, women put up the tepees and took them down. A tepee could be put up in 15 minutes and taken down in five. All tepee openings faced east, toward the rising sun and away from the winds. Smoke escaped through a hole at the top. Flaps up top could be shut to keep out rain and snow. l NOMADIC HUNTERS feasted on fresh meat after each hunt. They preserved meat for the times between hunts. Cut into strips, buffalo meat was dried in the sun. This turned it into jerky. It lasted a long time without spoiling. Women also made something called pemmican. They would dry buffalo meat, pound it into a paste, and mix in buffalo fat, nuts, and berries. Pemmican was a favorite treat, especially on the trail, and could last for years.
9 u BABIES WERE carried on their mothers backs in cradleboards. u CHILDREN DIDN T go to school. They learned history by listening to elders tell stories. Boys prepared for adult life by having make-believe battles, while girls played with dolls and put up childsize tepees. l IN WARM WEATHER, Plains Indian men might wear only a breechcloth. This was a strip of soft leather or cloth that went between the legs and draped over a belt. Men often wore leggings to protect their legs from cuts and scrapes. l WOMEN AND GIRLS wore dresses of buffalo, deer, or elk hide. Extra leather could be attached to make a cape. Long leather sleeves could be added in cold weather. Leggings or knee-high moccasins kept their legs warm and protected the skin from rough plants. r EARTH LODGES had wood frames covered with grassy earth or sod. Village people grew corn, beans, pumpkins, sunflowers, melons, and squash. Villages were also trading centers. Nomadic hunters brought hides and swapped them for vegetables. l WHEN BANDS OR tribes got together, they competed against one another. They had footraces, archery contests, wrestling matches, and horse races. Boys played hoop and pole games. These prepared them to be hunters and warriors. u WOMEN DECORATed clothing and other things with porcupine quills. They held the quills in their mouths to soften them and used their teeth to flatten them. The quills might be dyed with berry juice. Later, they used glass beads from European traders.
10 People of the Plains NOMADIC NATIONS PLAINS CREE CHEYENNE SIOUX THE NATIVE Americans of the Great Plains were hunters, farmers, and warriors. They dressed according to the job they were performing and the climate they were in. Here are examples of the typical dress of some of the peoples of the Great Plains. ASSINIBOIN CADDO GROS VENTRE MANDAN
11 ARAPAHO CROW PLAINS APACHE COMANCHE KIOWA SEDENTARY NATIONS ARIKARA OMAHA BLACKFEET KANSA HIDATSA PAWNEE OSAGE WICHITA
12 The Spirit World Plains Indians lived close to nature. They saw no separation between the natural world and the supernatural, or spirit, world. They believed that supernatural power filled every part of their lives and that their survival depended on living in harmony with this power. Plains Indians called on the spiritual power often and in many ways. Medicine men and women could use it to heal others. u WHEN SEEKING spiritual guidance, a Plains Indian could go on a vision quest. Let s say it was a man, though women also did it. He would go to an isolated spot and stay there alone. He would fast, pray, and stay awake for a few days. He hoped that a guardian spirit would grant a vision. What was seen in the vision would symbolize the individual s guardian spirit. Animals or natural forces, such as thunder or lightning, were often the messengers who brought the vision. After receiving a vision, the seeker returned to camp. He would visit the shaman (medicine man or woman), who would interpret the vision. A medicine bundle would be prepared with sacred objects relating to the vision. This precious possession represented a person s spiritual life. It had power to protect and heal. A Comanche bundle might contain sweet grass, a deer s tail, small stones, a bird s claw, and beaver oil. Nations also had medicine bundles that were sacred to them. r MOST PLAINS nations believed in a supreme power. The Sioux called this power Wakan-Tanka, or the Great Spirit. Other nations had similar names for this power. The Great Spirit was the source of all medicine, but there were also lesser spirits. The sun, which was seen as the giver of life, was an important spirit. Every morning, the first thing that Plains Indians did was give prayers of thanks to the sun.
13 u CERTAIN MEN AND women received such powerful visions that they became shamans, or medicine people. Some used their special powers, along with herbs and rituals, to cure illness. Others studied with an honored holy person and became spiritual guides and healers. They kept the nation s medicine bundles and conducted ceremonies, or spiritual rituals. If shamans were given gifts, they usually gave them away. Plains Indians measured wealth by what a person shared with others, not by what he or she had. What do you think is the best way for people to measure a person s wealth? r THE SPIRITS blessing was sought for every new project, large or small. There were always celebrations before big events, such as buffalo hunts or battles. These ceremonies included singing, drumming, dancing, and prayers. Before a buffalo hunt, dancers in buffalo masks imitated the animal s movements. Sometimes they danced for days. A dancer doing the Buffalo Bull Dance of the Mandan is shown here (right). u MOST PLAINS nations practiced a yearly ritual called the Sun Dance. It was a time for the whole group to seek the blessing of the spirits. There were differences but also similarities between these rituals. In general, men who had made special vows danced from one to four days and nights, accompanied by singing and drumming. Often the participants performed certain ritual sacrifices, such as fasting or going without drinking water.
14 l IN 1804, President Thomas Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore a huge piece of land the U.S. had purchased from France. Their expedition traveled from near St. Louis to the Pacific Ocean and back. The reports they sent back encouraged settlers to head west. Soon, wagon trains were all over the Great Plains. Here (left), Sacagawea (SAKuh-jah-WEE-uh) guides Lewis and Clark. u EUROPEANS brought diseases such as smallpox, measles, cholera, influenza, chicken pox, and whooping cough. Native Americans had never been exposed to these diseases, so they had no resistance to them. Huge numbers of them died. Before the 1837 smallpox epidemic, there were about 1,600 Mandan. Only about 125 survived. It is estimated that 75 percent of all Plains Indians died from smallpox in one year (1837 1838). Changes on the Plains Almost everything Europeans did created problems for the Plains Indians. As the eastern United States became more populated, settlers pushed west. They fenced in areas where buffalo had roamed freely and Plains peoples had hunted them. Over and over, the United States made and then broke treaties (agreements) with Plains nations. The Plains Indians were pushed onto smaller and smaller pieces of land. In a short time, they lost their homes and their way of life. u IN THE 1860S, the railroad went farther and farther west. Trains interfered with the movement of the buffalo. Trains also brought more settlers. Plains Indians were angry that the railroad tracks crossed their best hunting lands. Most tribal leaders told their warriors to stay away, but some warriors did attack railways. r PLAINS INDIANS usually killed only as many buffalo as they needed. But white trappers began killing hundreds of thousands of buffalo each year to meet the growing demand for buffalo hides. More than 1.5 million hides were packed aboard trains and wagons in the winter of 1872 1873 alone. Settlers even shot buffalo from moving trains, leaving the animals to rot. This was a planned effort to destroy the Plains Indians way of life. Driving them out of the area opened the plains for cattle grazing. Once, there were an estimated 30 to 60 million buffalo. In a very short time they were almost extinct. By the end of the 1880s, only a few hundred wild buffalo remained.
d THE U.S. government set up reservations for Native Americans to live on, as a way to control them. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 established the Great Sioux Reservation. It covered most of present-day South Dakota west of the Missouri River, including the Black Hills, a sacred area the Sioux called Paha Sapa. When gold was found there in the 1870s, fortune seekers flooded the area. The U.S. government ordered all Sioux out of the Black Hills. Below are some members of the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota. d THE PLAINS nations had lost their land and their way of making a living. So they fought many wars with U.S. soldiers between 1854 and 1876. The Sioux and other nations defeated Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer and more than 200 soldiers at the Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876. It was a victory for the Indians. But Custer s Last Stand was the beginning of the end. The government decided to stop Indian wars of resistance. 15 u RESERVATION land was so poor that farming was impossible. Many people starved. Natives on the reservations found comfort in the Ghost Dance. They believed this ritual would rid them of unwanted white settlers, restore the buffalo herds, and bring back long-departed relatives and warriors. r THE FEDERAL government feared the Ghost Dance would lead to war. In 1890, it ordered the arrest of Sioux chief Sitting Bull. This led to a gunfight. Sitting Bull and seven of his warriors were killed. Later that year, more than 300 Sioux gathered on the bank of Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota s Pine Ridge Reservation. While giving up their weapons to U.S. soldiers, one of the Sioux fired a rifle into the air. The soldiers panicked and shot back. Cannons opened fire. Almost 200 Native American men, women, and children were killed. To many, the massacre at Wounded Knee is a symbol of how the U.S. government has failed Native Americans.
16 Plains Indians Today They were forced onto reservations. They were stripped of their way of life and their culture. But the Plains Indians did not die. Today, whether they live on the rez (reservation) or in towns and cities across the United States, the peoples of the plains continue to honor and celebrate their heritage. u IN THE PAST century, U.S. government policy toward Native Americans has changed several times. For many years, the government tried to get American Indians to give up their old ways and fit into the mainstream culture. Their children were sent to boarding schools. There, they were punished for speaking their own languages and practicing their culture. People whose lives had revolved around following the buffalo herds were pushed to take up farming, but were given the worst land to farm. u ALTHOUGH THEY had been treated as second-class citizens, many Plains Indians served the U.S. in wartime. During World War II, Comanche and Navajo soldiers (above) were among the Native American code talkers. They used their languages to send secret messages among different military units. Their languages were unknown to the rest of the world, so the codes were never broken. That gave the U.S. a big advantage. d IN THE 1960S, Native Americans from many nations got together. They formed the American Indian Movement (AIM). They wanted to honor their ancestors and to protest the treaties broken by the federal government. In 1973, about 250 Native Americans took over the village of Wounded Knee, South Dakota. They were protesting injustices on the Sioux reservation at Pine Ridge. Since then, the U.S. government has given Native Americans more power to govern themselves through tribal councils.
17 POWWOWS STARTED in the late 19th century. They were a way for Native Americans to express pride in their culture. Now every year hundreds of powwows are held on reservations all over the country. Powwows are often family reunions. They feature drumming, dancing, food, and elaborate modern versions of traditional dress. l BECAUSE THE best lands were taken away from them, reservation life has been hard for many Plains Indians. There is much unemployment and poverty on some reservations. But some nations have done better, when natural resources were found on their land. For example, the Osage profited from the oil on their Oklahoma reservation. r A GROUP OF Native American painters who studied at the University of Oklahoma in the late 1920s were known as the Kiowa Five. Their art focused on traditional native life. This painting is by Monroe Tsatoke, one of the Kiowa Five. ries of the Kiowa. Virginia Driving Hawk Sneve, the daughter of a Lakota Sioux mother, was born on the Rosebud Sioux Reservation in South Dakota. She has written many books for children. l PLAINS INDIAN writers have told their peoples stories in many ways. N. Scott Momaday is Kiowa-Cherokee. In 1969, he won a Pulitzer Prize for Literature for House Made of Dawn. His book The Way to Rainy Mountain tells stor WHEN BEN Nighthorse Campbell (Northern Cheyenne) was elected to the U.S. Senate, he became the first Native American in more than 60 years to hold that position. He served from 1993 to 2005. As a senator, Campbell thought of himself as a representative not only of the people of Colorado but also of all Native Americans.
18 Activities FIRST-HAND ACCOUNT Suppose you re a young Plains Indian. You just returned from your first buffalo hunt, and you want to remember every detail about it. You also want to tell your younger brothers and sisters about it. Use what you learned in this magazine to create a record of the experience. Describe what you saw and heard during the hunt. Explain how you felt. Was it hard to hold onto your horse while shooting an arrow? Make notes of everything. Make your account of the hunt as complete as you can. PLAINS INDIAN MUSEUM Imagine you re in charge of the exhibits at the Plains Indian Museum, which is scheduled to open in the near future. The purpose of the exhibits is to educate people about the most important aspects of the history and culture of the Plains Indians. Your task is to plan five exhibits that feature different aspects of Plains Indians way of life and culture. Describe or draw each exhibit and make sure your presentation gives all the desired information.
MAKE CONNECTIONS WITH THESE RELATED TITLES 19 Southwest Peoples Scorching heat, vast deserts, and little rainfall make the American Southwest sound unwelcoming to many people. But to the Native Americans who have lived in the area for thousands of years, this is cherished homeland. Learn about the Anasazi, Hohokam, and Mogollon, and their modern-day descendants the Pueblo peoples, the Tohono O odham, and others. Northwest Coast Peoples The northern Pacific coast is a beautiful stretch of land running from what is now northern California up through Oregon, Washington, and Canada. Many Native American groups settled in this region. Their sophisticated culture was marked by their spirituality and incredible craftsmanship. Learn about the daily lives and practices of the Northwest Coast peoples. America 1492 The year 1492 was undoubtedly the most pivotal one in the history of Native Americans. Up until this time, the many Native American nations that spanned the different regions of North America carried on their traditional ways of life. Discover the unique and shared rituals across these groups, in a time before Europeans settlers arrived. CALIFORNIA STANDARDS LEARN MORE ONLINE! Like all Native Americans, the Plains nations had different kinds of government. Many Plains Indians lived in selfgoverning bands. A few had national levels of government that oversaw the various bands. The Mandan people had a different kind of government. Each Mandan village was governed individually. Most selected two men as leaders: one for war, one for peace. The Plains Indian nations tell different creation myths. These are stories about how the world was formed or how their people came to be. The Mandan origin myth says that their people once lived underground in a dark place. One day a vine grew upward and created a hole to the world above. Some of the Mandan people climbed up the vine. HSS 5.1 Students describe the major pre-columbian settlements, including the cliff dwellers and pueblo people of the desert Southwest, the American Indians of the Pacific Northwest, the nomadic nations of the Great Plains, and the woodland peoples east of the Mississippi River. 5.1.1 Describe how geography and climate influenced the way various nations lived and adjusted to the natural environment, including locations of villages, the distinct structures that they built, and how they obtained food, clothing, tools, and utensils. 5.1.2 Describe their varied customs and folklore traditions. 5.1.3 Explain their varied economies and systems of government. Historical and Social Sciences Analysis Skills: Historical Interpretation 2. Students identify the human and physical characteristics of the places they are studying and explain how those features form the unique character of those places.
hmhco.com EDITOR: Jennifer Dixon ART DIRECTION: Hopkins/Baumann, Brobel Design DESIGNERS: Ian Brown, Ed Gabel, David Ricculli, Jeremy Rech PHOTO RESEARCH: Ted Levine, Elisabeth Morgan, Jenna Minchuk ACTIVITIES WRITER: Marjorie Frank GRADE 5 TITLES Regions of North America Eastern Woodland Indians Plains Indians Southwest Peoples Northwest Coast Peoples America 1492 Exploring the Americas Early Settlements 13 Colonies Declaration of Independence American Revolution Revolutionary Women PROOFREADER: Paula Glatzer FACT-CHECKER: Patricia Fogarty AUTHOR: Lois Markham, Amy K. Hughes AUTHOR TEAM LEAD: Amy K. Hughes PRESIDENT AND CEO: Ted Levine CHAIRMAN AND FOUNDER: Mark Levine George Washington Thomas Jefferson Benjamin Franklin The Constitution The New Nation Lewis and Clark Westward Expansion Pioneers Immigration Industrial Revolution in America Civil Rights p.19 top right (map of linguistic stocks). Art Resource: George Catlin: p.6 bottom left (Indian encampment). Bridgeman Art Library: Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, USA: p.5 bottom right (buffalo robe); Albert Bierstadt: pp.6 7 center (hunting buffalo with spear); Severino Baraldi: p.15 bottom right (ghost dancing); Monroe Tsatoke: p.17 center right (Kiowa making medicine). Getty Images: DEA Picture Library: p.4 center left (mammoth); SuperStock: p.5 bottom left (smoke signals); Corbis Historical: p.16 top right (Omaha girls, Carlisle School); Bettmann: p.16 bottom left (Wounded Knee protest); PhotoQuest: p.16 center left (code talkers); Robert Alexander: p.17 bottom right (Ben Nighthorse Campbell). Granger Collection: William Jacob Hays: pp.2 3 bottom (Buffalo herd); DEA /G. Dagliorti: pp.4 5 top center (Great Plains Native Americans); Alfred Jacob Miller: p.6 upper center (buffalo hunt); Paul Kane: pp. 8 9 top (Lake Huron encampment); Karl Bodmer: pp.8 9 bottom center (Blackfoot girl); Jules Tavernier: p.9 top center (Sioux encampment); Granger Collection: p.9 top right (cradleboard), p.14 bottom right (buffalo) Edward S. Curtis: p.9 center (breechcloth); Seth Eastman: p.9 left center (lacrosse); Karl Bodmer: p.9 bottom center (Mandan chief hut); Richard West: p.13 center right (Sun Dance ceremony); Karl Bodmer: p.13 bottom center (Buffalo Bull Society); Edgar S. Paxson: p.14 top left (Lewis & Clark); Sarin Images: p.14 top right (smallpox); istock Images: theasis: pp.2 3 top (winter twilight); Philadelphia Publishers Union 1891: Boyd, James P. (James Penny), 1836 1910 p.15 top right (ghost dancer); Shutterstock: Tim Roberts Photography: p.3 top left (Great Plains); JAMCO Design p.4 top center (corn); Michael Vigliotti: p.6 top left (war bonnet); Gregory Johnston: pp.16 17 center (powwow); University of New Mexico Press: UniAl Nomaday and Mina Yamashita: p.17 bottom left (Rainy Mountain cover). ON THE COVER: Sha-có-pay, The Six, Chief of the Plains Ojibwa, painting by George Catlin. Alamy: The Artchives. PICTURE CREDITS: Alamy: Richard Ellis: p.3 top right (Arapaho women); North Wind Picture Archives: pp.4 5 bottom center (dog travois); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd: p.7 center right (Native American warrior); Lyroky: p.9 center right (moccasins); Pictorial Press Ltd: p.14 center right (Currier & Ives); Everett Collection Historica: p.15 top left (Pine Ridge Reservation); Stocktrek Images, Inc.: p.15 center (Battle of Little Bighorn); Interfoto/Alamy Stock Photo: p.18 top (buffalo hunt); The Print Collector: p.18 bottom (buffalo hunt); Glasshouse Images: p.19 bottom (Mandan chief); Niday Picture Library: ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS: Acme Design: Map of Native American Regions 1700s, p.2. Michael Kline Illustration: Cartoons: cover; So, What Band Are You In?, p.3; Sign Language, p.5; How Fast Was I Going?, p.5; Nomadic Hunters, p.8; Major Indian Reservations, p.17. Wood Ronsaville Harlin, Inc.: Spear, Feathers, p.7; People of the Plains, pp.10 11; Vision Quest, pp.12 13; Spiritual Guide, p.13; Northwest Coast Peoples, p.19 top center; Southwest Peoples, p.19 top left. Copyright by Kids Discover, LLC All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner unless such copying is expressly permitted by federal copyright law. Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be submitted through our Permissions website at https://customercare.hmhco.com/ contactus/permissions.html or mailed to Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, Attn: Intellectual Property Licensing, 9400 Southpark Center Loop, Orlando, Florida 32819-8647. Printed in the U.S.A. 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