SWORDFISH ATLANTIC OCEAN. Xiphias gladius. Sometimes known as Broadbill, Espada, Emperado, Shutome SUMMARY

SWORDFISH ATLANTIC OCEAN Xiphias gladius Sometimes known as Broadbill, Espada, Emperado, Shutome SUMMARY Swordfish are large, migratory fish found in temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. They grow reasonably fast and mature quickly. Two populations of Swordfish occur in the Atlantic Ocean, one being the North Atlantic group and the other the South Atlantic group. The North Atlantic population is considered to be fully rebuilt. The population status of the South Atlantic Swordfish is uncertain but is currently considered to be above the management target of Biomass at Maximum Sustainable Yield. The overall abundance ranking of the Atlantic Swordfish population is medium. There is significant management effort by the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas and member nations to maintain the Atlantic Swordfish population at sustainable levels. Most Swordfish in the Atlantic Ocean are caught using pelagic longlines. Longlines may also catch unwanted or endangered animals like sharks, seabirds and sea turtles, and may negatively impact the abundance of these species. Some Swordfish are also caught using rod and reel, harpoons, and buoy gear which, because these gears are more selective, results in less bycatch. Chef Barton Seaver says, This dense, steak-like seafood is a cooks favorite. The robust but sweet flavor is matched by a meaty texture that is perfect for the grill, roast, or broil. Best cooked medium well. Criterion Points Final Score Color Life History 3.75 2.40-4.00 Abundance 1.75 1.60-2.39 Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts 3.50 0.00-1.59 Management 2.50 Bycatch 1.00 Final Score 2.50 Color

LIFE HISTORY Core Points (only one selection allowed) If a value for intrinsic rate of increase ( r ) is known, assign the score below based on this value. If no r-value is available, assign the score below for the correct age at 50% maturity for females if specified, or for the correct value of growth rate ('k'). If no estimates of r, age at 50% maturity, or k are available, assign the score below based on maximum age. 1.00 Intrinsic rate of increase <0.05; OR age at 50% maturity >10 years; OR growth rate <0.15; OR maximum age >30 years. 2.00 Intrinsic rate of increase = 0.05-0.15; OR age at 50% maturity = 5-10 years; OR a growth rate = 0.16 0.30; OR maximum age = 11-30 years. 3.00 Intrinsic rate of increase >0.16; OR age at 50% maturity = 1-5 years; OR growth rate >0.30; OR maximum age <11 years. There are two populations of Swordfish in the Atlantic Ocean. The most recent intrinsic rate of increase (r) for the North Atlantic population is 0.44 (SCRS 2009). Although this is high it is slightly lower than the intrinsic rate of increase estimated from previous assessments in 2002 and 2006, where r = 0.56 and 0.49 respectively. This suggests that the overall population has been less productive since 2002 (SCRS 2009). Swordfish are difficult to age, but some studies have shown that 50% of females mature at 5 years of age; however recent studies suggest that Swordfish reach sexual maturity even earlier (SCRS 2009). Tagging studies have shown that Swordfish can live up to 15 years (SCRS 2006). Growth rates in the Atlantic Ocean range from k = 0.7 to 0.23 (Fishbase 2010). Because the intrinsic rate of increase is high and sexual maturity is reached in 5 years, a core point of 3 was awarded. Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed) -0.25 Species has special behaviors that make it especially vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., spawning aggregations; site fidelity; segregation by sex; migratory bottlenecks; unusual attraction to gear; etc.). -0.25 Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity >20 years; sequential hermaphrodites; extremely low fecundity). -0.25 Species has a small or restricted range (e.g., endemism; numerous evolutionarily significant units; restricted to one coastline; e.g., American lobster; striped bass; endemic reef fishes).

-0.25 Species exhibits high natural population variability driven by broad-scale environmental change (e.g. El Nino; decadal oscillations). +0.25 Species does not have special behaviors that increase ease or population consequences of capture OR has special behaviors that make it less vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., species is widely dispersed during spawning). Swordfish in the Atlantic Ocean spawn year round near the surface of tropical and subtropical waters (Fishbase 2010). Swordfish are batch spawners as they can release eggs over days or months (Murua and Saborido-Rey, 2003). +0.25 Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially resilient to fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity <1 year; extremely high fecundity). Swordfish have high fecundity (Palko et al. 1981) with egg production dependent on female size. Large females of 600 pounds can produce up to 29 million eggs whereas small females at 370 pounds produce 1-16 million eggs (FishWatch 2010). +0.25 Species is distributed over a very wide range (e.g., throughout an entire hemisphere or ocean basin; e.g., swordfish; tuna; Patagonian toothfish). Swordfish are distributed widely throughout all tropical, subtropical and temperate seas within 45 N - 45 S (Palko et al. 1981). In the western Atlantic, they range from Canada to Argentina; in the eastern Atlantic their range extends from Norway to South Africa. Genetic analyses indicate that there are three biological stock units in the Atlantic: North Atlantic, South Atlantic, and the Mediterranean, although the boundaries between the three groups are not precise indicating that effective management is needed in all areas. The Standing Committee for Research and Statistics (SCRS) of the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) states that biological and genetic studies have shown that Swordfish in the Mediterranean Sea display limited movement to areas in the adjacent North Atlantic (SCRS 2009). +0.25 Species does not exhibit high natural population variability driven by broad-scale environmental change (e.g., El Nino; decadal oscillations). 3.75 Points for Life History

ABUNDANCE Core Points (only one selection allowed) Compared to natural or un-fished level, the species population is: 1.00 Low: Abundance or biomass is <75% of BMSY or similar proxy (e.g., spawning potential ratio). 2.00 Medium: Abundance or biomass is 75-125% of BMSY or similar proxy; OR population is approaching or recovering from an overfished condition; OR adequate information on abundance or biomass is not available. Two populations of Swordfish occur in the Atlantic Ocean, being the North and South Atlantic groups which are separated at 5 N. In 1999 the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) established a ten year rebuilding plan for North Atlantic Swordfish. This plan has proven to be successful and the most recent Swordfish population assessment conducted in 2009 indicated that the population in the North Atlantic Ocean is about 5% above the Biomass at Maximum Sustainable Yield (BMSY) (SCRS 2009; FishWatch 2010). The current state of the South Atlantic Swordfish population is uncertain. Using the catch data reported from the varying fishing fleets produces contradicting results. Fisheries data from Brazil and Spain shows the population to be in a good condition (SCRS 2009). In contrast, data from Uruguay fishing boats indicate a population that is being overfished (SCRS 2009). Despite this level of uncertainty, coupled with a recent history of overfishing, the overall results obtained for estimated fishing mortality (fmsy=0.75) and estimated relative biomass (bmsy=1.04) from the 2009 population assessment indicate that the South Atlantic population on the whole is currently not being overexploited, and that overfishing is not occurring (SCRS 2009). As both populations are recovering from an overfished condition and seem to be at a medium level of abundance a score of 2 was awarded. 3.00 High: Abundance or biomass is >125% of BMSY or similar proxy. Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed) -0.25 The population is declining over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass estimates or standardized CPUE).

-0.25 Age, size or sex distribution is skewed relative to the natural condition (e.g., truncated size/age structure or anomalous sex distribution). In the North Atlantic Ocean most Swordfish caught are 2 and 3 years old (SCRS 2009), which are likely juveniles. A recent study also suggests that the abundance of fish age 3 years and older is increasing, while younger fish are becoming less common (SCRS 2006). Points were subtracted because these studies suggest that the age distribution is skewed. -0.25 Species is listed as "overfished" OR species is listed as "depleted", "endangered", or "threatened" by recognized national or international bodies. -0.25 Current levels of abundance are likely to jeopardize the availability of food for other species or cause substantial change in the structure of the associated food web. +0.25 The population is increasing over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass estimates or standardized CPUE). Following the implementation of the ten year rebuilding plan, recruitment numbers have increased over the past decade and the Swordfish population in the North Atlantic Ocean is considered to be fully rebuilt (SCRS 2009; FishWatch 2010). Even so points were not awarded here as the South Atlantic Swordfish population status is undetermined and is not known to be increasing. +0.25 Age, size or sex distribution is functionally normal. +0.25 Species is close to virgin biomass. +0.25 Current levels of abundance provide adequate food for other predators or are not known to affect the structure of the associated food web. 1.75 Points for Abundance

HABITAT QUALITY AND FISHING GEAR IMPACTS Core Points (only one selection allowed) Select the option that most accurately describes the effect of the fishing method upon the habitat that it affects 1.00 The fishing method causes great damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g., cyanide; blasting; bottom trawling; dredging). 2.00 The fishing method does moderate damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g., bottom gillnets; traps and pots; bottom longlines). 3.00 The fishing method does little damage to physical or biogenic habitats (e.g., hand picking; hand raking; hook and line; pelagic long lines; mid-water trawl or gillnet; purse seines). The vast majority of Swordfish landed from the North and South Atlantic Oceans are caught by pelagic longlines. In 2007, longlines caught 11,499 t of the 12,320 t of total reported landings in the North Atlantic (SCRS 2009). In the South Atlantic 14,958 t of the 15,621 t of total reported landings were taken by longlines (SCRS 2009). Traditional gillnets are used off the coast of West Africa (SCRS 2009) but they catch only a small percentage of the overall landings. Other fishing methods include rod and reel, harpoons and buoy gear (FishWatch 2010). Swordfish are also caught in substantial numbers as bycatch in the tuna longline fisheries (SCRS 2009). Because pelagic longlines, gillnets harpoons, and rod and reel do very little damage to physical habitats (Chuenpagdee et al. 2003), a score of 3 was awarded. Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed) -0.25 Habitat for this species is so compromised from non-fishery impacts that the ability of the habitat to support this species is substantially reduced (e.g., dams; pollution; coastal development). -0.25 Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are not protected by management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc. -0.25 No efforts are being made to minimize damage from existing gear types OR new or modified gear is increasing habitat damage (e.g., fitting trawls with roller rigs or rockhopping gear; more robust gear for deep-sea fisheries). -0.25 If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is very slow (e.g., deep water corals; rocky bottoms).

+0.25 Habitat for this species remains robust and viable and is capable of supporting this species. The pelagic and coastal areas where Swordfish are found are robust and viable. +0.25 Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are protected by management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc. In 2001 the United States implemented several time and area closures within its own Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) to protect habitat areas important for juvenile Swordfish (SCRS 2009). Because this only protects a small area of the Atlantic Ocean, no points were added. +0.25 Gear innovations are being implemented over a majority of the fishing area to minimize damage from gear types OR no innovations necessary because gear effects are minimal. Pelagic longline gear has minimal adverse effects on habitat as it does not come into contact with the sea floor (Fishwatch 2010). +0.25 If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is fast (e.g., mud or sandy bottoms) OR gear effects are minimal. 3.50 Points for Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts

MANAGEMENT Core Points (only one selection allowed) Select the option that most accurately describes the current management of the fisheries of this species. 1.00 Regulations are ineffective (e.g., illegal fishing or overfishing is occurring) OR the fishery is unregulated (i.e., no control rules are in effect). 2.00 Management measures are in place over a major portion over the species' range but implementation has not met conservation goals OR management measures are in place but have not been in place long enough to determine if they are likely to achieve conservation and sustainability goals. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) together with the cooperation of member nations has successfully rebuilt the North Atlantic Swordfish population. Conservation and management measures implemented in 1999 were to aid in reducing the landings of juvenile Swordfish, fish that had not yet spawned. A number of measures were applied. ICCAT set minimum size limitations (that presently apply to the entire Atlantic Ocean) of 125 cm lower jaw-fork length (LJFL) with a 15% tolerance, or 119 cm LJFL with zero tolerance, as well as setting country specific Total Allowable Catch Limits (TACs). Several member nations (e.g. U.S. and Spain) modified their fishing gear to target larger individuals, and countries like the U.S. that have juvenile feeding grounds, implemented time/area closures to protect these fish (SCRS 2009). Fishing pressure was also reduced as some fleets either relocated to other oceans or changed their target species. After ten years the Swordfish rebuilding plan has resulted in an increase in recruitment levels and presently the population is considered to be 5% above the Biomass at Maximum Sustainable Yield (SCRS 2009; Fishwatch 2010;). The South Atlantic Swordfish population is presently thought not to be overfished. Some uncertainty remains as to the status of this population, however presently the ICCAT concludes that there is no cause for concern (SCRS 2009). Scientists recommend a more precautionary fishery management approach. The Total Allowable Catch has been reduced from the previous 17,000 t down to 15,000 t per annum. The ICCAT believes this will maintain the biomass of the population at stable levels over the next decade (SCRS 2009). Catch rates exceeding 15,000 t will most certainly lead to a decrease in biomass. Although there has been significant management effort in the North Atlantic to rebuild this population, neither the northern nor southern population is at a high level of abundance so a score of 2 was awarded. 3.00 Substantial management measures are in place over a large portion of the species range and have demonstrated success in achieving conservation and sustainability goals.

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed) -0.25 There is inadequate scientific monitoring of stock status, catch or fishing effort. -0.25 Management does not explicitly address fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and ecosystems. -0.25 This species is overfished and no recovery plan or an ineffective recovery plan is in place. -0.25 Management has failed to reduce excess capacity in this fishery or implements subsidies that result in excess capacity in this fishery. +0.25 There is adequate scientific monitoring, analysis and interpretation of stock status, catch and fishing effort. Countries that submitted their fisheries data to the ICCAT for analyses represented 78% of the total Atlantic Swordfish landings for recent years. ICCAT noted the good coverage of data reported for the 2009 population assessment report (SCRS 2009) +0.25 Management explicitly and effectively addresses fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and ecosystems. +0.25 This species is overfished and there is a recovery plan (including benchmarks, timetables and methods to evaluate success) in place that is showing signs of success OR recovery plan is not needed. Following the success of the North Atlantic Swordfish recovery plan, the ICCAT is continually adjusting conservation and management measures in order to meet population conservation objectives. The current Total Allowable Catch (TAC) set for the northern region has been reduced from 14,000 t to 13,700 t. Scientists advise that this would provide a greater than 50% probability of maintaining the population at BMSY over the next decade (SCRS 2009). The TAC for the South Atlantic Swordfish population has also been reduced from 17,000 t to 15, 000 t. Fisheries scientists have concluded that this reduction will keep the present biomass stable over the next ten years (SCRS 2009). Scientists do advise that a further reduction of the South Atlantic TAC to 14,000 t or less will result in an increase in biomass (SCRS 2009). Points were awarded here due to the success of the North Atlantic Swordfish recovery plan and because a recovery plan is not needed for the South Atlantic population. +0.25 Management has taken action to control excess capacity or reduce subsidies that result in excess capacity OR no measures are necessary because fishery is not overcapitalized. 2.50 Points for Management

BYCATCH Core Points (only one selection allowed) Select the option that most accurately describes the current level of bycatch and the consequences that result from fishing this species. The term, "bycatch" used in this document excludes incidental catch of a species for which an adequate management framework exists. The terms, "endangered, threatened, or protected," used in this document refer to species status that is determined by national legislation such as the U.S. Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act (or another nation's equivalent), the IUCN Red List, or a credible scientific body such as the American Fisheries Society. 1.00 Bycatch in this fishery is high (>100% of targeted landings), OR regularly includes a "threatened, endangered or protected species." A report by the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) that examined the Spanish pelagic longline fishery targeting Swordfish in the Atlantic found that bycatch accounted for 71% of total landings between the years 2005-2006 (Mejuto et al, 2008). The most commonly caught species were large pelagic sharks (67% of total bycatch), tunas (2%) and billfish (1%) (Mejuto et al, 2008). Blue sharks and short fin mako sharks accounted for 88% and 10%, respectively for total bycatch in the Atlantic (Mejuto et al, 2008). Similar trends were observed in the South Atlantic. A separate study analyzing bycatch data from the South African longline fleet targeting tuna and swordfish, similarly reported that blue shark and short fin mako sharks were the most commonly caught bycatch species (69% and 17% respectively) during the period from 1998-2005 (Petersen et al. 2009). Pelagic longline fisheries in the U.S. Atlantic are considered Category I fisheries under the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act, meaning they have the highest level of impact on marine mammal species (i.e. mortalities and injuries are 50% of the Potential Biological Removal) (NMFS 2003).Similarly this fishery is the subject of management concerns under the U.S. Endangered Species act due to the frequent interactions with marine turtles like leatherbacks and loggerheads (Garrison 2005). In 2004 there were a total 89 observed interactions with leatherback turtles and 53 observed interactions with loggerhead turtles (Garrison 2005). Extrapolated estimated interactions across the entire U.S. fleet resulted in 1,358 and 734 interactions for leatherbacks and loggerhead turtles respectively. A total of 75 pilot whales and 28 Risso s dolphin are estimated to have suffered serious injury or mortality in the longline fishery in 2004. Total estimated interactions were 108 for pilot whales and 49 for Risso s dolphin (Garrison 2005). Incidental mortality from longline fisheries has been implicated in the population declines of many seabird species (Tuck et al. 2003). During the years from 1986 2005 the U.S longline fleet average incidental take of seabirds was estimated to be 200 birds annually (Hata 2006). In general the U.S. annual incidental seabird take is low relative to pelagic longline fisheries elsewhere and does not include species of concern (Hata 2006). Canada s Atlantic and Arctic fishery has shown similar reports of low incidental bycatch

of seabirds (Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2007). In fact seabirds are most threatened by longline fisheries in the South Atlantic. Albatrosses and giant-petrels occur predominantly in the Southern Ocean between 30 S - 50 S, as well as the North Pacific and the west coast of South America (Birdlife International 2006). The South Atlantic is home to 35% of the total global number of breeding pairs of Albatrosses in the world (Bird Life International 2006). Albatross population declines have been significantly linked to pelagic longline activity in the Southern Oceans (Weimerskirch et al.1997). Nineteen of the twenty one species of Albatross are currently under global threat of extinction (Bird Life International 2006). Pelagic and demersal fisheries off the South West African coast are estimated to have incidentally killed a total of 17, 800 seabirds per year between the years 2000 2005 (Petersen et al. 2008). A study observing the effects of the Uruguayan longline industry on seabirds reported that between the years 2004-2007, 1683 black-browed albatross, 257 Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross and 239 whitechinned petrels were caught (Jiménez et al 2010). The fishery impacts were medium to high on the black-browed albatross, low on the Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross and low on the white-chinned petrel (Jiménez et al 2010). Nevertheless a report compiled by Bird Life International in 2006 that analyzed available bycatch data for the South Atlantic, reported that seabird bycatch is occurring at high levels throughout the South Atlantic although high variability in the rates has been reported (Birdlife International 2006). Although overall bycatch is moderate in pelagic longlines a score of 1 was awarded due to the frequent incidental catch of endangered and threatened seabirds and sea turtles. 2.00 Bycatch in this fishery is moderate (10-99% of targeted landings) AND does not regularly include "threatened, endangered or protected species" OR level of bycatch is unknown. 3.00 Bycatch in this fishery is low (<10% of targeted landings) and does not regularly include "threatened, endangered or protected species." Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed) -0.25 Bycatch in this fishery is a contributing factor to the decline of "threatened, endangered, or protected species" and no effective measures are being taken to reduce it. -0.25 Bycatch of targeted or non-targeted species (e.g., undersize individuals) in this fishery is high and no measures are being taken to reduce it. -0.25 Bycatch of this species (e.g., undersize individuals) in other fisheries is high OR bycatch of this species in other fisheries inhibits its recovery, and no measures are being taken to reduce it.

-0.25 The continued removal of the bycatch species contributes to its decline. The 2008 ICCAT Atlantic shark population assessments concluded that blue sharks are currently not being overfished. The research committee did caution that the catch data available on blue sharks is incomplete, and so the results are highly uncertain (SCRS 2008). In contrast, the short fin mako shark population is being depleted. Sharks in general have a slow growth rate, mature slowly, and have low fecundity, making them vulnerable even to moderate fishing pressure (Megalofonou et al, 2003). Short fin mako sharks have one of the lowest biological productivity among sharks, making them highly vulnerable to fishing pressure (SCRS 2008). Points were deducted as bycatch in the Swordfish fishery is likely contributing to the decline in the short fin mako shark population in the Atlantic. Short fin mako sharks are listed as vulnerable on the IUCN redlist of threatened species (IUCN redlist 2010). +0.25 Measures taken over a major portion of the species range have been shown to reduce bycatch of "threatened, endangered, or protected species" or bycatch rates are no longer deemed to affect the abundance of the "protected" bycatch species OR no measures needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear). +0.25 There is bycatch of targeted (e.g., undersize individuals) or non-targeted species in this fishery and measures (e.g., gear modifications) have been implemented that have been shown to reduce bycatch over a large portion of the species range OR no measures are needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear). The U.S. pelagic longline fishery has implemented a number of measures to reduce bycatch and to protect juvenile Swordfish. In 2001 two permanent area closures were established; one in the Gulf of Mexico and the other in the Florida East coast to reduce the bycatch of undersized Swordfish (SCRS 2009). In 2007 out of the total Atlantic Swordfish landings of 26,457 t, 364 t of juvenile Swordfish were discarded (SCRS 2009). Percentage of discards totaled 1.4%, which is a fairly small amount. In 2005 the mandatory use of circle hooks, turtle de-hooking devices, line weights and change in bait type came into effect for the U.S. pelagic longline fleet. These measures are known to effectively reduce sea turtle and other bycatch mortality (Garrison 2005; SCRS 2009). Since the use of circle hooks and mandatory line weights it is thought that annual incidental mortality of seabirds has been reduced to 24-37 seabirds annually within the U.S Atlantic longline fleet (Hata 2006).In response to the United Nation Food and Agriculture Organization s Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, numerous member nations (for example South Africa, Brazil, Canada) have voluntarily begun researching and/or implementing mitigation measures to reduce seabird bycatch. By establishing their own National Plan of Action these countries are investigating mitigation methods most feasible and applicable to their fishing industries (Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2007; DEAT 2008; Mancini et al. 2008). Consequently at present 40% of the Brazilian longline fleet has begun employing the use of torilines to deter foraging seabirds, and since 2005 almost 80% of the South African fleet has similarly been using torilines (Mancini et al. 2008; Petersen et al 2008).

+0.25 Bycatch of this species in other fisheries is low OR bycatch of this species in other fisheries inhibits its recovery, but effective measures are being taken to reduce it over a large portion of the range. +0.25 The continued removal of the bycatch species in the targeted fishery has had or will likely have little or no impact on populations of the bycatch species OR there are no significant bycatch concerns because the fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear). 1.00 Points for Bycatch REFERENCES Bird Life International. 2006. The distribution of albatrosses and petrels in the Atlantic Ocean and overlap with ICCAT longline fisheries. Col. Vol. Sci. Pap. ICCAT, 59(3): 1003-1013. SCRS/2005/072 [DEAT] Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, South Africa. 2008. National Plan of Action for reducing the incidental catch of seabirds in longline fisheries Fishbase 2010. Swordfish. Online at: http://www.fishbase.org/summary/speciessummary.cfm? genusname=xiphias&speciesname=gladius. February 20, 2010. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2007. National Plan of Action for reducing the incidental catch of seabirds in longline fisheries. Government of Canada 2007. FishWatch 2010: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. National Marine Fisheries Service. Online at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/fishwatch/species/n_atl_swordfish.htm Garrison, L.P. 2005. Estimated bycatch of marine mammals and turtles in the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline fleet during 2004. NOAA Technical memorandum. NMFS-SEFSC-531, 57 pp. Hata, D.N. 2006 Incidental captures of seabirds in the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline fishery. NOAA IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010. www.iucn.redlist.org Jimenez, S., Abreu, M., Pons, M., Ortiz, M., Domingo, A. 2010. Assessing the impact of the pelagic longline fishery on albatrosses and petrels in the southwest Atlantic. Aquatic Living Resources. 23: 49-64

Mancini, P.L., Bugoni, L., Neves, T., Monteiro, D.S., Estima, S.C., 2008. The effect of light toriline on seabird bycatch and fish catch rates in the pelagic longline fishery off southern Brazil. SCRS/2008/192 Megalofonou, P., Yannopoulos, C., Damalas, D., De Metrio, G., Deflorio, M., de la Serna, J.M., Macias, D. 2005. Incidental catch and estimated discards of pelagic sharks from the Swordfish and tuna fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea. Fisheries Bulletin. 103:620-634 Mejuto, J., García-Cortés, B., Ramos-Cartelle, A., de la Serna, J.M., 2008. Scientific Estimations of bycatch landed by the Spanish surface longline fleet targeting Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) in the Atlantic Ocean with special reference to the years 2005 and 2006. SCRS/2008/045 Murua, H., Saborido-Rey, F. 2003. Fish reproductive strategies of marine fish species of the North Atlantic Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science 33: 23-31 National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2003. Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation for Atlantic Highly Migratory Species Palko, B.J., Beardsley, G.L., Richards, W.J. 1981. Synopsis of the biology of the swordfish, Xiphias gladius Linnaeus. NOAA Tech Rep NMFS Circ 441 Petersen, S.L., Honig, M., and D.C. Nel. 2008. The impact of longline fisheries on seabirds in the Benguela current large marine ecosystem. SCRS/2007/026 Collect. Vol. Sci. Pap. ICCAT, 62(6): 1739-1756 Petersen, S.L., Honig, M.B., Ryan, P.G., Underhill, L.G., Compagno, L.J.V. 2009. Pelagic shark bycatch in the tuna-and swordfish-directed longline fishery off southern Africa. African Journal of Marine Science 31(2): 215 225 [SCRS] Standing Committee for Research and Statistics for the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) 2006. Atlantic Swordfish Stock Assessment Session. ICCAT (SCRS) Report 2006 [SCRS] Standing Committee for Research and Statistics for the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) 2008. Report of the 2008 shark stock assessments meeting. SCRS/2008/017 [SCRS] Standing Committee for Research and Statistics for the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). 2009. Atlantic swordfish stock assessment session. ICCAT (SCRS) Report 2009 Tuck, G. N., Polacheck, T. and C. M. Bulman. 2003. Spatio-temporal trends of longline fishing effort in the Southern Ocean and implications for seabird bycatch. Biological Conservation. 114:1-27.

Weimerskirch, H., Brothers, N. and Jouventin, P. 1997. Population dynamics of Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans and Amsterdam Albatross D. amsterdamensis in the Indian Ocean and their relationships with long-line fisheries: conservation implications. Biological Conservation 79: 257-270.