ROCK CLIMBING, ROPEWORK & RIVER CROSSING

Chapter 13 ROCK CLIMBING, ROPEWORK & RIVER CROSSING Why Do we Need to Climb? The ability to rock climb is an important basic mountaineering skill with which an individual can become both confident and competent in his or her movement through steep and exposed terrain. It also instils technical knowledge of ropes, karabiners and all the paraphernalia associated with steep ground rescue and is therefore an essential element of Mountain Rescue Team training. Rock Climbing Equipment - the Gear To the rock climbing beginner we often appear to use a vast and confusing array of equipment when climbing. However, the basic ethic is that we climb the rock face using our skill and ability only. When confronted with a problem on a rock face we overcome it by using our experience, judgement, skill and strength alone. So why do we need such an assortment of specialist equipment? The answer is that it is there as a reserve, just in case our judgement, skill or strength are not up to the problem; or perhaps we suffer a moment of plain bad luck. In case we fall in other words. If correctly used and understood, the gear can provide a safety net, preventing any serious injury. To keep the risk within those limits that we consider to be acceptable, we must have a good knowledge of the capabilities of the gear that we use and of how to use it properly. The Rope Improvement in rope design is one of the main factors responsible for the huge increase in climbing standards which has occurred over the years. In the olden days, ropes were relatively weak for their size and weight; could not stretch and being made of natural fibres, were prone to rot. The old climbing adage that the leader must never fall was in those early days a pre-requisite for survival. Nowadays climbing ropes are light and strong and easy to handle and are specifically designed to absorb the energy which a falling climber gathers as he plummets earthwards. The ropes which we use for climbing within the Mountain Rescue Service are of kernmantel construction (see FIG:112). This means that they are made of a central kern or core, consisting of several thousand single, stretching fibres, which are as long as the rope itself. This kern is surrounded by an outer mantle or sheath of braided nylon, designed to protect the kern and give the rope an acceptable feel. Depending on its particular size and make, the rope gains 75% of its total strength from the kern, with the remaining 25% coming from the mantle. The rope is an essential piece of climbing equipment and therefore deserves very careful looking after. FIG:112 Kernmantel Climbing Rope Construction 13-1

To look after your rope: Remember a. Never stand on your rope, or allow anyone else to do so. b. Examine your rope before and after use and every 6 months. Keep a record. c. Keep your rope clean, to prevent small particles of rock entering into the easily damaged kern and weakening the rope from the inside. d. Finally, take care not to expose your rope to any corrosive chemicals, solvents and oils, or to prolonged sunlight, all of which can cause severe damage. A rope should be scrapped if: a. It has held a major fall (more than Fall Factor One). b. It has been in use for more than 5 years. c. It has sustained damage which results in any lumpy feel or narrowing to the kern. d. The kern itself has become exposed through the mantle. If you look after your rope, when the day comes that it has to look after you, it will be up to the job. * Keep your rope clean. * Inspect your rope for damage before and after every use and every 6 months. * Avoid any exposure to contamination or prolonged sunlight. Rope Sizes Climbing ropes used in the Mountain Rescue Service are normally 50 metres long; however, 2 weights of rope are used - full and half. A half rope (normally 9mm diameter) has considerable advantages over the full rope (normally10.5mm or 11mm diameter) in terms of weight, handling characteristics and the way in which they can be used to avoid rope-on-rock friction (rope-drag) on steep, long and technically difficult climbs. However, a single half rope is not designed to absorb a leader fall and therefore must never be used on its own. The term double-rope technique is used to describe the way in which we use 2 half ropes when climbing. Full ropes are designed to be used singly and can be useful on short climbs. They are, however, susceptible to rope drag and are generally considered too heavy for double-rope technique. Coiling your Rope Climbing ropes are coiled so that: a. They are easy to carry, manage and store. b. Ropes do not become tangled or twisted whilst being carried or transported. c. They can quickly be made ready for use. 13-2

A rope that becomes tangled is very frustrating and can be dangerous, so practice to become adept at coiling and uncoiling your rope. Two methods of rope coiling are used; these are mountaineers coils and alpine coils (see FIGS:113 and 114), both of which require considerable practice if you are to become proficient. Each method has advantages, although the alpine coil is generally more popular. You should inspect your rope for damage each time it is coiled after use. In addition to obvious cuts and abrasions, any lumpiness which could indicate more serious internal damage, should be checked for while running the rope through your fingers. The same procedure should be followed while the rope is being uncoiled at the start of a climb. In this way time can be saved by carrying out before and after-use inspections as the rope is being coiled and uncoiled, thus ensuring that our ropes remain in a safe condition and up to the task of protecting life. Knots A number of knots are used to attach ropes and slings to our climbing harnesses and belays. It is important that team members can tie these knots faultlessly, first time every time and in all weather conditions. Lives will depend on this skill. It is equally important that team members learning to tie a new knot also gain an understanding of how that knot works, when to use it, when not to use it and what its weaknesses are. FIG:113 COILING YOUR ROPE - MOUNTAIN COILS. The rope is coiled either around the neck and shoulders, or by holding the rope in the palm of the hand. When the rope is fully coiled the free ends are secured by a single whipping of about 6 turns. The ends may be further secured by a Reef knot. 13-3

FIG:114 COILING YOUR ROPE - ALPINE COILS. The rope is laid in folds across the palm of the hand, leaving the last 4m free. The free ends are whipped around the centre of the folds and a bight of rope pushed through the hole with the ends pulled through the bight to finish. The remaining tails can then be used to carry the rope securely as illustrated. The correct tying of knots can be difficult to learn from a book and is often best taught practically and then practised to perfection. It should be remembered that most knots, by their nature, form a weakness in the rope. To make the knot as safe as possible, it should be correctly laid (ie neat) and set (tight). The most commonly used knots are: The Overhand Knot. Although the simplest of knots, the Overhand still has many uses and is the basis of many other more complicated knots FIG:115a. The Figure of Eight Knot. This knot, either rethreaded or on a bight, is used in a number of climbing and rescue scenarios and is often the chosen method of attaching the rope to the climbing harness. It is a good knot in that it: * is very strong * is quite easy to tie * does not slip It can be difficult to undo, especially if it has been heavily loaded. FIG:115b. The Figure of Eight on a Bight. A bight is a loop of rope which can be formed anywhere along a rope s length. The Figure of Eight on a Bight will therefore give a secure loop wherever needed and is a very useful and often used knot. Care should be taken to ensure that the loaded rope lies on the outside of the first bend to gain maximum strength from the knot. FIG:115c. 13-4

A loop may also be formed at the rope end by tying a single Figure of Eight and then threading the end back through. This version is one of the methods used to tie on to a climbing harness. As there is a risk that the rope end could work loose, this knot should always be finished with a Stopper knot when used to tie onto a harness. FIG:115d. The Bowline. The Bowline is another very useful knot which is also frequently used to tie the rope on to the harness. It is a good knot because it: * is very strong * is easy to adjust * is easy to undo, even when it has been heavily loaded. It is however dangerous if incorrectly tied and can slip, so should always be finished off with a Stopper knot. FIG:115e. Half a Double Fisherman s (Stopper knot). The Double Fisherman s knot itself is used to tie 2 ropes together, often when forming a loop (such as for a Prusik loop). When only tied around one rope, it acts as an effective Stopper knot preventing the end of the rope from slipping into the parent knot, causing failure. When heavily loaded it can be very difficult to undo FIG:115f. The French Prusik. This is a sliding friction knot which is extremely useful in a variety of situations. When a load is applied it will grip the rope very tightly, yet may still be released fairly easily, even while under load. Some practice is necessary to establish the correct length of loop and number of turns required for a given situation. FIG:116a. The Clove Hitch. An often used knot, particularly when creating an anchor system because it: * is easy to tie * is easy to adjust When clipping the knot into a karabiner, it is important that the loaded rope is closest to the spine of the karabiner. FIG:116b. The Alpine Butterfly. This is a useful middle of the rope knot. Unlike many such knots, the Alpine Butterfly will still work well if the loop and both ends are all loaded in different directions. It is one of the harder knots to tie. FIG:116c. The 8 knots and variations mentioned above form the basis of the rope attachment and anchoring skills that are required of the Novice to successfully pass the MRS Badge Test. New team members should concentrate on perfecting these 8 knots before progressing onto the more advanced techniques covered in this chapter. 13-5

FIG:115 Basic Knots 1 13-6

FIG:116 Basic Knots 2 13-7

More Advanced Knots There are a further 7 knots which are extensively used in mountain rescue work. The tying and understanding of these knots are skills that are required by the fully trained MR troop. A short description of each is given below and illustrated in FIGS117-119. However, there is no substitute to being shown how to tie them correctly and then practice, practice, practice! The Italian Hitch. The Italian or Friction hitch relies upon rope friction to produce a braking effect. It works best with only one rope, although it will work fairly well if the Hitch is tied as one knot using 2 ropes. It is useful as a simple belay method or an improvised abseil. As such, the result of tying this knot incorrectly can be serious. FIG:117a. The Classic Prusik. The Prusik is a friction knot. By weighting the loop, the turns will tighten onto the host rope and grip. After unweighting, it can be moved in any direction along the host. Although classically tied with 2 turns, more may be added if increased friction is required. It can be difficult to release if the Prusik has been heavily loaded. In this case it can be freed by pushing the knot loop with the thumb. FIG:117b. The Double Fisherman s. This is a knot used for joining 2 ropes together. It is basically 2 Stopper knots, each tied around the opposite rope. Apart from the making of rope slings, it has been used for years to join together 2 climbing ropes to allow longer abseils. If loaded heavily, this knot can become very difficult to undo, while its larger size and blunt shape make is prone to jamming in cracks and between boulders when being pulled through after an abseil. FIG:118a. The Triple Bowline. This is sometimes called the 3-loop Bowline. It is useful as an improvised sit harness and is worth practising to get the loop lengths correct. FIG:118b. The Sheet Bend. The Sheet Bend is used to tie ropes of differing diameter together. Although rarely used, it is the knot of choice when tying the Parisienne Baudrier, an improvised chest harness made from a standard 2.4m sling (see Improvised Rescue Techniques). FIG:118c. The Overhand Knot (2 ropes). An alternative to the Double Fisherman s for joining 2 ropes together in abseil situations. It is easy to tie, fairly easy to undo when it has been loaded and tends to lie flat when pulled over edges etc. This makes it much less likely to jam as the 2 ropes are pulled through. It is very important, however, that this knot is correctly laid and set and that tails of at least 50cm are left after tying. FIG:118d. The Overhand knot must not be used to join ropes subjected to rescue-sized loads. Bowline on the Bight. Sometimes called the Double Bowline, this is really a middle of the rope knot. FIG:119. It can also be used in some of the more complicated anchor systems. 13-8

FIG:117 More Advanced Knots 1 13-9

FIG:118 Advanced Knots 2 13-10

The Rescue Harness FIG:119 The Bowline on the Bight or Double Bowline For some years now, the RAF Mountain Rescue Service has used the Troll RAM (Rescue And Mountaineering) as its standard rescue and climbing harness. This is a sit-type harness with a number of features which improve its suitability for rescue work. If you intend to wear a rucksack while climbing, it is recommended that the sit harness be worn in conjunction with an approved chest harness to ensure that you will remain in an upright position following a fall. The harness itself is well padded for comfort, fairly easy to fit and adjust, includes an obvious (yellow) main strong point/belay loop and has reinforced gear loops. The fitting sequence is shown at FIG:120 and the combination sit/chest harness at FIG:123. There are a number of ways to tie a sit and chest harness together. That shown in FIG:123 is using a re-threaded Figure of Eight knot. As with all practical skills, instruction by a qualified person should be given prior to use. 13-11

Tying On FIG:120 FITTING THE RAM SIT HARNESS After adjustment all of the tails are to be fed through their elasticised bands as shown Either of the 2 standard knots can be used to tie the rope onto the harness: a. The Bowline. b. The Re-Threaded Figure of Eight Both knots must be finished off with a Stopper knot to prevent possible slipping. The 2 methods are shown in FIGS:121 and 122. FIG:121 The Bowline 13-12

FIG:122 The Re-Threaded Figure of Eight Chest Harness When using a chest harness in conjunction with a sit harness it is important that you tie on correctly. A common method with a lot of chest harnesses is to tie on using a re-threaded Figure of Eight, see FIG:123. However, before using any chest harness check the manufacturers instructions for the approved method of tying on. 13-13

FIG:123 SIT/CHEST HARNESS COMBINATION - Tying on using a re-threaded Figure of Eight. Note the correct angle of a suspended climber 13-14

BELAYING The Principles of Belaying To a beginner, the use of the word belay may seem confusing as it is used in a variety of situations. When a climber uses the term belay it can mean one of three things. 1. The main belay or anchor is used to provide security for the climber at the start or end of a pitch ie to prevent him from falling from his stance or from being pulled off by his falling partner. 2. The leader places running belays or runners while climbing a pitch to shorten any potential fall, should he slip. 3. The moving climber (leader or second) is always belayed by the rope and his partner, who will hold any fall that the climber may take. Put simply, belaying can be regarded as the method used by one climber to safeguard both himself and his partner, using the rope to provide security and in order to arrest a fall. Belays can vary greatly in their type and complexity and the actual method used will be largely dictated by the equipment available and the nature of the terrain. The difficulty of the climb and the skill of the climbers themselves can also play an important role in the selection of belay methods. Note that the rope which runs to the moving climber is known as the live or active rope, whether he is leading or seconding. Once the rope has passed through the belay system it becomes known as the dead or inactive rope. SETTING UP AN ANCHOR SYSTEM There are several ways of setting up an anchor system depending upon the equipment available and the presence (or lack) of natural features such as spikes or cracks. The methods described in this publication involve the use of the rope, slings, chocks and rock pitons or pegs. Whatever the method and equipment used, there are certain factors which need to be considered when constructing the system. Perhaps the most important is the expected direction of pull in the event of a leader falling. A leader who falls before placing any runners (or if his runners fail), will drop past the stance in a downwards and outwards direction, resulting in a large force being imposed on the belayer and his anchors (unless the falling leader hits the ground first!). If he has placed runners before falling, the resultant force will be in an upwards direction only and will be considerably less than in the runner-less situation. It therefore makes sense, in most situations, to construct the belay stance with main anchors that will take a large downward and outward loading. These anchors should be placed above waist level with the belayer positioned in line with the anticipated direction of force, to avoid any tendency of being flipped upside-down or jerked into the line of the fall. For the same reasons, it is important that the belayer is tied tightly into the anchor points and that there is no slack in the system. Screwgate karabiners should ideally be used for attachment to all belay anchors. If you only have a limited number of screwgates available and have constructed a multi-point anchor system, you should use a screwgate karabiner on the primary (ie most reliable) anchor with snaplinks being used for the others as necessary. In a total lack of screwgate karabiners, two snaplinks can be used, with the gates on the same side, but opening in opposite directions. 13-15

When setting up a belay stance always follow the steps outlined below: 1. Select and place anchor(s). 2. Immediately clip in to them with the climbing rope so they act as runners, should you fall off the ledge whilst working things out! 3. Select a comfortable stance/seat along the expected line of pull between your climbing partner and your anchor(s). This should be close to the edge when belaying someone climbing up to you, and close to the rock face when belaying a leader climbing above you. 4. Think out the best way of attaching yourself to the anchor(s), using a combination of the methods described in this chapter. 5. Tie on to the anchor(s) so that once you are established at the stance/seat, all anchor ropes and slings are equally loaded. 6. Lean forward to tension the anchor ropes. 7. Check that you have a secure, braced position and can feel tension from the anchor(s); that the live rope and the anchor ropes/slings are in line and that all anchor points are independently tied off. Check that the anchors share the load (multiple anchors) equally and that all knots are correctly tied and screwgate krabs secured. 8. You may now shout Safe - and mean it! FIG:124a Direction of Loading on Belayer and Anchor following a fall 13-16

Fall Factors ROCK CLIMBING, ROPEWORK & RIVER CROSSING The different forces resulting from falls can be expressed as Fall Factors, calculated by dividing the length of the fall by the length of rope run out. They are used as a means of classifying the severity of a fall and the resultant loading and effect on the ropes and equipment in use. As an example, if a leader who has climbed for 10m with no runners falls off, he will drop a total of 20m. The fall factor in the case would be: Length of fall (20) = Fall factor 2 Rope run out (10) (ie maximum fall factor) Had he placed a runner at 3m before continuing for a further 1m, the calculation would look like this: Length of fall (2) = Fall factor Rope run out (4) FIG:124b Fall Factors 13-17

Anchoring Using Slings ROCK CLIMBING, ROPEWORK & RIVER CROSSING A long sling placed over a good spike can provide a quick and easy belay anchor, giving excellent protection against a downward force, although it is not generally suitable for an upwards pull. A thread belay formed by passing a sling through a natural rock tunnel is an excellent way of achieving a multidirectional belay. The simplest method of attachment to the sling is to attach it directly to the knot loop on your harness using a screwgate karabiner. A more flexible and generally superior method is to clip a screwgate karabiner to the sling and then attach the rope to the karabiner using either a Figure of Eight on the Bight or a Clove Hitch. This method allows the belayer to select the exact position, and by adjusting the knot (the Clove Hitch is best for this), can ensure that the rope connecting him to the anchor is tight. FIG:125a FIG:125a ANCHORING USING SLINGS (not to scale). The sling in the inset is too small for the spike, resulting in a much weakened anchor and a dangerous 3-way loading on the karabiner 13-18

When two or more anchor points are used for the system then each point should be loaded equally, either by tying the ropes into both anchors independently (see FIG:127); or by joining the anchors together with a sling making a single point which both ropes can be clipped into (see FIG:125b). It is important that a method is used so if one anchor point fails it will not shock load the other anchor. When passing slings through threads or over spikes, remember that the 120 degree rule as discussed in Chapter 6 also applies to belaying; in other words, do not stretch the sling too tightly over or around the anchor. (See also FIG:125a). 13-19

FIG:125b Three simple methods of bringing together two anchors to one point using a sling with an overhand knot in the middle 13-20

FIG:126 A BELAY ANCHOR CONSTRUCTED BY USING THE ROPE ALONE: The returning rope has been secured to a locking karabiner clipped into the knot loop, using a Clove Hitch with the load rope positioned next to the back bar of the karabiner Anchoring Using the Rope Alone It is occasionally necessary to construct an anchor using the rope alone. An example would be where the anchor you have selected consists of a large boulder, rock flake or tree, too big for any sling you may have. A simple, fully adjustable anchor that requires the minimum of gear can be made by passing the rope around the object and then tying it back into the knot loop using a Figure of Eight on the Bight knot. A variation to this is to attach the returning rope to a screwgate karabiner clipped into the knot loop using a Clove Hitch (making sure that the load rope is positioned next to the back bar of the karabiner). Both are equally adjustable and quick to tie and may be employed in other situations such as when the anchor point is out of reach and an adjustable anchor system a necessity. FIG:126. Anchoring Using Chocks, Camming Devices and Rock Pitons The correct placement of chocks, camming devices ( Friends ) and rock pitons (pegs) is outside the scope of this publication and no attempt is made to describe the many types and methods. One thing to remember, however, is that it is standard practice, and strongly recommended, that you use a minimum of 2 chocks, Friends or pegs when constructing an anchor. It should also be noted that in the interests of preserving the environment, the use of pegs when rock climbing is not generally acceptable due to the unavoidable damage caused by their placement and removal. This does not of course exclude them from use during rescues and the correct techniques of selection and placement are considered as essential knowledge for any mountain rescuer. 13-21

The simplest and quickest (and therefore most efficient) method of attaching your rope to chocks and pegs when constructing an anchor system is to use Clove Hitches or a sling to bring both anchors together to one point as described previously. Types of Belay FIG:127 An Anchor constructed using a Chock and a Friend Discounting runners, there are 3 basic types of belay, the differences being in how much of the force caused by a falling climber is taken by the anchor itself: Direct Belay. With this type of belay any force caused by a falling climber is taken directly and wholly by the anchor which will therefore receive a maximum shock load. It stands to reason then, that any anchors that are to be used for a direct belay must be absolutely bombproof. An example would be where a sling is placed over a solid flake of rock and the live rope attached directly to it by means of a locking karabiner and an Italian Hitch. See FIG:128a. 13-22

Semi-Direct Belay. This is the most common type of belay used when rock climbing. The belayer attaches himself to the anchor using the climbing ropes and then belays his partner using a belay plate, attached to the knot loop formed when he initially tied into his harness. The belayer stands to one side and any force is transmitted through his belay plate to the anchor. See FIG:128b. Indirect Belay. To achieve an indirect belay, the belayer simply positions himself between the climber and the anchor to which they are both ultimately attached. The initial impact of the falling climber will this time be taken by the belayer himself and the load (if any) which is taken by the main anchor will be much reduced. This method is most commonly employed in winter when using snow belays and will often be used with a dynamic body belay (see FIG:129-131); it may also be used in summer, however, where the only anchors available are of dubious quality. See FIG:128c. Belay Methods FIG:128 TYPES OF BELAY: Direct, semi-direct and indirect The belay methods described in this chapter can be placed into 2 basic categories - those which make use of the body alone and those which use mechanical devices. The Body Belay. There are 2 different types of body belay - the shoulder and the waist or hip. The shoulder belay is an out-dated method which is rarely used nowadays and has only limited applications, whereas the waist or hip belay is both a useful and quick method of providing security in given situations. If you expect to be using a waist belay during a climb it is recommended that you adapt your harness to provide a rear attachment point so that the rope from the anchor can be attached to your harness at this point. This can easily be done by attaching a short sling and a screwgate karabiner to the load-bearing section of the harness at the back as shown in FIG:129. If you have not adapted your harness then great care must be taken to ensure that the ropes going to the anchor are on the same side as the live rope (see FIG:130). The rope is passed around the belayer s back (ensuring it passes over the ropes going to the anchor to prevent it slipping down) and a single twist of rope taken around the dead arm to increase friction and control. Falls are arrested by bringing the hand holding the dead rope across the front of the body to further increase the friction to the point where the falling climber is halted. It is important that this dead hand is never taken off the rope when using the body belay and much practice is needed to perfect 13-23

the techniques of taking in, paying out and holding a fall with a body belay. Use of a glove on the dead hand is essential. The sequence for taking in and holding a fall using a body belay is illustrated at FIG:131a-e. FIG:129 HARNESS ADAPTED FOR REAR ATTACHMENT TO ANCHOR (in this case using a Figure of Eight knot tied into a bight of rope passed through the rear karabiner) 13-24

FIG:130 USING A BODY BELAY WITH AN UNADAPTED HARNESS (Front Attachment): The live rope must be placed on the same side as the anchor rope to avoid a twisting action and loss of control in event of a fall FIG:131 CORRECT SEQUENCE FOR TAKING IN USING A BODY BELAY (a-d): Notice that the dead hand is in contact with the rope at all times. To hold a fall (e), the dead hand is brought across the front of the body into the braking position with the climber tight on his anchor and in a stable position 13-25

Mechanical Belay Devices. An array of different devices all designed for belaying are available, although they each share similar features in that they use an increase in friction between the rope, the device and the belay karabiner (which should ideally be of the HMS/pear-shaped type, see FIG:132) to operate. As such, many can double as abseil devices. FIG:132 MECHANICAL BELAY DEVICES (note use of pear-shaped karabiners) As with body belays, there is a right and a wrong way to control the rope as it passes through a mechanical belay device. A common error when taking in is where the rope is snatched through the belay plate, with both live and dead hands moving simultaneously. In other words, for a fraction of a second, neither hand is holding the rope and a slip at this time would result in the ropes running freely through the device. The belayer could then find it difficult, if not impossible, to regain his grip on the rope and so arrest the fall. There are in fact two or three suitable methods of taking in the rope through a mechanical belay device, although for simplicity only one method is illustrated. (See FIG:134). Whichever method is employed, it is vital that one hand holds the dead rope firmly at all times. In most cases this will be the dead hand. Equally, you must ensure when organising the anchor that there is enough space available to allow the dead hand to move back to correctly brake the fall. (FIG:133). 13-26

FIG:133 HOLDING A FALL USING A BELAY PLATE. The dead hand is brought sharply back to lock the plate and brake the fall 13-27

FIG:134 Taking in the Rope using a Belay Plate The method used for locking off a belay plate is described later in this chapter under Abseiling. One thing that a beginner must remember about mechanical belay devices is that they will not arrest a fall on their own ie the person holding the rope (the belayer) must also apply the necessary braking action on the dead rope to ensure that the device operates correctly. As with so many other techniques, only practice and a thorough understanding of the methods involved can lead to a proficient belayer. CLIMBING TECHNIQUE The actual techniques and skills you will use to scale a rock face are not covered in this publication as they are more than adequately described in other texts, some of which are listed under Useful Reading. Climbing technique is in any event best taught practically and only practice and experience can produce a competent climber. CLIMBING ORGANISATION Basic Rope Management - Single Pitch Climbs The most important skill required for efficient rope management is common sense. Firstly, it makes sense to look after your rope correctly, as described earlier in this chapter. Equally, when preparing your rope for a climb the following course of action should be followed: 13-28

a. Choose a suitable area for uncoiling the rope - clean, dry and free of potential snags. b. When uncoiling the rope, throw the bottom end to one side to allow it to be located easily when needed for tying on. c. Lay the remainder of the rope in a loose pile at the base of the pitch after running it through (while simultaneously carrying out your before-use inspection). Resist the temptation to just dump the rope down after removing the initial coils as this will almost certainly cause problems later, perhaps at a crucial stage of the climb. If using double rope technique, lay each rope in separate, adjacent piles. During the climb itself, the second should pay the rope out so that the leader does not have to physically drag it through the belay device. This would be tiring, frustrating and can be dangerous and is the cause of many an argument on the crags. Once at the top of the climb, the leader should take the rope in; once again laying the rope in a loose pile away from the edge of the cliff, ensuring that it can not drop down the crag and onto his unfortunate second! On completion of the climb, the rope should be re-coiled neatly (not forgetting the after-use inspection), ready for its next outing. Rope Management on Multi-Pitch Routes Rope management on multi-pitch routes is largely the same as for single pitch climbs and common sense remains a vital element. There are a few additional areas which require attention, however. One of the most frequent problems encountered on long routes is where the dead rope is allowed to drop down the crag and becomes entangled in rock projections below, causing problems for both second and leader when it is time to climb the next pitch. This problem can usually be avoided by placing the rope in a suitable niche or on a ledge as it is taken in. In the absence of any suitable place, say on a hanging stance or a slab, the rope can be laid in long folds across one or both of the belayer s legs. See FIG:135. Another problem area with multi-pitch rope management occurs during the change-over of leader and second. If the climbers are leading through (ie taking it in turns to lead a pitch), this should not be too much of a problem, providing that the belay stance has been sensibly constructed. If the same person is to lead 2 pitches in succession however, the ropes can very easily become tangled, causing frustration and delay. This is best avoided by carefully running the ropes through at the end of each pitch to ensure that the leader s ropes will come from the top of the pile at the start of every pitch. It is also strongly recommended that any multi-point belays are brought to one point as shown earlier in FIG:125b Close attention to detail is necessary for safe multipitch climbing - it is all too easy for one or even both climbers to disconnect themselves from the anchor while attempting to sort out a rope tangle on an exposed stance - far better surely to avoid the situation happening in the first place! Climbing Calls Communication between 2 climbers on a route can sometimes be difficult, particularly if there is noise from the wind or the sea and the climbers are far apart and out of sight of each other. It is vital, however, that communications are not only maintained, but must also be clearly understood so that each climber knows exactly what the other is doing at all times. To this end, a simple system of coded calls has developed over the years. The code-words and their meanings are as follows: Taking In - The leader s call when he has reached the belay stance and has made himself safe. The second can now remove the belay device (but NOT his own anchor), as the leader is about to take in the remaining rope after giving the second a few moments in which to remove the rope from the device. 13-29

That s Me - The second s call when all the unused rope has been taken in by the leader. Climb When You re Ready - The leader s call to the second to inform him that he can now remove his own belay anchor and prepare to climb. The leader has attached the second s rope to his belay device and is ready to hold him should he fall. As the second dismantles the anchor, the leader should feel the rope and take in any slack that is created. FIG:135 Dropping the Dead Rope down the Crag should be Avoided Climbing - The call given by the second immediately on receiving the Climb when you re ready call to indicate that he is removing his anchor and will soon start climbing. OK or Aye Aye - The leader s confirmation that the second can begin to actually climb. Other supplementary calls may be made as and when required, although at times when communications are difficult it is generally best to keep calls to the necessary minimum. It is vital that both climbers fully understand the meaning of any supplementary call to be used. These supplementary calls include: Safe or On Belay - May be used by the leader to inform the second that he has secured himself to the belay anchor. Slack - A call used when either the leader or the second needs some more rope. Tight - Usually used by a nervous second who thinks he is about to fall or if there is too much slack in the live rope. Take In - A call with a similar meaning to Tight but with generally less urgency! 13-30

Runner On - The leader may use this call to inform his second that he has placed a running belay in mid-pitch. A fall now would cause an upward pull on the second and his anchor. Below - A loud shout to warn other climbers of a falling rock or other object. Where verbal communications are impossible, say in very high winds, a system of tugs on the rope may be adopted between climbers. This is a system which requires the full understanding of both partners and should be agreed upon before the start of the climb. A second should be extremely wary of tugging at a leaders rope for obvious reasons! The use of lightweight, short-range Talkabout radios can also be of great assistance to climbing communications when they would otherwise be difficult or impossible. ABSEILING Although it is possible to abseil using nothing but the rope itself (the Classic abseil), it is much safer and more comfortable to use a mechanical device of some sort. This may consist of a purposedesigned piece of equipment or a simple karabiner and hitch. Whatever the means, the principles are similar in each case ie the climber controls his rate of descent by adjusting the friction created between the rope and his body or abseil device. Although abseiling can be exhilarating, it is also inherently dangerous in that once you begin your descent you are not only committed to that course, but are also totally reliant on your equipment and the security of the belay. A failure in any one part of the chain can very easily lead to catastrophe and it is a sad fact that many climbers have been killed as a result of abseiling accidents. That said, many of the dangers of abseiling can be anticipated and therefore guarded against. There are four main elements to abseiling. These are: 1. Setting up a safe anchor and rigging the abseil. 2. Controlling the descent. 3. Safeguarding the descent. 4. Retrieving the rope. Anchors for Abseils and Abseil Rigging Before you select the anchor, you must first select the line of descent. This should ideally be down a clean face with a good ledge and anchors at its base with few, if any, potential snags for the rope. In particular, avoid trees, areas of loose rock and other climbers. The anchor should be of the bombproof variety, located behind and above the departure ledge. Natural anchors such as trees, threads and spikes are generally to be preferred as these require the minimum of kit to be left in place. Beware of sharp edges around flakes and spikes. See FIG:136. In the absence of natural anchors it will be necessary to leave behind one or two artificial chocks, pitons or even Friends. 13-31

Be very careful of using in-situ rope or tape slings as they may have been severely weakened by previous users pulling through their ropes or by UV degradation caused by sunlight. You will almost certainly need to pull the ropes down after the abseil and due consideration must be given to this, as a poorly rigged abseil rope can very easily prove impossible to retrieve due to rope friction or jamming. It is generally better to elect to leave a sling (or piece of tat ) around a flake or spike than to risk the rope becoming jammed. It is not normally necessary to leave a karabiner and the rope can be passed directly through the sling. If you are using a multi-point anchor, make sure that each anchor is equally loaded and that the system is constructed in such a way as to prevent the failure of one anchor causing shock-loading to those remaining. FIG:137 FIG:136 Beware Sharp Edges! 13-32

FIG:137 A MULTI-POINT BELAY FOR ABSEILING. Two small spikes have been utilised to construct a safe anchor. A tape sling has been passed over the spikes and secured with an Overhand knot to give an equal loading on each spike 13-33

If using double ropes it will be necessary to tie them together (remembering to pass one of the ropes through the anchor sling first!). The best knot for this is the Overhand knot as it gives a small knot which is easy to tie, is less likely to jam and is easy to undo. (Also, in emergency situations where it is necessary to tie 2 ropes together to provide a 100m abseil, it is possible to pass an Overhand knot through a standard Figure of Eight descender without the need to carry out passing the knot procedures). When using this knot, however, you must remember to: a. Tie the knot neatly and correctly, ensuring that the tails are at least 50cm long. b. Tighten the knot fully. Other knots that may be used include the Double Fisherman s, although it can become very difficult to undo once heavily loaded. One solution to this is to first tie a Reef knot followed by the two halves of the Double Fisherman s on either side of the knot as shown in FIG:138. Although bulky, this combination is much easier to undo. FIG:138 Knots for Joining Abseil Ropes 13-34

Once the ropes are joined and securely anchored, they are ready for lowering or throwing down the line of descent. This should always be done in a controlled manner if you are to avoid the ropes turning into a pile of Grannies Knitting. On a steep crag it may be possible to simply pay out the rope which should be prepared in a loose pile on the ledge. More often, you will have to throw the ropes out in an arc to clear any obstructions and intermediate ledges. If you cannot confirm whether the ropes reach the ground, or you are in a multipitch situation, you should first tie the ends of the ropes together as described later in this chapter. A good alternative is for the first person down to be lowered rather than abseil. Controlling the Descent As mentioned earlier, the rate of descent when abseiling is controlled by adjusting the friction created as the rope passes through your abseil device. This is generally achieved by moving the controlling hand (ie the hand holding the rope below the device) to a position where the required amount of braking is applied. The position of your body during the descent is also important, particularly at the start of the abseil. With your weight taken fully by the rope, you should lean back at an angle of about 45 degrees with your legs apart for added stability. The controlling hand holds the rope securely in the braking position while the other hand is generally placed loosely on the rope above the abseil device to give added balance. This FIG:139 CORRECT BODY POSITION WHEN ABSEILING. In this instance, using a Figure of Eight Descender 13-35

balance hand is not used as a means of controlling the rate of descent. Keep your feet flat against the rock and walk backwards down the crag in short steps, adjusting your controlling hand position and grip on the rope as necessary. Resist the temptation to descend in a series of jumps - this will only cause shock loading on the anchor - and concentrate on maintaining the correct body position. Too upright a posture can result in your feet slipping downwards, while leaning too far back is overly strenuous and may, in the worst case, cause you to become suddenly inverted - a problem made more likely if a heavy rucksack is worn during the abseil. See FIG:139. Further precautions include ensuring that no stray items of clothing, hair or equipment are positioned where they may become inadvertently caught and entrapped by the abseil device. Helmet straps, long hair and scarves are among the most frequent objects that cause problems in this way and each should be tucked well away before commencing the abseil. Mechanical Abseil Devices Several types of mechanical device are available, although all work on the same basic principle and many can be used for either belaying or abseiling. Figure of Eight Descender. This is the device most commonly associated with abseiling. It is simple to use and generally easy to control and can be used with most combinations of rope diameters although single or small-diameter ropes will cause less friction and therefore provide less control than double or large diameter ropes. Although simple to use, there is a right and wrong way to attach the Figure of Eight descender to your harness. To ensure that you get it right, the following sequence of actions should be followed: 1. Stand parallel to the abseil ropes facing toward the anchor with your braking hand on the downhill side. 2. Hold the Figure of Eight under the ropes and with the small eye close to your harness strong point. Form a bight in the ropes and pass it down through the big eye and up and over the small eye. (Doing it the other way round ie up through the big eye, creates a risk of the ropes snagging and accidentally locking as you go over the edge, as the ropes are forced over the shoulder of the big eye to form a Lark s Foot knot). 3. Attach the Figure of Eight to a locking karabiner, extended from the harness strong point by a short sling and further locking karabiner. (See FIG:140). 4. Attach your abseil protection device to the ropes as described later in Safeguarding the Descent. The braking hand should now be correctly positioned to control your descent, moving it down to slow down or stop and up to go faster. If a prolonged stop is anticipated or an operation which requires the use of both hands is required and no abseil protection device has been employed, it may be necessary to lock off the Figure of Eight. 13-36

This can be achieved in 2 ways: FIG:140 ATTACHING A FIGURE OF EIGHT DESCENDER TO YOUR HARNESS. Note correct routing of the abseil rope to avoid snagging 1. Taking a firm grip on the rope, the braking hand is passed quickly up and across in front of the loaded rope and pulled sharply down on the other side so that the brake rope becomes trapped between the load rope and the big eye of the descender. Although quick, this method is difficult, if not impossible to achieve if you are in a free-hanging situation, particularly if you are using either a single or small-diameter ropes, as the brake hand must pass through the full-ahead position just prior to locking and it may not be possible to prevent slippage. It can be equally difficult to unlock and is prone to slipping if not backed up by some further method. FIG:141a. 2. An alternative, safer method, is to lock off the rope by passing a small bight of rope back through the locking karabiner attaching the Figure of Eight to your Harness while holding the dead rope in the braking position. A longer bight is then taken from the other side of the karabiner and passed through the short bight which will trap the longer one, thus preventing slippage. The lock-off is then completed by tying a further Half-hitch around the karabiner to give additional security. FIG:141b. 13-37

FIG:141 Methods of Locking Off the Figure of Eight Descender Both lock-off methods are unlocked by reversing the locking-off procedures although once again, the second method is superior to the first as it is guaranteed to work and there is no jolt as the rope comes free. Unlocking should always be carried out carefully and under control with a hand constantly ready on the brake rope. Belay Plates. Belay plates are primarily designed for belaying although they may also be used for abseiling. When used for this purpose, they are attached to the strong point of your harness via a short sling and using a locking HMS-type karabiner which has been clipped into a bight of rope pushed through the device. Due to their small size the devices have poor heat dissipation qualities and tend to heat up during long descents. This need not be a problem providing that you carefully control the speed of your descent and allow the device to cool down between the stages of a multiple abseil. Sticht plates in particular have a tendency to give a rather jerky abseil due to the plate continually jamming. This can be remedied by clipping an extra karabiner into the loop of the rope below the plate and above the locking karabiner. The additional karabiner can be removed if greater friction is required, say for a free-hanging section. FIG:142. 13-38

FIG:142 ABSEILING USING A BELAY PLATE. An extra karabiner has been clipped into the loop below the plate to give a smoother descen Care should be taken if you are abseiling on 2 ropes of different diameter, as the thinner rope will tend to slide through the plate faster. This could result in the ropes becoming uneven in length and there is a further danger of the fast moving rope burning or melting the abseil sling as it runs across it. A similar problem can present itself when using ropes of a similar diameter, but where the belay plate has slots of different sizes (ie 9 and 11mm), or a non-hms type karabiner has been used, resulting in differing amounts of friction being created. The method used to lock off a belay plate is similar to that described above as method 2 for the Figure of Eight descender and is illustrated in FIG:143. The Italian Hitch. This is a simple and convenient method of abseiling used occasionally in the absence of any other device. It does, however have a tendency to over-heat the karabiner and creates twists and kinks in the ropes that preclude its use for multi-stage abseils, except in an emergency. The knot is tied as a single hitch in both ropes and should be attached to your harness strong point via a short sling and using an HMS-type locking karabiner, with the gate positioned well away from and in such a way that it would not be unscrewed if it came into contact with the moving rope. 13-39