Alaska s Strengths & Opportunities 1. Wild Natural Product 2. Sound Fisheries Management 3. Omega 3 Fatty Acids 4. High Concentrations Vitamin D 5. Whitefish Strong but Tilapia Coming on 6. Wild Salmon now Niche Market Item 7. No Effective Farmed Substitutes for: Halibut, Sablefish, Crab.
Alaska: Weaknesses & Threats 1. Inconsistent (Seasonal) Supply & Quality 2. Labor Issues 3. Farmed: Salmon, Tilapia, Cod 4. Farmed Industry Keeps Lowering Costs 5. US & Europe: Low Seafood Consumption 6. US: Unwillingness to Pay More for Food
Archaeology of Aquaculture 1. Gunditimara people - Australia 8,000 YBP developed 100 km 2 (39 mi 2 ) of volcanic floodplain near Lake Condah into channels and dams - used these to culture eels year round. 2. China, 3,500 YBP waters subsiding after annual river floods carp left behind. Farmers fed them nymphs and silkworm feces (stimulate plant biomass?) 3. Native Hawaiian marine fish ponds, dates uncertain perhaps 800 YBP.
Hawaiian Marine Fish Trap
Hawaiian Marine Fish Trap Open to Tides Fish Enter Opening Later Blocked with Stones Fish Fed and Kept Over Time When Fish Have All Been Used Open to Tides Again
History of Aquaculture I 1. Chinese Aquaculture ~ River Flooding 3,500 YBP 2. 475 BC Treatise on Fish Culture by Fan Lei. 3. Japanese Farming Intertidal Oysters 3,000 YBP 4. Unlikely to Recover Real Origins of Aquaculture i. 14,000-8,000 YBP Oceans Rose 100 meters. ii. Original Marine Sites Now under Water iii. FW Sites: Decay of Organic Materials
Rise in Sea Level
History of Aquaculture II 1. Aristotle Recommends Europeans Culture Carp 2. Roman Lucinus Murena Digs Fish Ponds at Grotta Ferraia, 1 st century BC 3. Romans Grow Carp 30 BC - 400 AD 4. Tang Dynasty (618-907) Polyculture Developed with Co-Culture of 4 Species of Carp 5. Middle Ages - Growth of Local Carp Aquaculture in Europe Heavy Penalties for Fish Theft.
Roman Carp Farm
Origins of Agriculture 1. Archaeology of aquaculture is lost, can learn from patterns in archaeology of agriculture. 2. Multiple origins of agriculture ~ 10,500 YBP 3. East Asia - domestication of dogs ~ 15,000 YBP 4. Sedentarism (Göbekli Tepe) religious monument ~ 11,600 YBP. 5. Domestication of wheat ~ 10,500 YBP 6. Domestication goats ~ 10,500 Zagros Mts. Iran
Göbekli Tepe: 9,800-8,200 BC Every few decades, the monument was buried and a new one built. National Geographic June 2011
Details T-stones Göbekli Tepe
Location Göbekli Tepe
Origins of Agriculture Domesticated Cereals 1. Wild type cereal grains are attached to a central rachis - becomes brittle & breaks - freeing grains. 2. Domestic cereals have a tough rachis that does not break, grains are retained. 3. Domestication of Maize (Southern Mexico) can only reproduce with human assistance. series of genetic mutations plus human selection 4. Parent grass is called Teosinte
Domestication of Wheat
Domestication of Millet and Rice Millet Brown - Rice Blue
Teosinte: two rows of kernels Maize from Teosinte glumes protect kernels - can pass through animals branched = multiple stalks, each with 1 many Maize: multiple rows - huge ears as inflorescences glumes lost through mutation in gene tgai not branched = single stalk, 1, many
Domestication of Maize
Location of Maize Domestication
Patterns of Agricultural Origins I 1. Main Plant Domestications Grasses (Cereals) Wheat, Rice, Barley, Maize 2. Domesticated Cereals Can No Longer Reproduce Without Human Cultivation 3. Change Driven by a Series of Mutations That Were Selected by Early Farmers. 4. Multiple Mutations over Hundreds of Years Led to Domesticated Species (Strains).
Patterns Agricultural Origins II 1. Main Plant Domestications Selective Breeding for Desired Traits eg. Tougher Rachis. 2. Animal Domestications Selective Breeding Primarily for Gentleness Behavioral Selection. 3. Archaeological Experiment Tough Rachis Becomes Predominant After 200 Years.
Patterns Agricultural Origins III 1. There were multiple origins of domestication. with different crops cultivated in different regions. 2. The same crops could be independently cultured in different regions producing different strains. 3. Domestication always a gradual process, taking multiple generations to fix genetic changes. 4. There was no revolution took 6,000 years for Neolithic traits to evolve into a single complex.
Origins of Aquaculture I 1. Aquaculture probably began early on but involved little genetic selection of desirable traits. a. Usually Unable to Control Mating b. Generally Difficult to Observe Behavior c. Often Captured Young from the Wild. 2. WHY? 3. Most Reasonable Answer, Couldn t See into Water.
Origins of Aquaculture II 1. Genetic Differentiation of Aquacultured species from wild types waits until 20th Century 2. Song Dynasty (early 13th century), variously colored Goldfish raised in China - an obvious genetic exception, independently in Japan (Koi) 3. 19th Century USA - development of fish stocking - Aquaculture as an applied science.
US Fish and Fisheries Commission 1. 1871 Spencer F. Baird organized US Fish and Fisheries Commission. 2. Hired culturists to mass produce, transport & stock fish & shellfish in nation s waters. 3. Seth Green, Charles Adkins, Livingston Stone developed much technology of modern fish culture. 4. Rainbow, Brown and Brook trout were planted across the US, in Europe and New Zealand
Growth of Worldwide Aquaculture 1. 1930s Tilapia introduced to tropical Asia 2. 1950s species specific nutritional tests led to feed formulations for nutritional requirements. 3. Catfish dominant species in US, methodology for catfish culture developed in US 1950s. 4. 1960s rainbow trout and catfish farming in US, and plaice in UK - captured the attention of: entrepreneurs, university researchers & public Aquaculture Industry begins to grow Worldwide.
Aquaculture Today 1. Global production doubled over past 10 years. Growth at 8% per year for the past 30 years. 2. Farmed for food, more than 220 species of finfish and shellfish currently cultured not to include food algae or cyanobacteria for oil. 3. Ornamentals > 100 species being farmed, not including fish raised as sports fish bait 4. China accounts for ⅔ of the world s total aquaculture production - mostly carp and tilapia (Wikipedia)
UN- FAO Report
MT(Million) World Fisheries Production Aquaculture Capture Total 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 Year 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 MT (x1000s) World Tilapia Production 300 250 200 150 100 50 - Year
Future of Aquaculture I 1. Humans Require Dietary Protein, Lipid, Ash & Carbohydrate 2. Capture Fisheries Maxed Out ~ 85 Mmt per year 3. Human Population 7 billion & Growing 4. Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) - feed needed to add 1 pound to weight of growing species Cattle FCR 8, Swine FCR 3.5, Chicken FCR 2 Aquacultured Fish FCR 1.2-1.8 (Wikipedia)
Future of Aquaculture II 1. Population Growth: + 1 Billion every 13 years. 2. Given FCR, much protein needed to feed growing population will come from farmed fish. 3. Feeds are major cost. Plant protein feeds much cheaper than fish meal or other animal protein. 3. Carnivorous vs Herbivorous: Salmon vs Tilapia 4. Salmon lower FCR, but requires balanced amino acids (lysine & methionine) often from fish meal. 5. Tilapia can exists solely on plant material but have a higher FCR.
Predictions for Future of Aquaculture 1. Increase in Number of Cultured Species 2. Life Cycles Closed for Most Species 3. The Major Animal Protein will be Fish 4. Cold Water Marine Fish = Higher Value 5. Polyculturing will be the Rule 6. Small Farms merge make Big Business