1 Module # 1 Component # 1 High Profile Animal Species Accounts A The
2 Objectives: To familiarise Field Guides with the habits and potential dangers posed by the large African carnivores. Expected Outcomes: On conclusion of this Component, learners should be able to: Identify the four species of dangerous carnivorous game. Recognise lion as being the most sought after species by tourist clients. Know how to approach lion, leopard, spotted hyaena and crocodile on foot and in a vehicle Instruct clients how to behave when at a sighting when on foot and in a vehicle with these four species. Be aware of how to avoid a potentially dangerous encounter with these four species. Recognise the warning signs given by these four species. Anticipate and avoid a charge by any of these species. React correctly to a serious charge by any of these species. Know how to deal with leopard around campsites
3 Introduction Although all animals should be considered potentially dangerous, the most commonly accepted concept of a dangerous animal is one that commonly injures or kills human beings. Due to the possibility of giving these animals 'bad press' the politically correct term is now 'high profile game species'. There are ten such animals that are said to fit this description and these ten should be studied in detail. It goes without saying that guides at level 3 with a number of years experience in the field should, already know in detail about the behaviour and habits of these species. However, it is advisable that any guide who deals with these animals should study as much literature as possible as new updates are being made all the time and some information may have been recently disproved. Instead of re-hashing this behavioural detail, we shall concentrate on potentially dangerous situations related to each species and how a guide should react in each situation. As in any potentially dangerous situation, fore-warned is fore-armed, especially regarding aggressive behaviour. Ask ten different people the question "which animal is the most dangerous' and you will possibly be given ten different answers. Most so-called dangerous animals are not all that much of a threat, if precautions are taken and rules adhered to. To answer the question accurately is difficult - but the first answer should be "the one standing in front of you" - if you, as a guide recognize the potential dangers, the chances of a situation arising are minimal.
4 High-Profile Species The ten high profile species are: 1. Lion (Panthera leo) 2. Leopard (Panthera pardus) 3. Spotted Hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) 4. Nile Crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus) 5. African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) 6. Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) 7. White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) 8. Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) 9. Cape Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) 10.Ostrich (Struthio camelus) This Component will deal with the following species: Lion Leopard Spotted Hyaena Nile Crocodile
5 Lion ~ (Panthera leo) Lions are probably the most sought after of the high-profile species. When tourists see their first lions, there is a buzz that you don t get with other species. But they can pose serious problems for guides and their visitors, particularly when walking. As usual, the best rule to remember is to avoid getting into a situation that could potentially be dangerous in the first place. Viewing Lions from a Vehicle: When viewing lions from a vehicle there is far less chance of anything untoward occurring. However, always beware of one of the guide s biggest enemies complacency. After a few years experience, we become so used to driving up to lions that we know well that we forget about the potential dangers. On approaching any lion sighting, always remind your guests of the rules. Standing up in an open vehicle can frighten a lion into either fleeing or charging. Remind your guests to stay seated. Remind your guests not to make sudden movements, particularly if the lions are close. In all the excitement of seeing their first lions, the guests tend to forget about these things. Often, whilst viewing habituated lions, individual lions might get up and walk straight towards and past the vehicle and may even come and lie down in the shade of the vehicle. If this happens, quietly remind your guests to sit still and to be quiet. Starting the vehicle and trying to move away at this late stage can itself upset the lion, so rather stay put until the lion has walked past or until it has settled down again. If you or your guests feel uncomfortable being so close, then start the vehicle as gently as possible and move slowly and carefully away.
6 Anecdote: A group of guests were viewing an extremely relaxed male lion in Botswana. He was lying a few metres from the open vehicle, his head up and very alert. He was scanning the surrounding landscape, apparently looking for other lions. He paid no attention to the vehicle and the guests were happily taking photographs of him. After a few minutes the lion got up and walked at an angle towards the left back of the vehicle with the aim of walking past. Everyone sat quietly, except the person in the left back seat who got very excited about taking a photograph as the lion walked past. This guest made a lot of sudden movements as he scrambled for his camera and just as the lion was at its closest to the vehicle. Without any warning, the lion reacted to the movement, making a sudden loud growl and short jump towards the person in the back seat, before continuing his walk. Fortunately, the guest got nothing more than an enormous fright and an important lesson was learned by all the people on the vehicle. Remember, in this particular case, there was no warning whatsoever that the lion was going to show any sign of aggression. Don t assume that if there are no warning signs that everything will be OK. Also, parking the vehicle very close to lions gives you less time to react should anything happen. When approaching any lion sighting, make it a rule to first always stop some distance from the lions in a place where you and the guests have a clear view, but not so close that the lions could be reacting to your arrival. Observe the lions from this position and make mental notes of their numbers, ages (e.g. are there small cubs?), possibility of a kill or mating, injuries and any reactions from individuals to your arrival etc. Once you are satisfied that you have a reasonable understanding of what is happening and you believe it is safe, then approach to a closer, but safe viewing distance. When approaching lions, either on foot or in a vehicle, be extra wary of mating lions and lionesses with cubs. These are potentially the most dangerous, but also bear in mind that different lions have different characters. Some individual lions can be more temperamental than others, so don t assume that because ten different male lions are relaxed that the next one will be too.
7 Viewing Lions on Foot: On foot, the dangers posed by lions are far greater. Lions usually do not see a vehicle as potential danger or a source of food, but they react differently to people walking. Lions naturally see man on foot as potential danger and will flee (the most likely possibility) or will charge to protect themselves. The most dangerous situation is that you come across a lion that sees you as potential danger and charges to protect itself, its cubs or a mate. In rare and unusual cases, lions could see man as a source of food too.
8 Be Alert and Observant When leading a trail, remember the maxim: avoid confrontation in the first place. This means being forever alert to what is going on in the environment around you and then reacting to the signals that you receive. Lions are active mainly at night and in the early hours of the morning and the late afternoon, so be especially alert at these times. These are the times when the light is at its worst so you must be doubly observant. As you conduct your walk, keep a careful lookout for tracks. If you find tracks, you need to be able to estimate their freshness with reasonable accuracy and react accordingly. You also glean information about numbers and ages of the lions that have left the tracks. Following up on fresh lion tracks might be a very exciting thing to do, and could possibly be done with the right group of guests, but in general it is better not to do this in the interests of avoiding that unnecessary confrontation. If you do decide to follow-up on tracks, avoid getting yourself into thick bush. If the tracks lead into more open country, it is easier to get a view of the lions from a distance and possibly even to stop before they see you. In thick bush, you will end up getting very close to the lions and they ll probably see you first and flee or charge before you even know that they are there. If you are tracking lions, keep an eye open for divergent tracks which could indicate that the lions are spreading out to hunt, which means that there could be the possibility of a kill nearby. Divergent tracks also indicate the possibility that the lions may be looking for a place to lie down. This can be indicated by a shortening of stride and one or two spots where the lions may have lain down for a short while prior to resting up for the day. Be alert to other signs that can warn you of the presence of lions. The sounds that lions make can help. It is important to know the difference between low contact calls which would only be audible from close by and full-blooded roars which can be heard over many kilometres. Lions also roar quite softly and this could mean that a lion is close by. Wind direction also plays a part in determining how far a sound is. Other sounds that lions make include loud growls whilst fighting, either over a kill or over territory; lots of repeated roars which could indicate a territorial clash; and the combined sounds of low growling from the female and a higher-pitched growl from the male both reaching a crescendo which indicates mating.
9 An extremely important sound to listen out for is a soft, low, extended growl which is often the first indication to the guide that he has unknowingly walked into a lion. This is the warning growl of a lion and if ignored will usually precede a charge. To the inexperienced, this sound could initially be misinterpreted as an engine in the distance! If you here this sound, stop immediately and slowly back out of the situation. If you know that you are in an area where lions may be, then it is important to stop and listen quietly on a regular basis. Be alert to unusual smells. Lion urine smells like peanut butter. The smell of an old carcass can lead you into lions. The smell of a freshly-killed animal is quite distinctive, particularly when the stomach has been opened. Obviously, this could mean any predator, but remember that lions are also scavengers and will steal kills way from other predators. So, if you find a leopard kill in a tree one morning and you decide to visit it on your afternoon walk, don t assume that only the leopard will be there again. It is always possible that a pride of lions might have found the kill and you could be walking into trouble. Again, be alert to tracks and sounds as you approach the kill site. If you do happen onto a lion kill site, be extremely cautious, particularly in hot weather. Lions will often drag their kills into dense thickets to hide them from vultures. Once a lion has gorged itself on a kill it will usually go and rest nearby before returning to feed later. If it is hot, they will retreat into the deepest shade, which usually means thicker bush. Often the first sign of the kill-site gives an indication that there are no lions about. In the meantime, they are resting in a thicket close by. Remember that lions are social cats and that if you see one, there could be more. Also remember that lions will often leave a kill to go and drink and will return later to feed again. If there are no lions about, it doesn t necessarily mean that they have left the kill. A study of the scats left behind by the lions at a kill site can tell you a little bit about how long they have been there. Apart from the obvious aspect of freshness there is a degree of difference in colour that can help you. The blood-rich internal organs are often eaten first, which gives the initial scats a distinct dark black/green colour. Large muscles and a fair amount of skin are consumed over a longer period and the resultant scats are greenish in colour. The secondary muscle and smaller bones are consumed last and these scats are light green.
10 Warning Signs: Warning signs are obvious, with the animal giving a direct stare, snarling, often silently or crouching with the intent to charge. Ears are flattened. Typically snarling and a low grunt will precede a charge, the action of the tail, if visible will indicate aggression if swished in a horizontal plane. A vertical flick will indicate the onset of a charge. Generally, warning charges are indicated by lots of noise and commotion with the animal trying to appear as large and aggressive as possible. Serious intentions are indicated by the animal appearing compact, low and silent. Females with cubs, and adults mating are the trailist s worse nightmare as in these situations there is no doubt that a charge is serious, and will be pressed home.
11 The Charge: Should you not notice the warning growl and you continue walking there is a very good chance that the lion will charge. Should this happen, your best option is to stand still, with your rifle loaded, raised and aimed. Cats instinctively chase after something that moves away from them, but become uncertain if their quarry stays still. Invariably, the lion will stop its charge and stand there staring at you with enormous eyes, flattened ears and flicking tail, all the while emitting a low growl. Grouping guests together presents the appearance of a large thing and can deter lions from approaching. Warning shots may be used successfully but the speed at which a lion moves would tend to negate their use as it would be almost impossible to re-load before the lion is on top of you should the warning shot fail. Shouting and making a lot of noise may also deflect a warning charge. You must remain standing still as the lion watches you. Keep your eyes on the lion at all times and observe its behaviour. As time goes by you ll notice a gradual relaxation process develop in the lion. The growling will stop, the tail will stop flicking, the eyes will stop staring and the ears will relax. At this point it is worth trying to slowly move away. Do so extremely slowly and move backwards, keeping your eyes on the lion at all times. Should there be any increase in tension once again stop and let the lion relax. Try again and in this way slowly back away from the lion until you are out of view. As with all cats, lions are thin skinned and are a reasonably large target, although moving fast; lions are fairly easy to kill with a well-placed shot. Aiming point should be into the brain, as thoracic wounds are not immediately fatal. Wounded animals should be tracked with care as they often ambush pursuers. As crepuscular hunters, lions are most commonly active during low light conditions and are at their most dangerous under these conditions. Humans are diurnal and are clumsy and noisy at night, opening themselves up to being attacked. Like most predators, lions rather hunt prey that is wounded, or otherwise showing signs of incapacitation, which humans certainly tend to appear to be at night. During the day lions are normally reasonably un-aggressive, but will charge and press home an attack if surprised, injured, hassled or defending a kill, young or a mate. Lions will often show themselves to warn of their presence, and tend to move off rather than push a confrontation. A warning charge may easily become serious in a fraction of a second, so treat every charge as serious. Finally, should a lion get hold of you, your chances of surviving are very slim. Lions weigh from 120-250kgs and charge at a speed of nearly 60km/h. This weight and momentum in itself is enough to cause severe injury and death. Add the teeth and claws and you really have very little chance. However, should you get caught, it is a good idea NOT to put up a fight. You won t have a chance anyway, so you might as well play dead. This may prevent the lion from administering the kill bite. Also, if you have gloves on use them to protect your neck. Remember: Always avoid confrontation in the first place
12 Leopard ~ (Panthera pardus) This spotted cat is a master of stealth and camouflage and a person is normally lucky to see one on foot as they tend to disappear as soon as they are aware of humans. However, they are potentially dangerous, as humans do fit into the preferred prey size range, and, as with most animals, they will protect their young, their prey and get very aggressive when mating. Viewing Leopard from a Vehicle: Leopard are the most rarely seen of the big cats. Their shy nature, together with a lone existence makes them difficult to find. A guide would usually consider himself to be extremely lucky to find and view a leopard. Because of their shy nature, Leopard in most areas tend to avoid human activity, be it vehicles or people on foot. If you as a guide happen to come across a leopard, it is usually best to stop the vehicle as soon as you see it, to give it a chance to relax and become accustomed to the vehicle. If it looks relaxed, then continue to view the animal from a distance. In some areas where Leopard are no longer hunted, such as the Kruger National Park and surrounding areas and many places in Botswana, Leopard have become used to vehicle activity and are therefore less likely to run away. However, even in these areas, certain individuals will still be shy. So, it is much more important to stop the vehicle first, before making any approach. Most of the points mentioned under lions apply to Leopard as well. In addition, be careful when viewing Leopard in trees. Particularly with a relaxed leopard, it can be easy to end up with your vehicle very close to the tree trunk, which may in fact be the only escape route that a leopard might have out of the tree. Also, be careful that you don t end up parking underneath the leopard as there is always a danger of the animal falling into the vehicle. As with lions, always remind your guests about the rules of staying seated and sitting quietly. Also, be aware of the different characters of different individual Leopard. Some individuals, even animals that are habituated to vehicles, can be unpredictable.
13 Viewing Leopard on Foot: You are probably even less likely to see a leopard on foot. They will avoid the approach of humans and possible confrontation, either by moving away from your approach, or by crouching low in the nearest suitable cover and then using their superb camouflage to remain undetected. It is important to remember that a leopard that is hiding in the undergrowth is doing so to avoid confrontation. Should you be walking and you notice a leopard lying beside the path, pretend that you haven t seen it and continue walking. The leopard would usually stay hidden until you have passed before going about its business again. Should you stop and stare at the animal, there is a very good chance that it will charge. Be Alert and Observant Again, much of what has been said about lions applies to Leopard as well. Keep alert for leopard tracks which can be a good indicator of the presence of animals in your area. Make mental notes about age and sex of the animals leaving tracks. Be especially wary if there are tracks of a female and cubs. Keep a look out for drag marks. Leopard will usually drag their kills some distance to cover or a suitable tree. However, be aware that hyaenas will also drag kills and the difference is that Leopard will seldom drag their kills more than a kilometre.
14 Anecdote: A guide came across a drag mark whilst searching an area for a leopard. He studied the track and quickly noticed that there was a leopard footprint next to the drag mark as well as some hyaena tracks. He excitedly told his guests about the find and began to follow the drag mark. After a kilometre of following, he checked the tracks closely again, and again noticed the leopard print. He continued following the drag for a further 3 kilometres. At one point the drag went straight through the middle of a waterhole and continued on the other side. This should have been a clue, but the guide continued to assume that he was following a leopard drag mark. Eventually after some four kilometres of following the drag mark through some bush that was getting thicker and thicker, the guide gave up and returned to the road where he first found the track. There he studied the signs carefully and realized that the leopard had indeed made a kill, but that a hyaena had stolen the kill and dragged it away, with the leopard following behind in the hope of retrieving some of it. Hyaenas will sometimes drag their kills for up to 10 kilometres. Listen out for sounds. The leopard s usual territorial call is a repeated grunting sound much like the sound of a large-toothed saw cutting through wood. Female Leopard make a soft single grunt, repeated every so often when they are approaching their cubs. Leopard will also hiss when they are being aggressive. Another sound to listen out for is the sound of flies, which could indicate the presence of a kill. Unlike lions, there is usually no warning growl prior to a charge. Smells can give clues to the presence of a kill. Typically, when a leopard feeds on a kill it will usually pluck the fur off the prey animal before feeding. A sign to look out for is the presence of plucked fur lying around on the ground. This is a very good clue to the presence of a leopard kill. If you are walking in an area and you suspect the presence of a female leopard, avoid walking into areas that could be likely den-sites such as piles of granite boulders, deep densely vegetated gulley s and large vegetation-covered termite mounds. A leopard with small cubs will be highly protective. A leopard with a kill will either hoist it into a tree or will drag it into a dense thicket. As with lions, avoid walking into dense thickets, particularly if you know that there is a leopard kill in the area.
15 Warning Signs: Warning signs in Leopard are less obvious than in lions, but are similar in many ways. A leopard will typically crouch low with its head flat on the ground with eyes wide open and ears flattened. This is sometimes accompanied by hissing and teeth exposed in a silent snarl. There is usually no warning sound.
16 The Charge: A lioness weighs in at about 150kgs and a female leopard weighs approximately 40kgs, which makes her substantially smaller and, at 60km/h, somewhat quicker. This makes a leopard a more difficult target than a lion. The speed at which a leopard moves must be seen to be appreciated. At times, they have mauled a number of people and disappeared again before any counter actions could be taken by the victims When a leopard charges, it comes at you at high speed, low to the ground, with front legs spread ready to strike and darting rapidly from side to side. You would need a good eye to keep track of this. Being a soft-skinned animal a hit from a heavy calibre bullet in the brain will stop the animal. Standing your ground helps, but there have been several reported cases of guides standing their ground being subjected to repeated charges, with the animal turning away briefly after each charge and then turning around and charging again. It is usually best to try and move away from the animal s comfort zone between charges. Should you get caught by the animal its tactics are to try and hook onto the victim with its dew claws and teeth while the back feet are used to rake the lower abdomen. As often as not the victim is left badly mauled and septicaemia is almost certain in untreated wounds, often leading to death. However, because of the leopard s small size, there have been reports of men fighting Leopard off with their bare hands.
17 Leopard in Camp: There are often reports of Leopard staying for periods of time in areas of human habitation such as camps and residential areas. It is important to understand that these individuals are usually young Leopard of 12-16 months of age that have recently become independent from their mothers. This is a stage in their lives where they are still learning how to survive on their own and they often resort to scavenging. This means that they often end up near human habitation where they can pick up scraps from rubbish dumps or prey on domestic animals. Far from being persecuted, these animals should be tolerated until they start moving away as they become more independent. They will not pose a threat if they are left alone.
18 Spotted Hyaena ~ (Crocuta crocuta) In general, day-to-day game viewing and walking trails, spotted hyaenas pose little or no threat. If you come across hyaenas on foot they are most likely to move away. Sometimes, even in remote areas, one comes across hyaenas that seem to be inquisitive and they will approach closely to a human on foot. These individuals are also of no threat as long as you are awake and moving about. Most, if not all, hyaenas will move away from you if you move towards them. The hyaena s jaw is immensely powerful and capable of inflicting major damage. As they are mostly active at night, this is when they are most dangerous. When they feel it is safe enough, they will enter camps and even structures such as buildings and tents. Sleeping humans run the risk of being attacked, normally an exposed body part is grabbed and the animal makes a typical dash for safety. Due to the sharp teeth and the strength of the jaw the damage done is substantial. In remote tribal areas, where parties and beer drinks may go on for days, it is reasonably common to hear reports of locals, while sleeping off the effects of the local brew, having parts of their faces or limbs removed.
19 Anecdote: Three young men were sleeping in an army tent on the banks of the Letaba River. The door of the tent was left open each night to allow cool air to circulate through the tent. All three men were sleeping on beds in the tent. During the time that they were encamped there, a couple of spotted hyaena were observed skulking around the camp and occasionally coming into the kitchen and other tents. On the third week of the camp one of the men was awoken in the early hours of the morning by the sound of screaming. The man from the next bed was shouting: It s got me, it s got me. None of the men had a torch and they sat in darkness until someone arrived with a torch to show one of the men sitting on his bed clutching his ear and blood pouring down the side of his head. The hyaena had walked into the tent and had grabbed the young man by the ear as he slept. When he drowsily tried to wave the animal away, it bit him in the hand. When the man was fully awake, the hyaena was frightened away. The man ended up losing two-thirds of his ear. The situation would have been far worse had the man had his face towards the door of the tent instead of towards the wall of the tent. These three young men learnt two important lessons from this incident. Always have a torch and always make sure that you are safely secured at night. A human that is awake, unless severely weakened will be reasonably safe. If approached aggressively, a hyaena will normally back off. When sleeping in the open it is necessary to implement a system of guards to prevent hyaenas approaching too closely. If sleeping in tents or unfenced buildings ensure that all openings are securely fastened at night and no food is present in the sleeping area. Hyaena are reasonably easy to scare off, but should the incident dictate shooting, a head or body shot will kill the animal reasonably easily.
20 Nile Crocodile ~ (Crocodilus niloticus) As a living dinosaur, the Nile crocodile has remained unchanged from the ages when reptiles ruled the earth, simply because it is so efficiently designed that change was unnecessary. This is the one high profile animal which considers humans prey. As possibly the second highest killer of humans in Africa, crocodiles should not be taken lightly. Larger specimens of the Nile crocodile will grab humans as prey if the opportunity arises. The best way of not becoming a prey item is to stay well away from water that is known to be crocodile habitat. Do not think that just because small crocodiles are the only ones seen, that there are no larger one s present. Also, be aware that even if you have never seen a crocodile in a body of water and that you may even have swum in that water many times before, this doesn t mean that a crocodile cannot arrive there and take up residence. Crocodiles are great wanderers, and the older, more experienced animals are shy by nature, and not easily seen. Stories of crocodiles launching themselves vertically up to 3m to grab prey on high banks are over exaggerated, however they will torpedo out of the water horizontally. They move in a fast high-legged run on land and will, if necessary, move short distances to grab prey on land. Staying 4m from water will be reasonably safe, but if the water must be approached then crocodile guards must be set. Nesting female crocodiles are highly aggressive and will attack from within the water at the slightest suggestion of threat to their young. If you notice small baby crocodiles floating in the water, be extremely cautious, as there is always the possibility that the mother is keeping guard nearby.
21 Full Species Accounts This Component has deliberately only dealt with each species from a Dangerous Game perspective. For a much fuller account of these animals, where their full ecology, biology, morphology and ethology is described in detail, please see our Game Ranging and Advanced Animal Behaviour Courses. The following species have been described in full: Lion Leopard Elephant Rhinoceros (black and white) Buffalo Cheetah Hyaena 40 species of Antelope Warthog Wild dog Giraffe Zebra Hippopotamus Suricate Aardvark and Pangolin