Reading guide for exam 1 In general, when you are studying for an exam in this class you should learn your lecture notes (that is the notes you take in lecture) and use those along with the handout of powerpoint slides. The text has good information regarding the information from lecture. For the first exam, there is quite a bit of extra information in the text that you aren t responsible for on an exam. Again, use the lecture notes as a guide. The taxonomy handout that I gave in class is also helpful here. You won t be responsible for taxonomic groups outside of those mentioned in lecture. You won t be responsible for details on organisms such as tunicates, amphioxus, etc. beyond what is mentioned in lecture. Chapter 1 Introduction pp. 1-4, 10-18, 21-23 Understand basis and ways of organization in comparative anatomy, not details in examples of functional anatomy section. Know homology, analogy, synapomorphies, phylogeny, cladograms, but you don t need to know the details of constructing cladograms (i.e. monophyly, paraphyly). The section on systemic biology (p.10) is helpful in understanding the way the authors group animals (monophyletic groups). Don t need to memorize geological periods (Cambrian, Ordovician, etc.). You should understand anatomical terminology such as dorsal, ventral, cranial, caudal. Those terms are helpful throughout the course. Chapter 2 Phylogenetic relationships of Chordates and Craniates pp. 28-40, 41-43 Not responsible for details on echinoderms and hemichordates. The beginning section is good at supporting the relationship between chordates and echinoderms. Not responsible for extra anatomy introduced for tunicates, amphioxus. Not responsible for box 2-1. Not responsible for details on craniate features not discussed in class. Chapter 3 Diversity of phylogenetic history of Craniates pp. 49-50, 53-59,59-67, 74-80, 87 (amniotes), 95-96, 101-106, Fig. 11-6 This chapter is tricky since it covers many subgroupings of craniates that you won t be responsible for yet it has good information on groups that I did cover in lecture. In this chapter you see there are sections that have much detail on all the major and minor grouping of vertebrates a bit too much detail for our needs, but still good information for the introduction of the major groups for this chapter, I recommend reading the sections that apply to groups I had mentioned in class i.e. major divisions, such as mammals, birds, actinopterygii, sarcopterygii, teleosts. Some of the anatomical information that is here in the chapter but not discussed in lecture will be considered later on in the course, so you aren t responsible for it now, but may be later on. Their term Osteostraci is what I called ostracoderms. Some terms they introduce here and you aren t responsible for now will actually be helpful later on in the chapters: Lissamphibians = living groups of amphibians (salamanders, toads, frogs, caecilians); Reptilomorpha = what we normally would consider reptiles, including extinct ones and all descendant groups so birds and mammals also; Lepidosaurs = living groups of reptiles except turtles, crocodiles; Eutherians = mammals except for marsupials and monotremes.
Chapter 6 and a little of Chapter 5 Integument and bone pp. 208-216, 217-227, 189-191, Fig. 6-21 Not responsible for details of bone growth (osteoblasts, osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi etc.). Know endochondral vs. dermal bone and what happens during ossification. Not responsible for layers of epidermis other than st. corneum, st. germinativum. Know differences between epidermis and dermis including embryonic origin. Not responsible for names of chromatophores other than melanophores. Understand basic pigment differences in vertebrates. Be able to compare integument differences in different types of vertebrates. Understand neural crest contributions to skin derivatives. Understand structural differences in different fish scale types. Not responsible for different feather types (filoplumes, down, contour feathers) feather muscles or vitamin D synthesis (p. 227) or dermis and subcutaneous tissue (p. 227). Understand relationships between reptile scales and feathers differences in how hair forms compared to feathers. Not responsible for details on hair structure (medulla, cortex, scales) or hair types (guard hairs, pelage, quills). Understand differences in horns vs. antlers, different types of mammal skin glands. Not responsible for evolutionary origins of mammary glands. Not responsible for capillary sphincters, etc. (p.227). Helpful things to know for exam 1: The information is found in your notes from class Know what needs to exist in a population for natural selection to cause evolutionary change to occur within that population over time. What is the result of natural selection? Understand what is meant by descent with modification and constraints upon evolution i.e. how evolution is restricted to modifying existing anatomy and design. Know the panda s thumb example. How are whale hip/leg bones an example of a vestigial structure? What are vestigial structures? How can the help show ancestry? Why don t vestigial structures completely go away? (consider that there needs to be fitness differences for natural selection to act) Why is it not appropriate to consider modern reptiles, amphibians or fish to have anatomy that is an inferior stepping stone to anatomy of mammals or humans? Know how to interpret a phylogeny and how an outgroup can be included on a phylogeny. Know homologous and analogous structures, synapomorphy. Consider synapomorphies for major groups like Chordata, Euchordata, Craniata, Vertebrata, Gnathostomata (these are easily found in notes or the class handout). Can you name a synapomorphy for Osteichthyes? Mammalia? Can you draw a simple phylogeny from Chordata to gnathostomata? Define coelmate. What distinguishes deuterostomes from protostomes? What features of development link all deuterostomes together? Give examples of deuterostomes. Are you a deuterostome? (yes, you are!)
What happens during gastrulation and neurulation? Which one comes first? Know the basic germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm. What layer does the dorsal hollow nerve cord come from? How old is the group Chordata? Know the 5 synapomorphies. How are the 5 synapomorphies seen in human bodies? Know where your pharyngeal/branchial area is. How can a notochord contribute to the type of swimming of early marine chordates? Know how tunicates feed, how they move water, function of endostyle. Define monoecious. What chordate synapomorphies are seen in adults? larvae? What is the tunic? Know phylum and subphylums for tunicates and amphioxus. (Their phylum is of course the same) Know how amphioxus feeds and similar use of endostyle. Define dioecious. What new synapomorphies are found in amphioxus and other cephalochordates to place them in group Euchordata? Define metamerism. Can you give examples of metameric structures? Can you name some metameric structure found in your own body? What features are found in Craniates that separate them from Euchordata? What are neural crest cells and where do they come from? What structures to they help form? We will also consider additional information about NC cells when learning about formation of integumentary structures How is the way water moves for filter feeding different in protochordates (Urochordata and Cephalochordata) compared to Craniates (like larval lamprey?) Note: Although there are powerpoint slides in your handouts, you will not be responsible for Garstang s theory of connections between urochordata and cephalochordate, nor paedomorphosis. What kinds of fossils that are so plentiful were left by conodonts? Where were these hard teethlike structures found in their body? Why is the fact that the teeth structures are made of calcium phosphate relevant to anatomists? Understand the inner beauty of hagfish or at least know how they basically feed, presence of keratin teeth and impressive slime abilities. Why do many anatomists place them in Craniata and not Vertebrata, superclass agnatha? (Note that there are disagreements with their placement) Know synapomorphies of Vertebrata. Do all vertebrates have a vertebral column? (no they don t..many still have notochords but have neural arches present. That is enough to be classified as a vertebrate). Know the two superclasses in Vertebrata: Gnathostomata and Agnatha. You should also be able to name all the eight classes and what kind of organisms they contain, i.e. Aves=birds.
Know that ostracoderms refers to old fossil jawless vertebrates. Ostracoderms are famous for their headshields/craniums of calcium phosphate bone. Many had notochords with neural arches above them. Their head shields also contained harder forms of bone: dentine and enamel. The teeth and bony scales found in many modern vertebrates can be traced to these headshields Know the very basic lifestyles of lamprey. Know that some are parasitic, like the famous sea lamprey, but others are not. What does the velum do to help with tidal ventilation for a parasitic lamprey that is feeding? What is an ammocete? What happens to their endostyle after metamorphosis? How are jaws and gill arches evolutionarily related? How do paired fins generally help with swimming? What does it mean when we say that the evolution of jaws can cause an evolutionary radiation? Know basic aspects of acanthodian and placoderm fish but nothing beyond what was discussed in class. Note the problem with flexibility when having bony plates as in placoderms. What type of scales are found in chondrichthyian fish? What features of sharks help in buoyancy or at least cause them to sink more slowly? How do they get lift when they swim? What are septal gills? How are they different from opercular gills? Know that swim bladders are generally found in osteichthyes but not chondrithyes. Know Actinopterygii vs. Sarcopterygii. Note that Teleost fish are a large subgroup under Actinopterygii that have a different style of swim bladder (details on differences are discussed later in respiratory chapter). Know dipnoi vs. crossopterygii, which group contains old ancestors to the first amphibians? What is a choanate? What is a labyrinthodont and why are they of interest to the anatomical history of tetrapods (including you)? How is tooth design similar between old crossopterygian fish and labyrinthodonts? Know classes that contain fish vs. tetrapods. What classes are amniotes? What advantage comes from having an egg with an amnion? What classes have endothermic organisms? What are advantages and disadvantages to being endothermic? What bony features distinguish early mammals from their reptile ancestors? Know monotreme, marsupial, placental (Eutherian) mammals. Know differences between epidermis and dermis. What embryonic germ layers do they come from? Understand the keratinization process of the epidermis. What are some keratinized structures found in skin? Are keratinized structures of the skin always made in the epidermis? (hint: yes). Know layers stratum germinativum vs. stratum corneum. There are several other layers of the epidermis but you don t need to know them for this class. What type of molecule is keratin?
What organisms make α keratin vs. β keratin? What happens when phospholipids or calcium is added during keratinization? How are vertebrates different in regard to their stratum corneum layer? What organisms don t have one, why? If there are bony skin structures like scales or teeth, are they made in the dermis? (hint: yes) Since early on in vertebrate evolution, the dermis has retained an ability to make bone. Do you have any dermal bone? (if you have a cranium and teeth, the answer is yes!) How are neural crest cells involved in the formation of dermal bone? How are endotherms (birds and mammals) different from fish and amphibians in their ability to change coloration? why are they different? (consider their keratinized structures) Where are chromatophores and pigment found in birds/mammals vs. fish/amphibians? Define chromatophore. How does a melanophore change its distribution of melanin within it? How can structural coloration be a way to have color without a pigment? Be able to contrast the epidermis of fish vs. amphibians vs. reptiles vs. birds/mammals. Are keratinized structures often seen in fish? Be able to contrast the dermis is fish vs. non-fish Know dermal vs. endochondral bone. Give examples of some dermal bone structures in vertebrates. What are some types of fish scales? Are they all made in the dermis? How are the dermal plates of placoderms different from scales in modern fish? How can scales be an advantage compared to plates? How are ctenoid and cycloid scales helpful in flexibility? How is the initial formation of a feather similar to that of reptile scales? Distinguish between keratinized scales of reptiles vs. bony scales of fish. Where is each made? Know three different glands found in mammal skin and their location and function. how is the distribution of eccrine vs. apocrine glands different in humans vs. typical mammals? what are scent glands? Contrast antlers vs. true horns vs. rhino horn. What makes baleen?
Practice exam 1 questions Fill in blank: (2 points) 1. The nerve cord of Chordates is formed from what embryonic tissue layer? 2. is a subgroup within Osteichthyes had members that were ancestral to amphibians. 3. Ossification (forming bone) involves the accumulation of into the matrix around osteoblasts. 4. Melanophores can (description), which is how animals like chameleons and flounder are able to quickly change coloration. 5. Adding phospholipids to keratin will cause the skin to 6. Give an example of a metameric structure in chordates 7. To what subphylum do snakes belong? 8. To what class do sharks belong? 9. Describe the location of the notochord relative to nerve cord 10. What are choana? (What choanates have) 11. The vertebrate jaw formed from a modified in jawless ancestors 12. Describe what constitutes a scent gland in a mammal (what makes it up) Answers: 1. ectoderm 2. Crossopterygii or Sarcopterygii 3. calcium phosphate or hydroxyapatite 4. move melanosomes (melanin organelles) within themselves 5. be more waterproof, resist water from passing through 6. vertebrae, spinal nerves, myomeres of amphioxus, somites (there are other answers) 7. Vertebrata 8. Chondrithyes 9. it is ventral to nerve cord 10. have an internal nostril or a nostril that connects to the oral cavity 11. gill arch 12. a cluster of apocrine sweat glands Short answer questions (3 points) Describe how one feature of sharks allows them to be buoyant and/or prevents sinking.
(7 points) How do neural crest cells influence the development of various structures that form in vertebrate skin? List five integument structures that form as a result of neural crest cell activity. One of these structures should directly come differentiated neural crest cells (circle it). (5 points) Compare the bony plates of early fish (like placoderms) to modern fish scales. How are these structures similar and how are they different in anatomy and development? (6 points) A) Name two ways that the epidermal anatomy of fish and reptiles differ (consider only anatomy of the epidermis). B) How is the dermis of fish and amphibians different in anatomy? (2 points) You find an ancient fossil of a fish-like creature. It clearly has an intact notochord, a cranium, no paired fins and no jaw. What anatomy would you look for to determine whether it should be classified as a vertebrate? (5 points) What does the example of the panda's thumb or respiration of dolphins (choose one or the other) tell us about how natural selection works to design structures? (5 points) What are labyrinthodonts and sarcopterygians? How are they evolutionarily related? List one anatomical structure that reveals their relationship. (5 points) What happens during the general keratinization process of a tetrapod, like a human for example? Include the names of cell layers. (5 points) What similarities exist when comparing reptile scales and bird feathers (as opposed to reptile scales and mammal hair) (3 points) List three anatomical features of hagfish that are unusual anatomical features for fish to possess (i.e. they are rare in fish) (5 points) What is gastrulation? What anatomy and cell layers form with gastrulation? How is gastrulation similar or different for an echinoderm vs. human?