Byzantine Horse Skeletons of Theodosius Harbour: 2. Withers height estimation

30 Byzantine Horse Skeletons of Theodosius Harbour: 2. Withers height estimation V. ONAR 1 *, G. PAZVANT 1, E. PASICKA 2, A. ARMUTAK 3, H. ALPAK 1 1 Osteoarchaeological Research Centre, Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Istanbul University, 34320, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey. 2 Department of Biostructure and Animal Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland. 3 Department of Veterinary History and Deontology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Istanbul University, 34320, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey. * Corresponding author: onar@istanbul.edu.tr SUMMARY This study is a continuation of our previous work that focused on maintenance, intended use and pathologies of horses from the Byzantine period. In the current research Byzantine horse skeletons were investigated in order to estimate their withers heights and structural features. The skeletons were found during Marmaray Project works at Yenikapı, Istanbul, where Theodosius Harbour was located in the past. Materials have been collected during archaeological excavations started in 2004 and covering an area of 58.000 m 2. The data obtained were compared and classified. In general, the specimens were medium sized (38.72%, withers height 136-144 cm), and large-medium (36.31%, withers height 144-152 cm). According to the classification based on Brauner s metacarpal slenderness index, the horses were described as slightly slender legged (40%). Keywords: Withers height, slenderness index, horse, Theodosius Harbour, Yenikapı RÉSUMÉ Squelettes de chevaux Byzantins du port de Théodose: 2. Evaluation de la hauteur du garrot Cette étude est une continuation de notre travail précédent qui se concentrait sur le type de soins, le mode d exploitation et les pathologies de chevaux de la période byzantine. Dans les études en cours, les squelettes de chevaux byzantins ont été étudiés afin d évaluer leur hauteur au garrot ainsi que leurs caractéristiques structurelles. Les squelettes ont été découverts lors des travaux effectués dans le cadre du Projet Marmaray à Yenikapi-Istanbul, Istanbul, où était autrefois situé le port de Théodose. Le matériel a été trouvé lors des fouilles archéologiques qui avaient commencé en 2004 et avaient couvert la surface de 58 000 m 2. Les données recueillies ont été comparées et classées. En général, les spécimens étaient d une taille «moyenne» (38,72%, une hauteur du garrot de 136-144 centimètres) et «d une taille moyennement plus grande» (36,31%, une hauteur du garrot de 144-152 centimètres). Conformément à la classification basée sur l indice de gracilité de l os métacarpien, les chevaux ont été décrits comme «aux jambes légèrement sveltes» (40%). Mots-clés : hauteur du garrot, indice d élancement, cheval, port de Théodose, Yenikapi-Istanbul Introduction From past to present, keeping and maintaining animals under control of humans has been an essential part of economic activities. Among the animals, horses have an important place in the domestic fauna due to being one of the species with a close relationship with humans [12]. Course of domestication process became the milestone of this relationship. Dereivka, located on a tributary of the Dnepr River in Ukraine, is the settlement site of the Eneolithic period, dated 3380-4570 BC, has been accepted as a location where the earliest evidence for the horse domestication was found [25]. Although domestication of horses is accepted as an important evolution in human history, the dynamics of its course was relatively less studied [3]. Nevertheless, the human-horse relationship played an essential role in social and historical development of mankind, and has maintained its importance beginning from the prehistoric period, when the horse was domesticated, to the modern times. Types and morphologies of horses show variations depending on the purpose of use and breeding practised in the past. For example, it has been propounded that in the Iron Age there were two types of horses that originated from different sources. These two types constitute two major Europen horse groups. The first one has been named Eastern Group and includes large and strong horses, while the second Western Group encompasses horses smaller in size. Eastern Group horses have been reported to have an average withers height of 135 cm (121-149 cm), a metacarpal index of 15.24, and metatarsal index of 11.59 [4, 9, 12, 22]. Purpose of use is essential in selection and breeding of horses. For example, it has been claimed that Greek and Persian horses originated from eastern type, and these affected Roman horses [12]. It has been suggested that breeding of Roman horses in particular was strongly affected by the Eastern Group so that the large eastern horses spread all over the whole Roman Empire (BÖKÖNYİ [12], quoted by JOHNSTONE [22]). The period of the Roman Empire holds particular importance in understanding human-horse relationships. Horse breeding and selection according to the intended use gained significant importance during this period [21]. Visual morphological characters have always been at the forefront in designing ideal horse type. This accommodated defining an ideal Roman horse in historical narrations about Roman and Byzantine horse breeds. Although the definition of

BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION 31 extensive conformation with regard to horses is still in the make, even in modern times, the concept of intended usebased breeding has been practised since ancient times. A definition of the ideal horse conformation during the Roman period was created, and desired characteristics based on stallions was listed by Pelagonius (quoted by HYLAND [21]) and Columella (r.r. VI, 24, 2-3) (quoted by JOHNSTONE [22]). With the exception of two traits, the excellent conformation used to define an ideal Roman horse is similar to these used to define modern horses and in compliance with the traits desired by the modern horse riders [21, 22]. In representing visual morphological characters of horses, body measurements, such as withers height, thoracal (chest) circumference, and cannon bone circumference are used [13]. For the estimation of these basic body measurements, the regression equations developed on modern horse skeletons using osteometric measurements and basic body measurements are used [20, 23, 24, 34]. Even though size and morphological differences were reported between the modern and past animals [32], it has been invaluable to use the data of modern animals to estimate the visual morphology of the horses reconstructed from their archaeological bones [5, 35]. Thus, by estimating the visual morphological characteristics (i.e., withers height, body weight) of past animals, one gets an opportunity to compare the animals of two different periods [1, 12], as well as to assess the extent of selection and breeding practices of old times [22]. This can be explained by the following example: there is a significant (noticeable) difference in withers heights of Iron Age horses and Roman horses. Withers heights of Late-Iron Age horses are quite smaller than those of horses that lived in later periods. The average withers height of Iron Age horses was reported as 126 cm, while that of Roman horses were 137 cm. As shown, there was only a 10 cm increase in withers height of Roman horses over Iron Age horses [1]. The large size horses with taller withers heights were kept in numerous military camps as well as villas during the Roman period. The difference in withers heights in different settlements resulted from intended use-dependent breeding of the horses [12]. For the current study the horse skeleton remains were found in the Theodosius Harbour area that was explored during the construction work of Yenikapı station. This station is the most important transfer hub of Metro Railway system and Marmaray rail tunnel at the European site. The engineering project started in 2004. The archaeological excavations covered 58.000 m 2 and results of the radiocarbon dating indicated that the period when the animals lived varied from Early Byzantine (4-7 th century) to the Late Byzantine (15 th century) [30], and majority of those animals (32.64%) were horses [28, 29]. Detailed evaluations of these horse skeletons were made in our previous study in which care and management conditions of Byzantine horses as well as pathologies observed were investigated [27]. In this study, withers height, which is one of the basic visual characteristic, and metapodial indices of these horse skeletons were evaluated. In light of the data, comparisons of different time periods will be made, and information about the structural features of Byzantine horses will be shared. Materials and Methods In this work, withers heights were estimated in the horse skeleton remains that were brought to light at the Theodosius harbour area explored during the construction work of Yenikapı Metro and Marmaray Excavation Project, and the data was compared with information on horses from different periods. In our previous study, data regarding the visual morphological characteristics of the horses were not included. With this study, the visual morphological characteristics of the horses were evaluated. With the permission of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, all remains of the horse skeletons recovered from the Theodosius Harbour at Yenikapı and Marmaray excavation areas were brought to the Osteoarchaelogy Research Centre of Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Istanbul University. The majority of the horse skeletons were fragmental, and the parts were spread over the excavation area. From these bones, morphological data (age, development, sex, marks, pathology, and modifications) and morphometric data from the bones of adult horses were collected. The structural aspects of the Byzantine Horses were estimated using the morphometric data. Osteometric measurements were taken based on von den DRIESCH [36]. For this purpose, digital callipers in different sizes were used. All osteometric measurements were converted to millimetres (mm) and transferred to a computer for statistical analyses. Osteometric measurements: Humerus: Greatest length of the lateral part (GL1) Radius: Greatest length (GL) : Length of the lateral part (L1) Radius and Ulna: Greatest length of lateral part (GL1) Metacarpus: Greatest length (GL) : Lateral length of the outer side (L1) : Breadth of the proximal end (Bp) : Smallest breadth of the diaphysis (SD) : Breadth of the distal end (Bd) Femur: Greatest length (GL) Tibia: Greatest length (GL) : Lateral length on the outer side (L1) Metatarsus: Greatest length (GL) : Lateral length of the outer side (L1) : Breadth of the proximal end (Bp) : Smallest breadth of the diaphysis (SD) : Breadth of the distal end (Bd). The following calculations described by different authors were applied using the upper osteometric measurements.

32 Withers Height: KIESEWALTER [23]; quoted by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]; JOHNSTONE [22] and MÜLLER [26]. Size Classification: VITT [34]; quoted by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]; MÜLLER [26]. Metapodial index calculation: BERTEAUX and GUINTARD [7]; DAVIS [15]; EISENMANN and BECKOUCHE [17]; GUINTARD [19]; JOHNSTONE [22]. The equation below was used for index calculations. Slenderness index=smallest breadth of the diaphysis (SD) / greatest length (GL) x 100 Proximal articular index= Breadth of the proximal end (Bp) / greatest length (GL) x 100 Distal articular index= Breadth of the distal end (Bd) / greatest length (GL) x 100 Slenderness index classification: Classification was made based on Brauner s metacarpal slenderness index (DE GROSSI MAZZORIN et al. [16]; listed by UDRESCU et al. [33]) Results A majority of the animal bones recovered from the Yenikapı excavation area belonged to the horses (Equus caballus L.) (32.64%). Although the number of in situ complete horse skeletons was low, horse bones scattered over the excavation area were recovered at different depths and grids (fig. 1). There were twenty near-in situ skeletons (with some parts/bones missing). The evaluations and calculations for these were made separately for each and kept separate from general osteometric evaluations. The data and the estimated withers heights for them are presented in table I. 65% of these skeleton parts belonged to male, while 15% were of female horses. The gender of the remaining 20% could not be determined due to missing bones, such as skull and pelvis bones, which are useful for sex determination. Three of these skeleton parts were determined to be the bones of horses below 5 years of age, and the remaining bones belonged to adult specimens. Since the Yenikapı Horse-4 skeleton was composed of only the hind part bones (fig. 1), morphometric data for the front legs is missing. Thus, withers height and index calculation for this particular skeleton were made using only morphometric data from the long bones of the rear legs. Although articulation of the vertebral column of the Yenikapı Horse-6 skeleton was intact, the front (with the exception of a fractured right scapula) and rear extremities were missing. Therefore, morphometric data of these extremities was not taken (fig. 1). Because the right scapula was broken, withers height of this horse was estimated using only profile length of its skull (table I). Indices for front and rear legs were not determined. Yenikapı Horse-8 was composed of only skull and mandibula. Withers height was calculated using the profile length of the skull (table I). Indices for the long bones were not determined because of the lack of these bones. Articulation of Yenikapı Horse-14 was severely impaired and a number of bones were either missing or fractured with multiple segments (fig. 1). Except for a fragmentary left femur, bones of front and rear legs could not be found. As for the skull, only some bone parts constituting neurocranium were detected. Since morphometric data could not be collected, visual morphological features could not be calculated for this skeleton. However, by examining all the existing parts, it was estimated that the horse could be of large-medium size. Yenikapı Horse-19 skeleton, which was composed of skull, mandible, and hyoid bone, was damaged during the pilling works on Marmaray Tunnel, and postcranial parts were left outside the excavation area. The skull, mandible and hyoid bones could only have been recovered from the excavation area. Thus, withers height were calculated based on the profile length of the skull (table I). Yenikapı Horse-20 skeleton composed only the cranial and postcranial bones. The vertebrae thoracalis and vertebrae lumbalis bones could not be found. Thus, visual morphological features could not be estimated because skull and long bones of the extremities were missing. As previously mentioned, the Yenikapı Metro and Marmaray excavation sites cover an area of 58000 m 2. Except for the twenty horse skeletons that were intact with minimum losses, the number of horse bones scattered over the entire excavation area were recovered from different grids and depths. Among these bones, a total of 3239 skull and postcranial bones of adult horses were used. From these bones, a total of 3443 morphometric measurements (two different measurements for antebrachium) were applied for calculating withers height (table II). 7.75% of the data for these calculations were from skull measurements, while the remaining 92.25% were the morphometric measurements on the long bones. Results of the VITT [34] classifications based on calculations made using skull and long bone measurements revealed that most horses (38.72%) were medium size with withers height ranging from 136 to 144 cm, followed by large-medium (36.31%) size horses with 144-152 cm of withers height. The number of horses with withers height below 112 cm or greater than 168 cm were quite low (table II). A majority of the horses were classified as medium and large-medium classes. When only metapodial bones were taken into account in calculating withers height, half

BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION 33 Figure 1: Horse skeletons in situ (50.00%) fell into medium class, but frequency of largemedium (37.38%) was not that low. When the VITT [34] size classification was made according to basilar length of the skulls, the numbers of large-medium size horses became higher. This could possibly because of the higher number of male horses, as well as the lack of basilar length measurements from skulls that had only the neurocranium preserved. The skulls with neurocranium only, for which craniometric measurements that provide basis for VITT [34]

34 Horse (Equus caballus L.) Sex Age Scapula Humerus Antebrachium Mc III Femur Tibia Mt III Mean (cm) Size (VITT [9]) Yenikapı Horse-1 Male 10-11 157.42 153.97 147.20 150.27 148.53 151.63 153.86 148.44 151 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-2 Male 11-12 146.60 142.65 138.21 141.47 139.19 142.04 141.73 137.15 141 Medium Yenikapı Horse-3 Male 8 144.40 138.05 141.00 143.98-134.62 140.54 135.99 140 Medium Yenikapı Horse-4 Male? 5-10 - - - - - 144.59 149.63 150.88 148 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-5 Male? 7-10 158.42 155.15 146.28 148.38 150.43-150.55 150.85 151 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-6 Male 7-10 - - - - - - - - 145 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-7 Female 7-10 - 149.60 144.80 145.78 144.00-141.60-145 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-8 Female 7-10 - - - - - - - - 150 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-9 Female 5-10 140.76 141.72 - - - 137.81-144.56 141 medium Yenikapı Horse-10? 3.5-4 - 149.77 145.60 145.29-145.62 - - 147 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-11? 5-7 - - - - - - 149.23 149.52 149 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-12? 5-7 158.42 155.15 146.28 148.38 153.63 - - 150.85 152 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-13 Male 5-7 - - 141.89-145.46-148.87 147.75 146 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-14 Male 7-10 - - - - - - - -??large-medium Yenikapı Horse-15 Male 4.5-5 - - 145.42 144.73 147.52-149.23-147 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-16 Male 7-10 - 153.20 - - 150.18-144.00 149.69 149 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-17 Male 9-146.40 148.48 149.33 151.33 140.51-150.24 148 large-medium Yenikapı Horse-18 Male 12-15 136.40 144.68 141.62 143.13 144.40 138.45 145.84 143.09 142 medium Yenikapı Horse-19 Male 10-11 - - - - - - - - 143 medium Yenikapı Horse-20? 4-5 - - - - - - - -?? Table I: Withers height (cm), size, and measurements of long bones (mm) of the Yenikapı in situ horse skeletons

BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION 35 Size* n=3443 CR SCA HUM ANT-GL1 ANT-L1 Mc FEM TIB Mt N - 3 1 - - - - - - Dwarves Min - 84.38 104.45 - - - - - - 112 cm Max - 108.68 104.45 - - - - - - 0.12% Mean - 95.05 104.45 - - - - - - SD - 12.42 0.00 - - - - - - N 4-1 - - 3 2-1 Very small Min 113.96-119.95 - - 117.38 116.64-119.17 120-112 cm Max 118.90-119.95 - - 119.05 119.37-119.17 0.32% Mean 116.61-119.95 - - 118.00 118.01-119.17 SD 2.17-0.00 - - 0.92 1.93-0.00 N 5-5 3 3 5 16 4 3 Small Min 120.23-121.19 124.45 121.13 121.15 120.16 120.79 123.21 120-128 cm Max 126.41-127.35 127.65 127.47 127.76 127.99 127.77 126.93 1.28% Mean 124.18-125.36 125.56 124.95 125.67 125.68 125.69 125.57 SD 2.76-2.74 1.81 3.36 2.70 2.16 3.30 2.06 N 9 25 41 23 30 33 112 28 59 Medium-small Min 131.06 128.79 129.50 128.85 128.28 128.42 128.24 128.68 128.69 128-136 cm Max 135.74 135.99 135.96 135.85 135.83 135.83 135.95 135.89 135.90 10.46% Mean 133.91 133.38 133.84 133.69 133.08 132.63 133.24 134.09 133.46 SD 1.41 2.11 1.53 1.85 2.18 1.96 1.92 1.70 1.95 N 64 91 151 101 133 159 261 156 217 Medium Min 136.38 136.00 136.21 136.03 136.06 136.01 136.07 136.07 136.14 136-144 cm Max 143.91 143.97 143.99 143.91 143.98 143.99 143.98 143.88 143.97 38.72% Mean 141.16 140.23 140.24 140.22 140.22 140.51 139.96 140.71 140.79 SD 1.99 2.03 2.24 2.25 2.36 2.14 2.16 1.95 2.17 N 131 88 148 67 117 155 137 190 217 Large-medium Min 144.07 144.20 144.01 144.10 144.00 144.01 144.00 144.04 144.00 144-152 cm Max 151.96 151.58 151.98 151.89 151.80 151.97 151.94 151.89 151.93 36.31% Mean 148.23 147.46 147.45 147.28 147.09 147.26 146.91 147.69 147.04 SD 2.17 2.20 2.36 2.11 2.25 2.18 2.09 2.27 2.03 N 48 26 152 10 25 46 13 69 31 Large Min 152.00 152.03 152.02 152.00 152.02 152.04 152.66 152.03 152.02 152-160 cm Max 159.92 159.69 160.03 158.96 159.12 159.71 157.57 159.07 158.27 12.20% Mean 154.12 155.18 155.33 154.59 154.24 154.75 154.09 154.67 154.47 SD 2.147 2.53 2.02 2.13 1.98 1.99 1.35 1.89 1.95 N 6 3 - - - 2-7 - Very large Min 160.33 161.38 - - - 161.58-160.14-160-168 cm Max 167.00 162.23 - - - 165.65-164.31-0.52% Mean 162.89 161.72 - - - 163.62-162.02 - SD 2.61 0.45 - - - 2.87-1.81 - N - 2 - - - 1 - - - Giant Min - 171.23 - - - 183.78 - - - 168cm Max - 176.40 - - - 183.78 - - - 0.09% Mean - 173.82 - - - 183.78 - - - SD - 3.66 - - - 0.00 - - - *: According to VITT [34] quoted by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]; CR: Skull (cranium), SCA: scapula, HUM: humerus, ANT-1: according to GL 1 value of antebrachium, ANT-2: according to L1 value of antebrachium, MC: metacarpus, FEM: femur, TIB: tibia, MT: metatarsus Table II: Withers height values (cm) of Byzantine Horses calculated using morphometric measurements of the skulls and long bones, and distribution of the horses by size according to VITT [34]. classification (basilar length in particular) could not be taken and were classified by comparison method (table III). In this type of skulls, any possible measurements taken were compared with the corresponding measurements of the classifiable skulls. Results of these analysis indicated that most of these skulls were medium and large-medium size (67.67%).

36 Size and withers height % Dwarves 112 cm 1.01 Very small 120-112 cm 4.04 Small 120-128 cm 2.02 Medium-Small 128-136 cm 8.08 Medium 136-144 cm 30.30 Large-medium 144-152 cm 37.37 Large 152-160 cm 17.17 Very large 160-168 cm 0 Giant 168 cm 0 Table III: Distribution of size of skulls that were classified by comparison (%). Horse (Equus caballus L.) Sex Age Metacarpus III Metatarsus III Bp/GL*100 SD/GL*100 Bd/GL*100 Bp/GL*100 SD/GL*100 Bd/GL*100 Yenikapı Horse-1 Male 10-11 24.30 15.47 23.84 19.68 12.06 19.10 Yenikapı Horse-2 Male 11-12 23.72 15.76 22.30 19.35 12.00 18.86 Yenikapı Horse-3 Male 8 - - - 18.01 11.34 17.90 Yenikapı Horse-4 Male? 5-10 - - - 19.08 11.55 18.38 Yenikapı Horse-5 Male? 7-10 23.18 14.66 22.28 18.68 11.62 18.20 Yenikapı Horse-6 Male 7-10 - - - - - - Yenikapı Horse-7 Female 7-10 21.53 14.63 20.87 - - - Yenikapı Horse-8 Female 7-10 - - - - - - Yenikapı Horse-9 Female 5-10 - - - 17.31 10.96 16.07 Yenikapı Horse-10? 3.5-4 - - - - - Yenikapı Horse-11? 5-7 - - - 18.05 11.10 16.83 Yenikapı Horse-12? 5-7 - - - 18.05 11.10 16.83 Yenikapı Horse-13 Male 5-7 22.77 15.04 22.65 18.92 11.77 18.50 Yenikapı Horse-14 Male 7-10 - - - - - - Yenikapı Horse-15 Male 4.5-5 22.22 14.36 23.05 - - - Yenikapı Horse-16 Male 7-10 - - - - - - Yenikapı Horse-17 Male 9 21.74 14.53 20.82 18.34 11.93 17.32 Yenikapı Horse-18 Male 12-15 21.71 14.87 20.54 17.93 11.43 16.58 Yenikapı Horse-19 Male 10-11 - - - - - - Yenikapı Horse-20? 4-5 - - - - - - Table IV: Metapodial slenderness and articular indices of Yenikapı in situ horse skeletons In our study, slenderness (SD/GL*100), proximal (Bp/ GL*100) and distal (Bd/GL*100) articular indices were calculated using metapodial bone measurements. These calculations were made according to the size classification based on the greatest length (GL) of the bones concerned (metacarpus or metatarsus) as described by VITT [34]. Metapodial slenderness and articular indices of the 20 horses referred to as near-in situ skeletons (some parts/ bones were missing) were evaluated separately from other metapodiums scattered around the excavation area (table IV). Metacarpal and metatarsal indices of all horse skeletons that were not in situ and scattered over the excavation area are given in table V. According to the Brauner s metacarpal slenderness index classification and the size classification based on the greatest length (GL) of the bone as described by VITT [34], these

BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION 37 animals were regarded as slightly slender legged (44%) (table VI and VII). These were followed by slender legged animals. There was one horse in the very large class and very slender legged (N=1) suggesting that this specimen might have been castrated (table VI). Discussion In our previous study, care and management conditions of Byzantine horses and pathologies observed in these animals were investigated [27]. However, data regarding the visual morphologies of the horses were not included in that paper. With the present study, withers height and structural aspects of the Byzantine horses were evaluated. 20 horse skeletons referred to as near-in situ skeletons were classified according to VITT [34] withers height classification (quoted by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]) and were found to belong to medium (withers height 136-144 cm) and large-medium (withers height 144-152 cm ) animals. It is thought that the reason why a great majority of these horses (70%) were large-medium can be explained by the fact that males constituted 65% of them. Considering the withers height values calculated using the GL measurements, it is believed that the gender could have had an effect on the values obtained [31]. Results of the calculations from the skull and long bone measurements of the horses that were scattered around the excavation area showed that, according to VITT [34] withers height classification (narrated by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35], MÜLLER [26]), more horses (38.72%) were medium size (withers height 136-144 cm). However, the percentages of those in large-medium (withers height Size and withers height Small Medium Mediumsmall Largemedium Large Very large % Metacarpus (n=404) % Metatarsus (n=529) Bp/GL*100 SD/GL*100 Bd/GL*100 Bp/GL*100 SD/GL*100 Bd/GL*100 N 3 3 3 4 4 4 Min 21.93 15.83 22.36 17.08 10.91 15.57 Max 0.74 24.12 16.40 23.69 0.76 21.91 15.21 19.37 Mean 22.92 16.17 23.04 19.01 12.36 17.32 SD 1.11 0.30 0.67 2.28 2.01 1.73 N 32 32 32 35 36 36 Min 21.04 13.29 18.71 17.01 10.46 16.96 Max 7.92 24.99 17.80 24.44 6.81 20.55 13.66 20.41 Mean 22.58 15.10 21.86 18.82 11.79 18.39 SD 0.88 0.94 1.37 0.88 0.79 0.83 N 201 200 202 188 188 188 Min 19.04 12.35 17.66 15.08 10.22 15.43 Max 50.00 24.95 17.15 24.31 35.54 22.00 14.23 21.67 Mean 22.17 14.83 21.55 18.40 11.53 17.90 SD 1.00 0.87 1.22 0.96 0.61 0.98 N 151 151 151 255 255 254 Min 19.21 12.57 18.77 16.24 10.00 16.07 Max 37.38 25.32 16.57 23.58 48.20 20.46 13.09 19.84 Mean 21.97 14.65 21.39 18.27 11.41 17.78 SD 1.04 0.79 1.12 0.84 0.62 0.83 N 15 13 13 46 46 46 Min 20.70 13.12 19.91 16.07 10.21 16.24 Max 3.71 24.19 18.61 23.59 8.70 20.05 12.65 19.30 Mean 22.19 14.84 21.52 18.23 11.35 17.85 SD 1.07 1.44 1.19 0.84 0.55 0.74 N 1 1 1 - - - Min 15.65 9.35 14.12 - - - Max 0.25 15.65 9.35 14.12 0.00 - - - Mean 15.65 9.35 14.12 - - - SD 0.00 0.00 0.00 - - - Table V: Slenderness and articular indices of all metapodiums scattered over excavation area

38 Size N=402 SD/GL*100 Slenderness * % N 3 1 - Small Min 15.83 2-190-205 cm Max 16.40 3 - % 0.74 Mean 16.17 4 100 SD 0.30 5-6 - N 32 1 9.38 Medium-small Min 13.29 2 12.50 205-220 cm Max 17.80 3 43.75 % 7.92 Mean 15.10 4 31.25 SD 0.94 5-6 3.13 N 200 1 10.00 Medium Min 12.35 2 27.50 220-235 cm Max 17.15 3 46.50 % 50.00 Mean 14.83 4 14.00 SD 0.87 5 2.00 6 - N 151 1 8.61 Large-medium Min 12.57 2 35.10 235-250 cm Max 16.57 3 44.37 % 37.38 Mean 14.65 4 11.26 SD 0.79 5 0.66 6 - N 13 1 15.38 Large Min 13.12 2 46.15 250-265 cm Max 18.61 3 15.38 % 3.71 Mean 14.84 4 15.38 SD 1.44 5-6 7.69 N 1 1 100.00 Very large Min 9.35 2-265-280 cm Max 9.35 3 - % 0.25 Mean 9.35 4 - SD 0.00 5-6 - 1: Very slender legged; 2: Slender legged; 3: Slightly slender legged; 4: Medium slender legged; 5: Slightly massive legged; 6: Massive legged; * : Brauner s classification (listed by DE GROSSI MAZZORIN et al. [16] and UDRESCU et al. [33]) Table VI: Distribution of metacarpal slenderness indices according to body size of Yenikapı Horse skeletons Slenderness % 1 9.75 2 29.50 3 44.00 4 15.00 5 1.25 6 0.50 1: Very slender legged; 2: Slender legged; 3: Slightly slender legged; 4: Medium slender legged; 5: Slightly massive legged; 6: Massive legged Table VII: According to Brauner s classification, frequency of metacarpal slenderness index in Yenikapı Byzantine Horses (%)

BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION 39 144-152 cm) were appreciably close (36.31%). The number of horses with withers height below 112 cm or greater than 168 cm were quite low (table II). As seen, the intensity of sizes was in medium and large-medium classes. When only metapodiums are taken into account for his classification, density of the distribution (50%) accumulated in medium class. The interchange observed in density is considered to be associated with the variation range of the horses. A low variation range is usually observed in samples originating from the same region and from a homogenous population [14, 31]. In addition to the effect of gender on morphological changes observed in animal herds that were under human control, effects of regional variations should be taken into account. Situations of the morphological variations depending on the regional difference can be explained by the BERGMANN s [6] rule that predicts a decrease in size of animals with increasing temperature. Depending on the intended use, it is expected to find horses of various morphologies in Byzantine Empire, which encompasses quite a large land area. Another issue that should be noted is that the sample size is important in interpretation of the withers height calculations [22]. A population range obtained from the sites where only few bones were recovered is unlikely to represent a whole period. Interpretation of such limited data can be misleading. This can only be compensated by obtaining a larger sample size. We believe that sample size examined in the current study which contained 20 of near-in situ horse skeletons together with 3443 (NISP=3443) bones was sufficiently large. Accumulation of these samples in two size categories (medium and large-medium) suggests that the population in question was relatively homogenous. It has been reported that the Roman horses, with a significant role in the Empire s period, were affected by Greek and Persian horses, which originated from an eastern stock type. Large eastern horses probably spread over the Roman Empire by means of these strongly affected breeding horses [12]. Although horses for various work types (i.e. race, hunting, transportation etc.) existed within the borders of the empire, efforts were mainly focused on improving the size of military horses. For this purpose, Scythian type large horses were exported and used for improving the size of native horse breeds [22]. Considering the extent of the borders of the Roman Empire and complex cultural structure, variation range in withers height is expected to be even higher. This can include a range varying from 112 cm to 148 cm [8]. Horses were also important during the period of the Byzantine Empire, which was a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire. Considering the empire s land and the wideness of the geographical surface area, it is believed that the same cross-breeding tradition was maintained. In the 58000 m 2 excavation area, which was in the capital city of the empire, even though there were horses with a withers height below 112 cm or above 168 cm, the majority fit between 136 and 152 cm. There were probably horses used for different needs. In this study, the withers height calculations were made based on KIESEWALTER [23] factors (listed by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]). However, some of the errors that exist in the original publication of KIESEWALTER [23] (i.e. about humerus) were corrected by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35], and the latest factors presented by these authors were applied in this study to prevent potential calculation errors. Even though size and morphological differences were reported between the modern and ancient animals [32], use of recent data of modern animals for determining the visible morphologies of archaeological equine bones have always been the most preferred method [35]. KIESEWALTER s [23] factors were not calculated from the living heights of individuals. These factors were based on the estimation of the withers heights from mounted skeletons (as stated in von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35]; AMBROS and MÜLLER [2]; FOREST [18]). It has been reported that they could underestimate the withers height of archaeological horses by using long bone but will definitely not overestimate them [22]. Therefore, we preferred the corrected factors, which are used by mostly archaeozoologists, in our study. Among the bones of skeletons, metapodial bones are the most frequently discovered in archaeological sites because of their rugged structure. They can usually be found intact in the sites [11]. Therefore, metapodia have become the bones that are most used for characterizing the structural features of the horses [10]. For this purpose, metapodial indices were developed. Metapodial slenderness index (SD/GL*100), important in evaluating the slenderness of a skeleton, has been used for differentiating slim and fattened individuals [7, 15, 19]. Therefore, this index remarkably contributed to evaluating the visual morphology. Slenderness index in horses has been accepted as an indicator of strength of a given item, and alongside with the withers height, it plays an important role in representing the animal. As a result, using this index, a given animal can be determined whether it is slenderer or stronger [22]. The withers height of the domestic mammals which is calculated by using the lengths of the long bones is of common use in archaeozoological syntheses and comparisons. Yet this value is obviously very imprecise, and it is useless for the analyse of the biological variation of the real size of domestic animals. For this, it is claimed that only the crude measurements of the bones are mostly useful [18]. Considering this point of view, in classification of the withers height results in our study, the VITT [34] classification method narrated by von den DRIESCH and BOESSNECK [35] and MÜLLER [26] was used. Meantime, in the metacarpal slenderness index evaluations, size classification

40 was made by using the greatest length of metapodia. Comparing Byzantine horses of different periods was made looking at this detail. When the 20 horses referred to as nearin situ skeletons (some parts/bones missing) were classified according to Brauner s metacarpal slenderness (DE GROSSI MAZZORIN et al. [16]; listed by UDRESCU et al. [33]), these horses were generally described as slightly slender legged. Due to some missing bones, general evaluation of the existing parts was taken into account in classification of these 20 skeletons. When size classification of horse metacarpi that was scattered around the area was made using the greatest length (GL) as described by VITT [34], according to Brauner s metacarpal slenderness index classification, these specimen were generally slightly slender legged (40%). These were followed by slender legged animals. Considering the difficulties differentiating the mule and horse bones by their structure (PETERS [32]; quoted by JOHNSTONE [22]), it should be remembered that some of the animals that were classified as very large and slender legged could have been castrated or mules. It is known that mule bones are very slender. From comparing the data of the Yenikapı Byzantine horses with modern horses (table VIII), it can be seen that their withers heights are higher than that of Przewalski and Pony, and the large ones are of the size of Arab horses. However, when Brauner s metacarpal index classification was taken into account, compared to Arab horses, they fell into the slightly slender category. Thus, characteristics of their extremities are observed to be similar to those in Ponies. Results of comparisons of metacarpal slenderness indices of Yenikapı Byzantine Horses between the periods indicated that these horses had similar structural features with other Roman period horses (table IX). Changes in structural aspects of horses occurred during the years of interaction between horses and humans. The most evident example of this was observed during the Iron and Roman periods. It has been reported that there is a remarkable difference in withers heights of Iron Age horses and Roman horses. The average withers height of Iron Age horses was 126 cm while that of Roman horses was 137 cm. As it can be seen, there was a 10 cm increase during the Roman period [1]. However, horses varied significantly in size depending on different use (military, race, hunting, etc.), and the most evident increase in size was particularly observed in military horses [22]. Notably, skeletons of large horses were usually unearthed in military sites [4]. Yenikapı Byzantine horses, the majority of which were medium and large-medium in size, were within the range of the Roman period horses in terms of withers heights. In fact, large-medium horses can be said to have the body conformation of Roman military horses. As shown, the size of Byzantine horses had higher withers height than the horses of the Iron age and later periods in middle Europe, and this may suggest that the effects of traditional Roman horse breeding can be seen and even continuing (see fig 2). Considering that horses were usually exploited for riding and carting during the Byzantine period [27], it is thought that there were effects of eastern group horses on the size and visual morphological aspects of these horses, as seen during Modern reference data* Withers height Metacarpal SD/ GL*100 Metatarsal SD/ GL*100 Brauner s metacarpal slenderness index classification (DE GROSSI MAZZORIN et al. [16]; listed by UDRESCU et al. [33]) Arab Mean 154 13.59 10.75 Very slender legged Pony Mean 128 15.02 11.17 Slightly slender legged Pony Exmoor 133 15.52 0.00 Slightly slender legged Przewalski Mean 131 14.58 11.67 Slender legged Yenikapı Byzantine Horse 1 141 14.83 11.53 Slightly slender legged Yenikapı Byzantine Horse 2 147 14.65 11.41 Slightly slender legged Yenikapı Byzantine Horse 3 155 14.84 11.35 Slightly slender legged 1 : Medium size; 2 : Large-medium size; 3 : Large size; *: Data of Modern horses were taken from JOHNSTONE [22]. p.402. table 6.80. Table VIII: Comparison of results of withers height and slenderness indices between modern references data and Yenikapı Byzantine Horse Bronze Age * Iron Age * Roman * Yenikapı Byzantine Horse * Comparison data were taken from DE GROSSI MAZZORIN et al. [16]. Very slender and medium slender legged horses The majority is slender or slightly slender legged horses Usually medium and slightly slender legged horses Usually slightly slender legged horses Table IX: Comparison of frequencies in slenderness categories of Brauner classification in different periods

BYZANTINE HORSE SKELETONS OF THEODOSIUS HARBOUR: 2. WITHERS HEIGHT ESTIMATION 41 Roman period. Withers height of the eastern group horses was calculated as 136 cm by using metacarpal length, while it was 126 cm in the western group [12]. Based on these data, it is seen that Byzantine horses had higher withers height compared to the western group horses, and from time to time, large size horses were used in crossbreeding of horses depending on the intended use. It is thought that general structural aspects of Byzantine horses were carrying the basic aspects of the ideal Roman Horse [21, 22], yet the target use, as well as breeding preferences, were also a factor. Figure 2: Periodic comparison of Yenikapı Byzantine Horses Acknowledgements The authors of this study offer their grateful thanks to Mrs. Zeynep Kızıltan, the director of Istanbul Archaeological Museums for her contributions by expertise and knowledge at every stage of Yenikapı project works. Also the vice directors Mr. Rahmi Asal, Ms. Tuğce Akbaytogan, Ms. Gülbahar Baran Çelik, to archaeologist Mr. Metin Gökçay, Archaeologist Mr. Sırrı Çömlekçi, Archaeologist Mr. Mehmet Ali Polat, Archaeologist Mr. Emre Öncü. We thank also to Krzysztof Tarnawski, M.Sc.Eng. for his invaluable contribution to the hard task of translating this article into English. This work was supported by TÜBİTAK (Project Number: 107O518). References 1. - ALBARELLA U., JOHNSTONE C., VICKERS, K.: The development of the animal husbandry from the late Iron Age to the end of the Roman period: a case study from South-East Britain. Journal of Archaeological Science, 2008, 35, 1828-1848. 2. - AMBROS C., MÜLLER H.-H.: Zur Methode der Widerristhöhenberechnung aus den Längenmassen der Extremitätknochen beim Pferd. In: A.T. CLASON (ed.), Archaeozoological Studies, North Holland Publ. Comp., Amsterdam, 1975, 45-50. 3. - ANTHONY D. W.: The domestication of the horse. In: R. H. MEADOW and H.-P. UERPMANN (eds.), Equids in the Ancient World, Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden, 1991, 250 77. 4. - APPLEBAUM S.: Animal Husbandry. In: J. WACHER (ed.), The Roman World, Chapter 19, Routledge, Great Britain, 2001. 5. - AUDOIN-ROUZEAU F.: La taille du Cheval en Europe de l Antiquité aux Temps Modernes. Centre de Recherches Archéologiques du CNRS. APDCA, Fiches d Ostéologie Animale pour l Archéologie, Série B : Mammifères 5, Juan-les-Pins, 1994, Pp.37. 6. - BERGMANN C.: Ueber die verhältnisse der wärmeökonomie der thiere zu ihrer grösse. Gottinger studien, 1847, 3, 595 708. 7. - BERTEAUX D., GUINTARD C.: Osteometric study of the metapodials of Amsterdam Island feral cattle. Acta Theriologica, 1995, 40, 97-110. 8. - BOESSNECK J, VON DEN DRIESCH A., MEYER- LEMPPENAU U., WECHSLER-VON OHLEN, E.: Die Tierknochenfunde aus dem Oppidium von Manching. Franz Steiner Verlag GMBH, Wiesbaden, 1971. 9. - BÖKÖNYI S.: Development and history of domestic animals in Hungary: The Neolithic through the Middle Ages. American Anthropologist, New Series, 1971, 73, 640-674. 10. - BÖKÖNYI S.: Animal Husbandry from the late Neolithic through the Roman Period. In: L. BARTOSIEWICZ (ed.), The Chora of Metaponta 2: Archaeozoology at Pantanello and five other sites. Studies by S. Bökönyi. E. Gál. The University of Texas Press, Austin, U.S.A., 2010. 11. - BÖKÖNYI S.: Data on Iron Age horses of central and eastern Europe. Mecklenburg Collection. Part I. Peabody Museum. Harvard University Bulletin, 25, 1968, 18-39. 12. - BÖKÖNYI S.: History of Domestic Mammals in Central and Eastern Europe. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1974. 13. - DARIO C., CARNICELLA D., DARIO M., BUFANO G.: Morphological evolution and heritability estimates for some biometric traits in the Murgese horse breed. Genetics and Molecular Research, 2006, 5, 309-314. 14. - DAVIS S. J. M.: Measurements a group of adult female Shetland sheep skeletons from a single flock: a baseline for zooarchaeologists. Journal of Archaeological Science, 1996, 23, 593-612. 15. - DAVIS S. J. M.: The effect of castration and age on the development of the Shetland sheep skeleton and a metric comparison between bones of males, females and castrates. Journal of Archaeological Science, 2000, 27, 373-390. 16. - DE GROSSI MAZZORIN J., RIEDEL A., TAGLIACOZZO A.: Horse remains in Italy from the Eneolithic to the Roman period. In: C. PERETTO and C. GIUNCHI (eds.), Proceedings of the XIII International Congress of the UISPP, Vol. VI-Tome 1, Forlí, Italy, 1998, 87 92. 17. - EISENMANN V., BECKOUCHE S.: Identification and discrimination of metapodials from Pleistocene and

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