Politicl Footbll: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson nd Gridiron Reform Movement Author(s): John S. Wtterson III Source: Presidentil Studies Qurterly, Vol. 25, No. 3, Civil Rights nd Presidentil Ledership (Summer, 1995), pp. 555-564 Published by: Wiley on behlf of Center for Study of Presidency nd Congress Stble URL: http://www.jsr.org/stble/27551467. Accessed: 05/11/2013 20:04 Your use of JSTOR rchive indictes your cceptnce of Terms & Conditions of Use, vilble t. http://www.jsr.org/pge/info/bout/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR is not-for-profit service tht helps scholrs, reserchers, nd students discover, use, nd build upon wide rnge of content in trusted digitl rchive. We use informtion technology nd ols increse productivity nd fcilitte new forms of scholrship. For more informtion bout JSTOR, plese contct support@jsr.org.. Wiley nd Center for Study of Presidency nd Congress re collborting with JSTOR digitize, preserve nd extend ccess Presidentil Studies Qurterly. http://www.jsr.org All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions
Politicl Footbll: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson nd Gridiron Reform Movement JOHN S. WATTERSON III* Adjunct Professor of Hisry fmes Mdison nd University University of Virgini Abstrct In erly stges of Progressive reform, Theodore Roosevelt nd Woodrow Wilson ok n intense interest in over controversy reform of college footbll. In 1890s nd erly 1900s, college footbll fced rrent of criticism over injuries nd role of thletics in college life. Roosevelt nd Wilson, loyl followers of Hrvrd nd Princen, hd defended footbll in 1890s. In fll of 1905, however, President Theodore Roosevelt clled estern conference of footbll experts t White House discuss nd brutlity unsportsmnlike conduct. During controversies tht followed, Roosevelt worked behind scenes bring bout sufficient reform preserve footbll nd ensure tht it would continue be plyed t Hrvrd. In 1909-10, when college footbll gin fced n injury crisis, President Woodrow Wilson of Princen University worked with or s of estern "Big Three" mke resonble reforms. In ir styles of promoting footbll reform, both Roosevelt nd Wilson showed pproches tht coincided with ir strtegies for politicl chnge while serving in Americn presidency. In yers tht followed on reforms gridiron, footbll evolved in rpidly "ttrctive" gme tht Wilson hd dvocted nd fr less brutl gme thn unruly spectcle tht Roosevelt hd tried control. Few would regrd college footbll s essentil for il job descrip tion. Yet Dwight Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Richrd Nixon, Ronld Regn nd Gerld Ford ll plyed college footbll, nd Ford in 1934 ws voted University of Michign's most vluble plyer. Though he never ok field, Herbert Hoover served s business mnger for Stnford University's first tem collecting gte receipts t first Stnford-University of Cliforni gme in 1892. Two s who cme office in Progressive Er lso hd n intense interest in college footbll. Though Theodore Roosevelt nd Woodrow Wilson never prticipted in scrub or vrsity gmes, y hd opportunities influence direction of footbll. Roosevelt in 1905 summoned estern footbll experts n informl White House conference nd Wilson ws of Princen when footbll fced chllenges its survivl. Their prgmtic nd t times emotionl commitment footbll s gme worth sving reflected lte nineteenth century conviction tht thletics nd especilly footbll were essentil building chrcter; 555 All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions
556 j PRESIDENTIAL STUDIES QUARTERLY yet ech's differing wy of pproching politicl situtions, so obvious in ir presi dencies, lso showed up in ir response footbll. Not surprisingly, since both men dmired footbll nd wnted preserve footbll, ir rections criticism of footbll prllel ir pproches wrd broder socil nd economic problems. Just s y sought find middle-of--rod reforms lly criticisms of cpitlist system, so y lso fvored prgmtic reforms tht would not jeoprdize college footbll.1 From 1880s erly 1900s, footbll grew enormously in populrity. From its origins in British rugby, sport hd ssumed distinctly Americn chrcter. With few officils nd often unenforceble rules, it lso gined sometime unsvory reputtion. Members of Hrvrd committee investigting footbll in 1884 were pplled by its brutlity. One plyer fter unfirly knocking his opponent out of bounds hit his opponent s gin he ws getting up nd sle bll from him. From spectrs y herd cries of "kill him" nd "brek his neck." In 1885, Hrvrd fculty bnned footbll, but its populrity mong students nd lumni led its reinsttement seson. following In 1893, Hrper's l Weekly mented: over "Looking reports of gmes, re is one scrcely be found tht does not contin, eir in rulings of or umpire running ccount of gme, some evidence of foul ply."2 The most influentil figure in college footbll from erly 1880s until 1910 ws Wlter Cmp, former plyer who hd grduted from Yle in 1880, sme yer s Theodore Roosevelt did from Hrvrd. Cmp served s n d hoc coch for Yle tem nd secretry of influentil footbll rules committee. Through his s prestige well s skill in footbll diplomcy, Cmp mneuvered through footbll conventions nd committees crucil chnges such s rule llowing tem retin possession fter ws plyer tckled nd its counterprt, yrds nd downs rule, tht distnced Americn footbll from old rugby gme. In 1888, under Cmp's tutelge, rules' convention leglized blocking in front of bll crrier nd tckling below knees. While pursuing business creer in New Hven, Cmp "dvised" Yle tem tht won 285, lost only 14 nd tied 12 from 1883 1910.3 The rugby gme tht ws evolve in Americn footbll hd brely been dopted by estern colleges when Theodore Roosevelt (Hrvrd '80) nd Woodrow Wilson (Princen '79) were n undergrdutes. Though enthusistic thlete, Roose velt did not ply footbll, perhps becuse of his nersightedness. While he developed n intense interest in sport, Wilson lso remined on sidelines becuse of helth problems he hd erlier suffered t Dvidson College. Lter Wilson would some pply of expertise he hd s gined student-observer when he served s n ssistnt coch tem t Wesleyn. When he becme t professor Princen in 1891, he closely followed Princen's thletic fortunes s chirmn of fculty committee on outdoor sports.4 In speking Princen lumni clubs in 1890s, he ppeled ir interest in footbll. "Princen is noted in wide world for three things," he once ld n lumni group, "footbll, bsebll, nd collegite instruction. I suppose first of se is wht you wnt her bout."5 Despite All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions
POLITICAL FOOTBALL 557 his pprent rnking of footbll bove intellectul pursuits, Wilson ws sometimes pplled by student preoccuption with thletics exclusion of wht ws hppening in ntionl life.6 Both men defended footbll in 1890s when it cme under ttck s violent nd dngerous ctivity inpproprite for college students. The first round of criticism erupted in erly 1893 s footbll ws spreding every cmpus with enough mle students field tem. Such crisis ws perhps inevitble in midst of growing numbers plying gme with indequte protection for heds nd necks. As crowds t big gmes in New York surged more thn 30,000, serious injuries gined wider noriety. In 1894 Yle-Hrvrd gme, Yle cptin Frnk Hinkey mde "lte hit" on Hrvrd bll crrier breking his collrbone.7 In n even more violent Thnksgiving contest in Wshingn D.C., Georgewn hlfbck George "Shorty" Bhen ws ftlly injured by beting he ok t hnds of semi-professionl Columbi Athletic Club.8 As supporter of footbll, nd debter, Woodrow Wilson engged in one-on-one debte with Cornell professor of nmy, Burt Wilder, who clled for bolition of ll college thletics. The pic ws, "Should footbll Be Encourged," nd Wilson ok ffirmtive. "I believe," Wilson sid, "it more develops morl qulities thn ny or gme of thletics."9 Wilson lso climed tht it encourged vluble qulities such s precision, decision, presence of mind nd endurnce. He rgued tht colleges opposed footbll were those who hd been unsuccessful in mking it gme of mteurs. An older mn who hd n plyed erlier version of footbll forty yers before, Wilder responded tht if footbll were morl gme, why did n ex-footbll cptin recently dmit tht it ok n umpire keep order on field?10 One outspoken critic of footbll who dismyed both Roosevelt nd Wilson ws Chrles Eliot, eductionl reformer who ws of Roosevelt's lm mter, Hrvrd. In his nnul report of Mrch 1894, Eliot lunched n ttck on college thletics, on prticulrly footbll, nd those criticisms went beyond furor over injuries. The on emphsis footbll conveyed public tht were colleges scrcely more thn "plces of mere physicl sport nd not of intellectul trining" nd tht gte receipts for big gmes hd put higher eduction in entertinment business.11 Fr from building morl chrcter, footbll dulled instincts nd youthful coches converted plyers in "powerful nimls."12 Eliot's sweeping criticisms brought powerful rebuttls from Theodore Roose velt, whose opinions were closer Wlter Cmp thn Hrvrd nd fculty. In 1895, when Cmp published defense of college footbll from questionnires sent out former plyers, Roosevelt hertily congrtulted Cmp on resulting book, Footbll Fcts nd Figures. "Of ll gmes," Roosevelt com mented, "I personlly like foot bll best, nd I would rr see my boys ply it thn see m ply ny or. I hve no ptience with people who declim ginst it becuse it necessittes rough ply nd occsionl injuries."13 He ws "utterly disgusted" by ttitudes of President Eliot nd Hrvrd fculty. Yet he lso showed mbivlence tht would chrcterize his reform All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions
558 PRESIDENTIAL STUDIES QUARTERLY efforts s. He mentioned Cmp tht he fvored chnging rules eliminte unnecessry roughness nd require stiffer penlties by officils. Still, if it were choice of keeping footbll with it s brutlity opposed bolishing it, he would vote keep it. Roosevelt quoted his friend Judge Willim Howrd Tft, Yle grdute, who hd recently sid "'he wnted reformers who te rost beef, nd who were ble mke ir blows felt in world.'"14 Tft hd been referring civil service reform, but for Roosevelt point pplied ll reform nd reformers. Politicins like footbll plyers hd be morl, but y lso hd be effective. Among most effective were former thletes such s Congressmn Henry Cbot Lodge, who swm t Hrvrd nd now ws n expert horsemn. Roosevelt described his own joy in s riding outdoor recretion, rougher better. "I ws knocked sense-less t polo once, nd it ws couple of hours before I cme. I broke n rm once riding hounds, nd my nose nor time; nd out on roundup in west I once broke rib nd t nor time point of my shoulder."15 In Spnish-Americn Wr in 1898, he hd orgnized cvlry unit clled "The Rough Riders." Compred with his rough-nd tumble ctivities, college boys plying footbll rn moderte nd cceptble risks. Becuse footbll encourged virile qulities, it ws vluble ntidote cor rupting tendencies of modern industril society. Though Wilson led rmchir life tht Roosevelt often deplored, he ws n vid follower of Princen's footbll fortunes. Belying his lter s reputtion loof nd unemotionl, Wilson ws overwhelmed by defet of Princen by University of Pennsylvni in 1892. "I think Woodrow would hve hd some kind of collpse if we hd lost in politics o!", wrote his wife Ellen Axson Wilson.16 (Luckily for Wilson's pece of mind, Democrt Grover Clevelnd hd defeted incumbent Benjmin Hrrison tht sme week.) Alwys dvocte, Roosevelt ws upset by Hrvrd's inbility win big gme with Yle. Under Wlter Cmp, Yle won prcticlly every meeting with Hrvrd before 1910, even when Hrvrd seemed hve stronger tems. After Yle triumph in 1907 President nerly lost his composure t cbinet meeting when Interior Secretry Jmes Grfield, Willims grdute, tunted with suggestion tht Hrvrd substitute Vssr for Yle. "I behved with wht dignity I could," Roosevelt confessed, "under distressing conditions."17 The crises of 1890s persisted in first decdes of twentieth century, some despite rules chnges by Wlter Cmp's elite committee. Mny critics deplored wht were known s "momentum were plys." Plyers permitted go in motion before snp of bll so y often sprinted wrd ir opponents before bll ws put in ply. The flying wedge, which ws prohibited in 1893, virtully seled bll crrier between two wedges tht converged t midfield. While momentum plys were grdully eliminted by rules chnges, pushing nd pulling of bll crrier known s mss ply llowed tngled mob of plyers engge in violence undetected by officils. The open ply tht hd chrcterized erly footbll seemed hve degenerted in tug of wr t wht ws lter clled line of scrimmge.18 All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions
POLITICAL FOOTBALL 559 With dwn of Progressive Er in erly 1900s, college footbll cme under sme scrutiny s or res problem in Americn life. some Though critics like Eliot complined tht footbll subverted spirit of cdemic life, most common complints before 1905 were directed ginst persistent cts of violence nd unsportsmnlike conduct. Colleges lso were supposed field tems of mteur thletes, yet footbll hd since 1890s on verged professionlism identified with bsebll nd prize ring. The high morl ne tht Wilson hd climed for footbll in 1894 ws undermined by unmteur recruiting prctices nd semi-professionl "trmp thletes" s posing legitimte college students. This ws on President Theodore Roosevelt's mind in June 1905 when in his commencement t speech Hrvrd he coupled criticisms of commercil interests with problems of brutlity nd professionlism in college thletics.19 This cme speech just fter first of two-prt series of muckrking rticles on college thletics in McClure's Mgzine. The uthor, Henry Bech Needhm, ws friend nd dmirer of Roosevelt, nd two plnned meet just fter Roosevelt's Hrvrd speech. Wht y discussed is not known, but it is hrd believe tht hd not red rticles nd tht subject would not hve risen in ir converstion.20 Needhm devoted his rticles vrious evils, including recruiting, pyment of coches, professionlism nd violence. He gve exmples of thletes who were llowed chet on entrnce exms nd were supported by finncil ssistnce not vilble or students. One t plyer Yle ws given lucrtive cigrette frnchise for Americn Tobcco Compny, while Princen str received bsebll scorecrd concession. Needhm lso described one estern trmp thlete, who fter plying strong gme for Penn Stte ginst University of Pennsylvni, showed up next week for prctice with Penn tem. The following yer he plyed gmes for both Penn nd Penn Stte.21 Nor did Needhm overlook violence. Since 1890s, term "put out of business" hd referred, in footbll context, intentionl injuries of key plyers. Needhm gve exmple of blck plyer for Drtmouth who suffered broken collrbone erly in gme ginst Princen. When guilty Princen plyer ws confronted by friend on Drtmouth tem, he denied tht injury hd nything do with rce. "We didn't put him out becuse he is blck mn," he replied. "We're coched out pick most mn on dngerous opposing side nd put him out in first five minutes of ply."22 In September 1905, Roosevelt received ple from, his friend Endicott Pebody, hedmster of Gron School. On behlf of group of estern privte schools, Pebody sked intervene. The hedmsters were concerned tht behvior on ws college gridiron corrupting ir own thletes. The ple chief executive who hd grduted from Hrvrd nd ok n interest in college thletics not might hve been unusul. Tht who hd just resolved Russo-Jpnese Wr nd hd erlier intervened in fr more crucil col strike in 1903 would commit himself footbll reform ws unprecedented.23 Yet Roosevelt my hve hd resons tht went beyond public criticisms of college thletics. His son Ted ws plying for Hrvrd freshmn tem, nd All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions
560 PRESIDENTIAL STUDIES QUARTERLY his son's on plce tem could only mke more wre of college footbll generlly. Also Chrles Eliot nd members of Hrvrd fculty persisted in ir hostility wrd footbll. If Eliot nd fculty hd ir wy, footbll t Hrvrd might be suspended. As believer in virtues of footbll, must hve relized tht if Hrvrd ever bolished footbll, s it hd thretened do severl times since 1885, it would del crippling blow big-time estern footbll. Unlike Woodrow Wilson who preferred sponsor structurl reforms, Roosevelt tended intervene publicly nd n set chnges in motion by exerting pressure from behind scenes. In Ocber 1905, invited representtives from Hrvrd, Yle nd Princen White House. By ppeling most powerful figures in estern footbll, he could influence footbll t every level, or so it my hve seemed. On fternoon of Ocber 9, six footbll experts including Wlter Cmp nd Hrvrd coch Bill Reid st round tble in room dining of White House. Roosevelt opened meeting by remrks on footbll generlly nd gve exmples of unfir prctices drwn from ech of colleges. Severl of those present ok issue with some of 's remrks, but Roosevelt hd lst word. After group hd retired porch for more discussion, he sked three senior members of group drft sttement pledging ir schools ply gme in fir nd mnner. sportsmnlike A sttement ws drwn up on return trip nd signed by ll of prticipnts.24 Unfortuntely for Roosevelt, meeting did not end violence in estern foot bll. If nything, it directed more ttention footbll in seson in which re were lrger number of deths reported from footbll nd severl violent gmes mong estern tems. In Hrvrd-Yle gme, Hrvrd cptin Frncis Burr ws kicked in nose fter clling for fir ctch. Though Burr's nose ws broken nd bleeding, officil Pul Dshiell did not penlize Yle. Even 's son Ted hd his rm broken in freshmn gme between Hrvrd nd Yle.25 one Only of twenty-five deths ok plce in estern college footbll, but tht one deth proved turning point. When Union ws College plyer killed in gme ginst New York University, Chncellor Henry M. McCrcken of NYU summoned first of two intercollegite conferences. In second conference invittions went out ll footbll-plying colleges nd universities, nd represent tives of more thn sixty schools met in lte December, The old rules committee hd met in erly December, yet no reforms hd been encted. As result, New York conference ppointed committee drw up new rules.26 Roosevelt closely followed crisis, but from behind scenes. He met twice more with Bill Reid, Hrvrd coch, nd corresponded with Pul Dshiell, officil in Hrvrd-Yle gme who ws lso member of rules committee. He pressured Dshiell merge old committee with new group. His prot?g?, Hrvrd coch Bill Reid, left old committee meet with new. In this wy Roosevelt contributed merger which ok plce in mid-jnury. This merger probbly sved footbll t Hrvrd, becuse Hrvrd fculty hd voted suspend footbll unless ir list of demnds for chnges in rules were met. All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions
POLITICAL FOOTBALL 561 The joint rules committee encted series of sweeping chnges designed reduce mss t ply line. To crete more open gme, rulesmkers dopted ten-yrd rule. This would llow tem hve three opportunities gin ten yrds, rr thn five s yrds before. More controversil ws forwrd pss tht mrked most rdicl deprture from older styles of footbll since possession nd blocking rules of 1880s.27 Therefter, Roosevelt plyed no furr role in footbll reform. In his few public sttements, he reverted his pre-1905 defense of college footbll. In speech t Hrvrd in 1907, he strongly opposed bolishing it. His rgument ws tht preprry schools were ble keep footbll clen without bolishing it, though ple from those schools hd spurred him in ction in 1905. "There is no excuse whtever for colleges filing show sme cpcity, nd re is no rel need for considering question of bolition of gme."28 If necessry, college uthorities could intervene prevent buses, but only in limited wy. He defended sports in generl "in ir rougher forms" s promoting courge, n echo of his pre-1905 credo. Possibly Roosevelt hd lerned tht President Chrles Eliot in his soon--be-relesed nnul report would criticize new footbll s just s "fierce" nd s much s ever "n undesirble gme for gentlemen ply or for multitudes of spectrs wtch."29 Whtever his motives, Roosevelt in footbll, s in socil nd economic reforms, preferred llow those entrusted with power, in this cse footbll estblishment, operte without interference s s long excesses were held in check. As ideologicl gulf between Eliot nd Roosevelt suggests, crisis of confidence in college footbll hd not wholly disppered. While deths nd serious injuries from footbll t first dropped, estern tems hd reson pproch forwrd pss with cution. Incompleted psses were penlized with fifteen-yrd penlty. As tems djusted new rules, pushing nd pulling resumed. In 1909, once rose injuries gin lrmingly nd n outcry resulted when plyers died in Army-Hrvrd nd University of Virgini-Georgewn gmes. With demnds for bolition, university s plyed lrger role thn y hd in 1905 06. The Big Three, Hrvrd, Yle nd Princen hd not ttended December 1905 conference nor joined Intercollegite Athletic Conference (predecessor of NCAA). President Arthur Hdley of Yle invited Lwrence Lowell, new of Hrvrd, nd Woodrow Wilson, now of Princen, meet nd set up committee propose chnges.30 Wilson like mny college s hd plyed sidelines role in 1905-06 controversy. Fr more thn Roosevelt, Wilson rected events on gridiron rr thn nticipting problems nd frming solutions s Roosevelt hd. Writing President Wheeler of University of Cliforni in December 1905, Wilson sw need for reform but ws unwilling commit himself conference of footbll-plying schools. "I m not redy hve footbll bolished," he sid, "nd yet I m wre pinfully of our sitution in regrd reform."31 Tht "sitution" referred December 1905 conference of professors nd college s tht succeeded in breking control of Wlter Cmp's estern-oriented footbll rules committee. All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions
562 j PRESIDENTIAL STUDIES QUARTERLY Unlike erlier crisis, s of Hrvrd, Yle nd Princen in erly months of 1910 hd little choice but ddress outcry ginst footbll. As of Princen, Wilson hd wrred ginst eting clubs t Princen in n ttempt improve qulity of institution. Such cmpign improve eduction could not be seprted from efforts prevent buses in college footbll. Yet Big Three hd tken conservtive pproch in 1906 by remining outside new Intercollegite Athletic Assocition. It my now hve bored Wilson tht President Hdley wnted control pce of reform while recpturing influence tht Yle hd once wielded. Whtever Hdley hd in mind, Wilson proved disppointment in ir first meeting. Hdley wrote Lowell tht Wilson seemed "emotionl" bout injury problems. He wnted committee of footbll experts from three schools mke sweeping demnds bout sfety nd clled for bolition if se demnds were not met. In on deciding instructions committee, Wilson rected strongly ginst "microscopic" preoccuption with injuries. Though he ws concerned with sfety, Wilson clled for broder chnges including bolition of mss ply crete gme tht ws "more ttrctive."32 Wilson could hrdly hve devoted time footbll tht mny of his fellow s did in 1910. He ws locked in his own over struggle loction of grdute school, conflict tht would led his resigntion in April 1910. Yet he clung his erlier unqulified support of footbll nd supported those s nd fculty who wnted eliminte mss ply. Or thn crisis over gridiron sfety, however, he did not consider "mere thletics" serious problem. "I would bide intellectul rivlry of study with thletics without much misgivings," he sid. He deplored tendency of verge student "stndrdize" himself, yet considered eting clubs t Princen fr more subversive eduction thn stu dents' preoccuption with college sports.33 While President Hdley's committee ws trying get in motion, joint committees of Intercollegite Athletic Assocition moved in direction Wilson hd fvored. Mss ply ws finlly eliminted, nd though forwrd pss ws still hmpered by restrictions, most severe were penlties removed. Adding fourth down in 1912 s well s bolishing twenty-yrd limit on forwrd psses put finishing uches on fr more cceptble gme. With use convincing of forwrd pss in 1913 by Notre Dme ginst Army, more "ttrctive" gme tht Wilson hd clled for ws emerging. On November 10, 1910, in tlk Princen footbll tem, Woodrow Wilson, now Governor-Elect of New Jersey, rgued tht "new rules re doing much bring footbll high level s sport, for its brutl fetures re being done wy with nd better elements retined." He prised elimintion of mss out ply, pointing tht gme ws more interesting nd more "desirble" plyers. All of this reflected rebirth of Americn idels, he opined, nd rejection of pure mteril success.34 It is worth noting tht neir he nor Roosevelt ddressed problem college life, but viewed footbll's problems lmost exclusively of wht on hppened plying field. of footbll's role in from stndpoint All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions
POLITICAL FOOTBALL 563 Still, fter decdes of uncriticl support for college footbll, Roosevelt nd Wilson were remrkbly willing during 1905-06 nd 1909-10 support chnges in rules. Despite his tlk of bolition Hdley, Wilson identified mss ply s source of injury problem nd of footbll's trnished imge. Roosevelt in 1905 briefly ok in his hnds sitution tht Wlter Cmp's rules committee hd filed resolve. Both Roosevelt nd Wilson ssocited footbll in different wys with eductive purpose of building morl chrcter, but for prcticl purposes treted footbll s if it were politicl question. While Roosevelt intervened directly s he hd in mjor domestic nd interntionl crises, Wilson suggested structurl solutions, s he did with bnking system nd triff. Obviously re re? mjor differences neir hd fce or Congress elecrte with footbll s n issue nd both rected somewht s rdent fns who did not wnt give up fvorite spectr sport. Yet in style if not substnce, shifts in Roosevelt's nd Wilson's ttitudes wrd footbll reform from 1890s crises of 1900s prllel ctivity, ir pproch wrd cpitlism: do wy with buses so tht n worthy in principle, might continue flourish. * The uthor wishes express his pprecition Professor Edmond Kllin of Centrl Florid University for ssistnce in prepring finl drft of this essy. Notes 1. John Miln Cooper, Jr., The Wrrior nd Priest, Woodrow Wilson nd Theodore Roosevelt. Cmbridge: The Belknp Press of Hrvrd University Press, 1983. 2. The Crimson Dily (Hrvrd), December 4, 1885. "Footbll Ethics," Hrper's November Weekly, 18, 1893, p. 1095. 3. Hrtford W.H. Powel, Wlter Cmp, Fr of Americn Footbll, An Authorized Biogrphy (Bosn: Little, Brown & Co., 1926). Richrd P. Borkowski, "The Life nd Contributions of Wlter Americn Cmp Footbll," (Unpublished Ph.D., Disserttion, Temple University, 1979). Guy M. Lewis, "The Americn Intercollegite Footbll Spectcle, 1869-1917" (Unpub lished Docrl Disserttion: University of Mrylnd, 1964). 4. Prke H. Dvis, "Wht Woodrow Wilson Did for Americn Footbll," St. Nichols 40: 13 19, November 1912, pp. 13-14. 5. Arthur S. Link (ed.), The Ppers of Woodrow Wilson (65 vols; Princen: Princen University Press, 1966-89), 8, 449-450. 6. Ibid., 47-48. 7. New York Dily Tribune, November 25, 1894. New York Times, December 1, 1894. 8. Georgewn University Archives, Footbll, 1888-1896. 9. Link (ed.), The Ppers of Woodrow Wilson, 8, 482-483. 10. Ibid. 11. "President Eliot's 12. Ibid. Report," 13. Theodore Roosevelt Wlter Archives, New Hven. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. Hrvrd Cmp, Grdute's Mgzine, III, 1894: 374-383. Mrch 11, 1895, Wlter Cmp Ppers, 16. Ellen Axon Wilson Ann Hrris, November 22, 1892, Link Wilson, 8, 47-48. (ed.), The Yle Ppers University of Woodrow 17. Theodore Roosevelt Henry Bech Needhm, July 19, 1905, Elting Morison, ed., The Letters Theodore Roosevelt (8 vols; Cmbridge: Hrvrd University Press, 1951), 4, 1280-1282. Roosevelt described himself s "not n thlete, I m simply good, ordinry, out-of-doors mn." of All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions
564 I PRESIDENTIAL STUDIES QUARTERLY 18. John Hmmond Moore, "Footbll's Ugly Decdes, 1893-1913," The Smithsonin journl of Hisry, 2 (1967): 49-63. John Lucs nd Ronld Smith, Sg of Americn Sport (Phildelphi: Le & Febiger, 1978), 242-245. 19. New York Times, June 29, 1905. 20. Henry Bech Needhm, "The College Athlete," Prt I, "How Commercilism Is Mking Him Professionl," McClure's Mgzine, 25 (1905): 115-128. "The College Athlete, His Amteur Code: Its Evsion nd Administrtion," Ibid., July 1905, 260-273. 21. Needhm, "The College Athlete, How Commercilism Is Mking Him Professionl," 272. 22. Needhm, "The College Athlete, His Amteur Code: Its Evsion nd Administrtion," 270. 23. Theodore Roosevelt Wlter Cmp, November 24, 1905, Morison (ed.), The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 5, 94. It hd been rumored tht Ted hd been "mbushed" by Yle, but Roosevelt quoted from Ted's letters ssure Cmp tht this ws not cse. 24. Diry, Bill Reid, Entry for Ocber 9, 1905, Hrvrd University Archives. Ronld Smith, (ed.), Big Time Footbll t Hrvrd, 1905: The Diry of Coch Bill Reid (Urbn, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 193-195. 25. Ronld Smith, Sports nd Freedom, The Rise of Big-Time College Athletics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 196-197. 26. New York Times, December 9, 16, 28, 29, 1905. 27. Guy M. Lewis, "Theodore Roosevelt's Role in 1905 Footbll Controversy," Reserch Qur terly, 40 (1969): 717-724. 28. New York Times, Februry 24, 1907. Three dys lter, Eliot in one of his sometimes bewildering refusls follow up his criticisms of thletics sid he ws in fvor of keeping footbll nd refused respond recent 's speech. New York Times, Februry 27, 1907. 29. Chicgo Record-Herld, Mrch 7, 1907. 30. John S. Wtterson III "The Footbll Crisis of 1909-1910, Response of Estern 'Big Three,'" Journl of Sport Hisry, 8, 1 (Spring 1981), 33-49. 31. Woodrow Wilson Benjmin Ide Wheeler, December 18, 1905, University of Cliforni Archives. 32. Wtterson, "The Footbll Crisis of 1909-10," 39. 33. "An Address Princen Club of Chicgo", Mrch 12, 1908, Link (ed.), The Ppers of Woodrow Wilson, 18, 17-34. 34. "Tlk Footbll Tem," November 10, 1910, Link (ed.), The Ppers of Woodrow Wilson, 22, 4-5. All use subject JSTOR Terms nd Conditions