Home Search Collectons Journals About Contact us My IOPscence Muncpal sold waste and dung cake burnng: dscolorng the Taj Mahal and human health mpacts n Agra Ths content has been downloaded from IOPscence. Please scroll down to see the full text. 2016 Envron. Res. Lett. 11 104009 (http://opscence.op.org/1748-9326/11/10/104009) Vew the table of contents for ths ssue, or go to the journal homepage for more Download detals: IP Address: 115.248.114.51 Ths content was downloaded on 07/10/2016 at 05:41 Please note that terms and condtons apply. You may also be nterested n: Estmatng source-attrbutable health mpacts of ambent fne partculate matter exposure: global premature mortalty from surface transportaton emssons n 2005 S E Chamblss, R Slva, J J West et al. The mpact of European legslatve and technology measures to reduce ar pollutants on ar qualty, human health and clmate S T Turnock, E W Butt, T B Rchardson et al. To what extent can Chna s near-term ar polluton control polcy protect ar qualty and human health? A case study of the Pearl Rver Delta regon Xuja Jang, Chaopeng Hong, Yxuan Zheng et al. Global premature mortalty due to anthropogenc outdoor ar polluton and the contrbuton of past clmate change Raquel A Slva, J Jason West, Yuqang Zhang et al. Cookstoves llustrate the need for a comprehensve carbon market Luke Sanford and Jennfer Burney Kerosene subsdes for household lghtng n Inda: what are the mpacts? Ncholas L Lam, Shonal Pachaur, Pallav Puroht et al.
Envron. Res. Lett. 11 (2016) 104009 do:10.1088/1748-9326/11/10/104009 OPEN ACCESS RECEIVED 24 December 2015 REVISED 5 September 2016 ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION 8 September 2016 PUBLISHED 7 October 2016 Orgnal content from ths work may be used under the terms of the Creatve Commons Attrbuton 3.0 lcence. Any further dstrbuton of ths work must mantan attrbuton to the author(s) and the ttle of the work, journal ctaton and DOI. LETTER Muncpal sold waste and dung cake burnng: dscolorng the Taj Mahal and human health mpacts n Agra Raj M Lal 1, Ajay S Nagpure 2, Lna Luo 1, Sachchda N Trpath 3,5, Anu Ramaswam 2,5, Mchael H Bergn 4 and Armstead G Russell 1,5 1 School of Cvl and Envronmental Engneerng, Georga Insttute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA 2 Center for Scence, Technology, and Envronmental Polcy, Hubert H. Humphrey School of Publc Affars, Unversty of Mnnesota, Mnneapols, MN, USA 3 Department of Cvl Engneerng and Center for Envronmental Scence and Engneerng, Indan Insttute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, UP, Inda 4 School of Cvl and Envronmental Engneerng, Duke Unversty, Durham, NC, USA 5 Authors to whom any correspondence should be addressed. E-mal: ted.russell@gatech.edu, anu@umn.edu and snt@tk.ac.n Keywords: ar qualty, Taj Mahal, muncpal sold waste, MSW nfrastructure and management, ar polluton and health Supplementary materal for ths artcle s avalable onlne Abstract The Taj Mahal an conc World Hertage monument bult of whte marble has become dscolored wth tme, due, n part, to hgh levels of partculate matter (PM) solng ts surface (Bergn et al 2015 Envron. Sc. Technol. 49 808 812). Such dscoloraton has requred extensve and costly treatment (2015 Two Hundred Sxty Second Report on Effects of Polluton on Taj Parlament of Inda Rajya Sabha, New Delh) and despte prevous nterventons to reduce polluton n ts vcnty, the haze and darkenng perssts (Bergn et al 2015 Envron. Sc. Technol. 49 808 812; 2015 Two Hundred Sxty Second Report on Effects of Polluton on Taj Parlament of Inda Rajya Sabha, New Delh).PM responsble for the solng has been attrbuted to a varety of sources ncludng ndustral emssons, vehcular exhaust and bomass burnng, but the contrbuton of the emssons from the burnng of open muncpal sold waste (MSW) may also play an mportant role. A recent source apportonment study of fne partculate matter (PM 2.5 ) at the Taj Mahal showed bomass burnng emssons, whch would nclude MSW emssons, accounted for nearly 40% of organc matter (OM) a component of PM deposton to ts surface (Bergn et al 2015 Envron. Sc. Technol. 49 808 812); dung cake burnng, used extensvely for cookng n the regon, was the suggested culprt and banned wthn the cty lmts (2015 Two Hundred Sxty Second Report on Effects of Polluton on Taj Parlament of Inda Rajya Sabha, New Delh), although the burnng of MSW, a ubqutous practce n the area (Nagpure et al 2015 Envron. Sc. Technol. 49 12904 12), may play a more mportant role n local ar qualty. Usng spatally detaled emsson estmates and ar qualty modelng, we fnd that open MSW burnng leads to about 150 (±130) mg m 2 yr 1 of PM 2.5 beng deposted to the surface of the Taj Mahal compared to about 12 (±3.2) mg m 2 yr 1 from dung cake burnng. Those two sources, combned, also lead to an estmated 713 (377 1050) premature mortaltes n Agra each year, domnated by waste burnng n socoeconomcally lower status neghborhoods. An effectve MSW management strategy would reduce solng of the Taj Mahal, mprove human health, and have addtonal aesthetc benefts. Introducton The Taj Mahal n Agra, Inda s a UNESCO World Hertage Ste that attracts mllons of toursts each year. However, ts surface has been soled over tme, dscolorng ts whte marble façade. Studes have recognzed that poor ar qualty s responsble for the solng and dscoloraton [1, 4 7] and measures have been taken to curb the mpact of local ar polluton around the Taj Mahal ncludng restrctng vehcles 2016 IOP Publshng Ltd
Envron. Res. Lett. 11 (2016) 104009 near the complex, closng over 200 enterprses n Agra, requrng ron foundres to nstall scrubbers and flters on ther smokestacks, prohbtng new pollutng enterprses from beng bult wthn a defned buffer zone around the mausoleum, and most recently, bannng cow dung cake burnng as cookng fuel [2].A recent source apportonment study of fne partculate matter (PM 2.5, whose partcles are less than 2.5 μmn aerodynamc dameter) at the Taj Mahal found that bomass burnng accounts for nearly 40% of all organc matter (OM) deposton to ts surface [1]. Two sources of bomass burnng PM 2.5 n Agra, whch would be ncluded n the measurement of deposted OM, are the open combuston of muncpal sold waste (MSW) and dung cake burnng [3]. The hgh partculate matter (PM) loadngs n Agra also reduce vsblty, further mparng the aesthetc beauty of the Taj Mahal. Whle the dscoloraton of the Taj Mahal and the deteroraton of vsblty may be the most mmedately notceable outcome of MSW and dung cake burnng n the area, human health s of concern as well. The Global Burden of Dsease (GBD) found that of 67 envronmental factors assocated wth premature mortalty, exposure to ambent PM polluton s the 5th leadng cause of premature mortalty n Inda after hgh blood pressure, ndoor ar polluton (whch s also affected by dung cake burnng), smokng and detary rsks [8]. Addtonally, resdental and commercal energy use, ncludng bomass burnng used for heatng and cookng, s responsble for the largest mpact on mortalty lnked to outdoor ar polluton throughout Inda [9]. Rapd growth n Agra, coupled wth a lmted MSW management nfrastructure, has resulted n less effectve waste management that leaves large volumes of trash accumulatng n the streets [3, 10]. Further, generated waste s openly and frequently burned on roadsdes and n resdental and commercal areas n Agra [3] and throughout Inda [10], leadng to byproducts of poor combuston and ncreased pollutant emssons [11 13]. The Central Polluton Control Board of Inda estmated MSW-burnng to contrbute between 5% and 11% of prmary PM emssons from sources wthn ctes [14]. MSW emssons nclude combuston byproducts of plastcs and other waste n addton to bomass, whch can contan chlornated organcs, doxns, polyaromatc hydrocarbons (PAHs), numerous volatle organc compounds (VOCs) and heavy metals ncludng lead, cadmum and mercury [15, 16]. Health mpacts specfc to these toxc compounds are not specfcally addressed n the GBD approach. Dung cake burnng used as cookng fuel has been more studed n Indan ctes [17 19]; 11% of rural Indan households depend on cow dung as ther prmary cookng fuel [19]. Open MSW burnng and dung cake burnng tends to be more concentrated n areas of poorer populatons [3, 20 24], exacerbatng exposures to more vulnerable populatons. MSW and dung cake emssons can also nfluence radatve balance and lead to regonal and global change [11, 25, 26]. In ths paper, the contrbutons of MSW and dung cake burnng to ambent OM and BC (pollutants known to dscolor surfaces [27]) concentratons n Agra, the deposton to and solng of the Taj Mahal, and health mpacts are assessed by quantfyng locaton specfc MSW and dung cake burnng emssons, performng ar qualty and deposton modelng, and conductng a health mpact assessment. Such nformaton can be used to evaluate the potental benefts of polcy nterventons, ncludng mproved MSW collecton management practces and the assocated nfrastructure n and around Agra. Methods Open MSW and dung cake burnng nventores Waste burn rate nventores were generated n Agra usng a recently developed feld transect approach to quantfy the spatal and temporal trends of open MSW burnng [3]. In ths method, researchers move along the transect (route/lne) and record burnng ncdents, approxmate weght, and composton of MSW n a predetermned dstance from the lne of the transect (route/lne) (typcally vsble range s used as the dstance). MSW burnng ncdent densty s then estmated by the total MSW burnng ncdents count and surveyed area. Two separate transect routes n Agra that covered 35 and 45 km 2, respectvely (SI fgures 1 and 2), were used n ths study over three days for each route between 30 May and 2 Jun, 2015 to quantfy the waste burn densty, composton, and the mass of waste burn. These surveys assessed MSW burnng by socoeconomc status (SES) based on census data [18] at the neghborhood level and represented 14 neghborhoods of dfferent SES (SI fgure 1). Satellte-drven studes at the global scale cannot capture the very hgh levels of waste burnng found n neghborhoods or near roads [9], thus the on-ground feld approach s an mportant part of developng an mproved PM emsson nventory from MSW burnng. The open waste burn rate, TWB (g-msw day 1 ), wthn an electoral ward,, from the SES-based waste burnng rates s quantfed by: TWB = WBR * POP lowses,lowses + WBR *( 1 - POP ) hghses,lowses () 1 where WBR lowses = daly per capta waste burn rate of the low SES, POP,lowSES = llterate populaton wthn the ward as reported n the 2011 census [18], and WBR hghses = daly per capta waste burn of the hgh SES. Lteracy was the prmary ndcator of SES used n ths study; the total reported lteracy rate n Agra s 64% [18]. Waste burn nventores were generated on an electoral ward bass and each ward 2
Envron. Res. Lett. 11 (2016) 104009 was modeled as ts own emsson grd, as were fve addtonal zones (SI fgure 3). Data on the use of cow-dung cakes as fuel for food preparaton data was assessed from the census [18]. The census gave the percentage of households at the ward/precnct level usng dfferent types of fuel for cookng. Annual per household consumpton of cow dung was then multpled wth the number of households usng cow dung as a fuel for cookng (SI fgure 4) wthn each ward/precnct to determne electoralward based burnng nventores, computed on an annual bass and then converted to daly average emsson rates. Applyng the same method, ar qualty mpacts from two addtonal sources, frewood and crop resdue, were also modeled for comparson. MSW and dung cake burn nventores to AERMOD dsperson modelng Open MSW and dung cake burn rates were appled n AERMOD, a Gaussan plume dsperson model [28], to spatally characterze the ambent, annually averaged PM 2.5 concentratons from MSW and dung cake burnng. AERMOD s a recommended regulatory ar polluton dsperson model, but has lmtatons as t does not nclude atmospherc chemcal processes or secondary polluton formaton [28]. The fndngs presented here are specfc source mpacts from emssons wthn the study doman,.e., background transport s not consdered. Integrated hourly surface data from the Natonal Clmatc Data Center (NCDC) at the Agra Staton from the Natonal Oceanc and Atmospherc Admnstraton (NOAA) and upper ar data from the US Natonal Weather Servce (NWS) at the Delh Staton were used n AERMET, a meteorologcal nput to AERMOD. Dgtal Elevaton Models from the Global 30 Arc-Second Elevaton (GTOPO30) were used n AERMAP, a terran processng nput to AERMOD. OM and BC source emsson rates from both MSW and dung cake burnng were determned usng emsson factors from the lterature [29, 30] (SI table 2). PM 2.5 component-specfc emsson factors for MSW burnng used here are from measurements of trash burnng n per-urban communtes near Mexco Cty at varyng combuston stages [29]. Chrstan et al [29] found emsson factors of OC = 5.3 (±4.9) and BC = 0.65 (±0.27) gkg 1 burned. These emsson factors are wthn the reported range of 0.04 9.97 g BC kg 1 burned from recent measurements of trash burnng n Nepal where some samples were enrched for specfc compostons of plastc and fol [31], but lower than the reported range of 8.4 73.9 g OC kg 1 burned. MSW emssons can vary sgnfcantly and have hgh uncertantes due to the composton of the waste and stage of combuston [13, 32]. Emsson factors appled for dung cake burnng were measured n households throughout the Indo-Gangetc Plan [30]. An OM/OC factor of 2.1 [33] was appled to the OC emsson factors; OM s related to OC as the former accounts for specfc elements other than carbon assocated wth the organc compounds. Human health rsk assessment from open MSW and dung cake burnng emssons Premature mortalty attrbutable to PM 2.5 (BC + OM) emssons from MSW and cow dung cake burnng were determned usng concentraton response functon (CRFs) based equatons. Fve major dseases acute respratory lung nfecton (ALRI), chronc obstructve pulmonary dsease (COPD), schemc heart dsease (IHD), cerebrovascular dsease (stroke) and lung cancer (LC) assocated wth PM 2.5 mortalty rsks were assessed n ths study. COPD, IHD, stroke, and LC related mortalty were determned for adults (age 25 years), whle mortaltes related to ALRI were estmated for chldren under fve years of age. Dsease-specfc relatve rsk equatons use a CRF, ncdence rate for premature mortalty, change (ncrement) n ambent polluton concentraton, and exposed populaton to estmate the mortalty. The CRFs data and equaton (2) used ntegratedexposure response functons (IERs) to estmate specfc health mpacts [34]. RR = 1 + a{ 1 - exp [-b( D C) p]}, for C > Co RR = 1, for C Co () 2 PAF = å n å n = 1 P ( RR - 1) = 1 P ( RR - 1) + 1 () 3 P = B * PAF * P, () 4 h where RR s the relatve rsk or CRFs, DC s the ncrease of ambent PM 2.5 concentratons due to dung cake and MSW burnng emssons, C o s the baselne PM 2.5 concentraton (consdered 0 for ths source mpact applcaton), and a, b, and p are parameters that determne the relatonshp of concentraton to response and are dscussed further n Burnett et al 2014 [34]. PAF s the populaton attrbutable fracton,.e., the proporton of the dsease ncdence on the exposed populaton that can be attrbuted to the exposure, P s the fracton of the populaton n exposure category,, and n s the number of exposure categores, where exposure categores were defned by fve-year age ncrements wth avalable CRFs. P h s the premature mortalty assocated wth PM 2.5 exposure and B s the baselne populaton ncdence of gven health effects (.e. death per 100 000). The exposed populaton wthn each modelng grd was retreved from the 2015 Worldpop Database. A growth factor for the total populaton wthn the study doman for the Worldpop Database reported populaton compared to the 2014 projected populaton from the census [18] was used, as the modelng results presented are for 2014. Also determned were dsablty adjusted lfe years (DALY), whch estmate the current dscounted value 3
Envron. Res. Lett. 11 (2016) 104009 of future years of health lfe lost due to morbdty and future year of human years of lfe lost (YLL) due to premature mortalty. Snce ar pollutants are not a prmary cause of mortalty, but rather contrbutory, DALY can be a better ndcator of health rsks than premature mortalty [35]. The DALYs are calculated as the total of the YLL due to premature mortalty and years lost due to dsablty (YLD) because of morbdty. In ths study we only estmated the premature deaths due to PM 2.5 emssons assocated wth bomass and MSW burnng and thus consdered YLL as the measure of DALYs. YLL were calculated usng the followng equaton: YLL = B * PAF* POP * LE, () 5 where POP s the exposed populaton (.e., the populaton wthn each modeled grd) and LE s the standard lfe expectancy at age of death (n years). Dry deposton to and pollutant coverng of the Taj Mahal Pollutant deposton to the surface of the Taj Mahal contrbutes to ts brownng [1], so the mpacts of wet and dry deposton from MSW and dung cake emssons were quantfed. Dry deposton rates were calculated usng modeled concentratons, measured sze dstrbutons and sze-dependent deposton veloctes. Deposton velocty s a varable that ncorporates the aerodynamc transport through the atmospherc surface layer, the transport across the quas-lamnar sublayer, and the uptake at the surface nto a sngle parameter [36, 37]. Imagng from a scannng electron mcroscropy (SEM)(LEO 1530, Carl Zess Mcroscopy) and energy dspersve x-ray spectroscopy (Oxford Instruments X max detectors) were used to measure the average partcle sze of carbonaceous PM speces at the surface of the Taj Mahal [1]. The average partcle sze was found to be 1 μm. The PM 2.5 component specfc mass fluxes (g m 2 s 1 ),F, of OM and BC to the surface of the Taj Mahal by dry deposton were found as: F () t =-V ( d )*[ C ()] t, () 6 D, p,ave where V D s the sze-specfc surface deposton velocty (ms 1 ) and d p,ave s the average partcle dameter. The pollutant concentraton, [ C ()] t, used here s the annual average, ambent pollutant concentraton from open waste and dung cake burnng at the Taj Mahal as determned n AERMOD. Wet deposton was consdered n ths analyss to account for ran, and the wet deposton loadngs were small compared to dry deposton (see SI secton 3 for a detaled assessment). The fracton of the Taj Mahal s surface covered by pollutant deposton from MSW and dung cake burnng emssons was also quantfed from the modeled number of partcles deposted per area of the surface and the total surface area of the aerosol deposted per area of the surface. The number of partcles per unt area (partcles m 2 ), N, from each source and pollutant,, was determned by: s N = () r d 6, 7 p,ave 3 where s ( mg m 2 yr 1 ) s the specfc pollutant loadng for each source, r s the pollutant (OM or BC) densty [38, 39], and d p,ave s the average partcle dameter from on-ste measurements ( 1 μm). Combned wth the average surface area per partcle, the fractonal cover of PM 2.5 emssons from MSW and dung cake burnng n one year, W, was then calculated as: 6s W = r d Results and dscusson p,ave. () 8 Open MSW and dung cake burnng emssons to modeled concentratons throughout Agra and model evaluaton Employng the feld transect method developed by Nagpure et al [3], the total average waste burn rate n Agra was estmated at 130 g MSW capta 1 day 1 wth hgher per capta burn rates observed n low SES areas (table 1). Burn rates were hgher n the mornng than the evenng wthn the cty, but showed less durnal dfference n the rural areas (areas outsde of the cty boundares). If Agra s per capta average waste burn rate s appled to the entre populaton of Inda, the annual natonwde burn rate would be 68000 Gg yr 1, consstent wth model fndngs of Wednmyer et al of 35000 75000 Gg yr 1 for Inda [40]. The total cow dung cake burnng emssons on a ward-by-ward bass wthn Agra were calculated from household fuel use data [17, 18] (SI fgure 4) and ranged between 0 9100 kg day 1 ward 1 wthn the study doman, compared to 490 25000 kg day 1 ward 1 from open waste burnng (SI table 1). A report on sustanable sold waste management n Inda reported the average waste generaton rate n Agra as 580 g MSW capta 1 day 1 [41]. Applyng ths MSW generaton rate, the average burn rate of MSW n Agra s 23%, hgher than the 5% 10% estmates from prevous waste burnng studes n Indan ctes [10, 42, 43]. Applyng emsson factors from the lterature [29, 30] n conjuncton wth observed burn rates resulted n annual combned emssons n Agra from open waste and dung burnng to be 2500 (±2200) kg yr 1 and 150 (±58) kg yr 1 for the OM and BC components of PM 2.5, respectvely. Annual average PM 2.5 component concentratons due to open waste and dung cake burnng throughout Agra, smulated by AERMOD, found concentratons at the Taj Mahal to be 4.1 (±3.8) and 0.24 (±0.10) μgm 3 for OM and BC from MSW burnng and 0.32 (±9.1 10 2 ) and 0.019 (±9.7 10 4 ) μgm 3 for OM and BC from 4
Envron. Res. Lett. 11 (2016) 104009 Table 1. Durnal per capta open MSW burn rates (g capta 1 day 1 ) n Agra categorzed by socoeconomc status (SES) usng a recently developed feld transect approach [3]. Hgher per capta open waste burn rates were observed n regons of lower SES. Mornng transect Evenng transect Full day Hgh SES 73.0 20.9 93.9 Low SES 157 39.3 196 Rural areas 73.5 106 180 dung cake burnng (fgure 1 and SI fgure 5). Uncertanty was assessed just for the emsson factors as that s where much of the uncertanty les due to varatons n waste composton and stage of combuston. The calculaton does not consder secondary formaton of PM 2.5 due to gaseous emssons from those sources. These results were evaluated usng measurements from a recent PM 2.5 source apportonment study at the Taj Mahal that found that the contrbuton of bomass burnng emssons to OM (whch can be from a varety of combuston actvtes ncludng wood, crop, dung and MSW burnng) at the Taj Mahal to be 12 μgm 3 [1]. Whle the sum of the four sources assessed here (MSW, dung cake, frewood, and crop resdue) s 5.9 (±4.7) μgm 3, suggestng regonal transport of addtonal OM, MSW s the hghest contrbutor of modeled bomass burnng sources (SI fgure 6). Maxmum combned annual-averaged mpacts on PM 2.5 n Agra were 33 (±30) μgm 3 from MSW burnng and 3.3 (±0.90) μgm 3 from dung cake burnng (fgure 1 and SI fgure 7). Hgh levels were found n neghborhoods wth lower SES where MSW and dung-cake burnng are most prevalent. The contrbuton from open MSW burnng s greater than for dung cake burnng throughout Agra, except n the rural areas where dung cake burnng s a prmary fuel source for cookng [17, 18]. The combned annuallyaveraged ambent PM 2.5 concentraton averaged throughout Agra from open waste and dung cake burnng was 4.3 (±3.8) μgm 3 for OM and 0.25 (±0.10) μgm 3 for BC. Recent ambent OC and elemental carbon concentraton measurements throughout Agra have been reported between 10.2 (±7.2) 30 (±13) μgm 3 and 1.3 (±0.8) 4.0 (±1.5) μgm 3 [32, 44], whch suggest the source mpact modelng results averaged over the study doman are n lne wth ambent measurements. Adverse health and premature mortalty assessments Estmaton of premature mortalty assocated wth PM 2.5 ( BC + OM) emssons from dung cake and MSW burnng suggest that these two sources are responsble for 713 (377 1050) cases of premature mortaltes from outdoor exposure n Agra annually, 380 (247 540) attrbuted to IHD, 231 (98 362) attrbuted to stroke, 94 (31 170) attrbuted to COPD, and 7 (1 12) attrbuted to LC for adults (age 25 years). Premature mortalty due to ALRI from MSW and cow dung cake burnng contrbutes an addtonal 1 (0 2) case (age 5 years) annually n Agra. For allcause mortalty (.e., ALRI, COPD, IHD, stroke and LC) attrbutable to PM 2.5 emssons from MSW and cow dung cake burnng, the total human YLL s estmated at 10087 years (5480 14 520) from one year s exposure, where IHD (56%) s the hghest contrbutor followed by stroke (32%), COPD (11%), and LC (1%). Deposton and solng of the Taj Mahal The deposton of MSW and dung cake burnng emssons to the Taj Mahal va dry and wet deposton was quantfed usng the smulated concentratons, along wth observed sze dstrbutons and ranfall data. Detaled sze dstrbutons measured on-ste showed the average surface area medan dameter of the carbonaceous partcles deposted to outdoor surfaces at the Taj Mahal to be 1 μm [1], whch was used n conjuncton wth deposton velocty relatonshps to derve a deposton velocty of 0.11 cm s 1 [45]. Smlar deposton veloctes have been measured for partcles of smlar sze and composton n prevous studes n urban areas [46 49]. Estmated total annual combned PM 2.5 dry deposton to the Taj Mahal s 150 (±130) mg m 2 from open waste burnng and 12 (±3.2) mg m 2 from dung cake burnng (table 2). The wet deposton loadngs were small compared to dry deposton and detaled fndngs are avalable n SI secton 3. Whle the mass loadng of organc speces, whch contans lghtabsorbng brown carbon (BrC), s nearly eght tmes more than BC loadng, BC s a strong lght absorber [1, 50]. Emsson factor measurements do not consder secondary formaton, so ths analyss s lkely underestmatng the total OM deposton from the two sources as both also have gaseous emssons [11, 32]. Addtonally, the pollutant coverage of the Taj Mahal s surface was quantfed to better gauge dscoloraton f the fractonal surface area coverage exceeds 1, ts perceved color wll lkely be mpacted. MSW burnng emssons showed a fractonal cover of 0.73 (±0.67) whle dung cake burnng emssons contrbuted an addtonal 5.7 10 2 (±1.6 10 2 ) annually. Treatment cleanngs have occurred four tmes snce 1994. Gven the tme between cleanngs, the nfluence of MSW and dung cake burnng emssons s lkely to exceed a fractonal coverage of 1, suggestng ther combned deposton wll lead to surface dscoloraton. Conclusons and mplcatons Our model fnds that open MSW-burnng and dung cake burnng led to estmated PM 2.5 mpacts of 4.3 and 0.34 μgm 3 (annually averaged) at the Taj Mahal, respectvely, and up to 33 and 3.3 μgm 3 n Agra, wth 5
Envron. Res. Lett. 11 (2016) 104009 Fgure 1. Annual average fne partculate matter (PM 2.5 ) concentratons n Agra from: (a), open MSW burnng (b), dung cake burnng. Modeled [PM 2.5 ] at the Taj Mahal (depcted by the whte star) was 4.3 (±3.9) μg m 3 from MSW emssons and 0.34 (±9.1 10 2 ) μg m 3 from dung cake burnng emssons. These concentraton profles generated n AERMOD showed hgher polluton from both forms of bomass burnng concentrated n areas of lower socoeconomc status. Organc matter (OM) and black carbon (BC), the PM 2.5 components modeled, concentraton profles show the same spatal varaton, but OM concentratons contrbute more than BC to ambent PM 2.5 (SI fgure 5). Table 2. Comparson of the dry total organc matter (OM) and black carbon (BC) deposton (mg m 2 ) to the surface of the Taj Mahal from open MSW and dung cake burnng n 2014. OM BC Total combned deposton MSW 140 (±130) 8.3 (±3.4) 150 (±130) DC 11.0 (±3.1) 0.66 (±3.4 10 2 ) 12 (±3.2) the hghest levels n low SES neghborhoods. The ncreased OM and BC PM 2.5 from those sources at the Taj Mahal lead to an ncrease of 160 mg m 2 yr 1 of PM 2.5 deposton to ts surface, 150 mg m 2 yr 1 from open waste burnng and 12 mg m 2 yr 1 from dung cake burnng. The amount of PM 2.5 deposted, along wth the optcal characterstcs of the partcles [1, 11, 13] lead to substantal solng and dscoloraton of the Taj Mahal, and also reduced vsblty, further degradng the aesthetc beauty of the ste. A populaton, concentraton-weghted exposure and health assessment fnds that chronc exposure to MSW and dung burnng related ambent PM 2.5 was found to ncrease premature deaths by approxmately 713 per year. Whle more dffcult to quantfy, acute exposures to the hgh PM 2.5 levels can have addtonal health mpacts, e.g., to vstors. Potental nterventons can address the solng of the Taj Mahal, degraded vsblty, and human health n the area. In addton to mprovng ambent ar qualty, the recently promulgated ban on dung cake burnng can mprove ndoor ar qualty, magnfyng the estmated health benefts beyond those found based on mprovng ambent ar qualty alone. However, the benefts from ts proposed mplementaton wll be dependent upon more than 50 000 homes usng cleaner sources for cookng [51, 52]. Better MSW management and preventon of garbage-burnng n Agra were explored prevously [53] but were not consdered as hgh mpact optons to protect the Taj Mahal and publc health. Ths paper ndcates that preventng MSW burnng can have a hgher mpact compared to the recently enacted dung cake burnng ban on reducng PM 2.5 concentratons affectng health and PM 2.5 deposton that sols the Taj Mahal. Polces and acton to reduce MSW burnng should therefore be consdered n the portfolo of actons to preserve the Taj and mprove urban publc health n Agra, partcularly n low SES areas where people are dsproportonately exposed to MSW and dung cake burnng emssons. Interventons leadng to better waste management have not been a hgh prorty n prevous efforts to address ar polluton n Indan ctes. Agra Muncpalty has shown the ntatve to mplement polces desgned to reduce solng of the Taj Mahal, ncludng lmtng moble source emssons near the landmark, bannng pollutng enterprses nearby, and prohbtng dung cake burnng. Our results suggest that mplementng a better waste management nfrastructure [53] can be a hgh mpact acton that can mprove ambent ar qualty n Agra, decrease solng of the Taj Mahal and reduce adverse health outcomes. Acknowledgments Ths work was supported by NSF PIRE Grant No. 1243535, NSF SRN Grant No. 1444745, USAID PEER, and nstruments were avalable from grants from the Mnstry of Human Recourse Department (3-21/ 2014-TS.1), Government of Inda and IIT-K grant for PG Teachng and Research. In addton, Cesunca Ivey at Georga Insttute of Technology contrbuted to the model development. Fernando Garca Menendez at Massachusetts Insttute of Technology provded Arc- GIS fles for emsson grds. Hed Vreeland at Duke Unversty asssted wth creatng fgures for 6
Envron. Res. Lett. 11 (2016) 104009 publcaton. Vpul Lalchandan and Shamjad PM asssted wth feld work and data collecton n Kanpur. Grattude s expressed toward Prakash Bhave of ICIMOD, Robert Yokelson at the Unversty of Montana and Elzabeth Stone at the Unversty of Iowa for provdng detaled data for past and n progress studes. Further methods explanatons and data are avalable n the Supplementary Informaton. Correspondence and requests for materals should be addressed to Armstead Russell (ted.russell@gatech. edu) and Sachchda Trpath (snt@tk.c.n). Author contrbutons AGR, MHB, AR, SNT planned the research. RML, LL developed the models appled n the study and quantfed the surface deposton. ASN, AR, AGR developed the waste burnng nventory methodology. ASN, RML conducted the on-ste waste burn samplng, developed the emssons nventores, and performed the health mpact assessments. MHB and SNT performed on-ste detaled partcle sze measurements. RML, ASN, AGR wrote the manuscrpt. 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