APPENDIX P. ENVIRONMENTAL AND TERRAIN CONSIDERATIONS MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS See FM 90-6, Mountain Operations, for more information. IPB heps determine where and what munitions are most effective. Consideration of munitions empoyment and effect foow. Snow Mechanica time fuzes are the most effective air burst. VT demonstrates fuze sensitivity. HE/PD (point detonating) or DELAY, CBUs, and ICM are ess effective due to fragmentation absorption by the snow. FASCAM may sette into snow. This may cause the anti-handing devices to prematurey detonate the munitions. Laser designated munitions may be ineffective (specuar activity). WP can burn undetected in snow for up to 4 days. Smoke effectiveness is reduced. Snow sides can be started. Rocky Terrain HE/PD is very effective. It produces fragmentation from spintering rocks. VT and time fuzes are effective. ICM is effective; however, it has reduced efficiency on greater than 60 degree sopes. FASCAM can be used to deny the enemy the use of narrow defies, vaeys, roads, and usabe terrain. Laser guided weapons can be effective on canaized targets. Swiring winds and sopes make smoke empoyment difficut. Changing atmospheric conditions make unobserved fires ess accurate and require more MET support for artiery and mortars. Rocksides can start. Surface observation is compartmentaized due to mutipe terrain crests. FOs may require airift or mountaineering support to overcome terrain masks and compartments. Heavy fogs and ow couds may obscure observation. Observers tend to underestimate range when ooking upward; overestimate range when ooking down. can effectivey observe areas not visibe by ground means; e.g., in deep defiade, on reverse sopes, deep targets. They are vunerabe to enemy air defenses when compartmentaized. may be confined to vaeys and ower eevations because of atmospheric conditions for fight. Terrain masks can degrade the effective range of radar. Enemy high ange, indirect fires are easiy detected. Additiona use of ground surveiance radars and remote sensors may be required. More extensive use of SHELREPs is required. IPB shoud identify Routes that can be used by the enemy to attack, withdraw, and resuppy. Likey position areas for indirect fire assets, command and contro eements, CSS assets, and observation posts. Terrain that is subject to snowsides, rocksides, or avaanches.
P-2 MCWP 3-16 High ange fires (artiery and mortars) are often required to cear intervening crests and attack reverse sopes. VT fuze empoyment requires additiona intervening crest considerations. CAS can effectivey attack canaized and reverse sope targets. Nava gunfire must fire reduced charge for intervening crests which reduces range. Position areas for artiery and mortars are imited, have imited access, and are ikey targeted by enemy counterfire. Limited ingress/egress routes aow effective enemy empoyment of ADA. JUNGLE OPERATIONS See FM 90-5, Junge Operations, for more information. Contact with the enemy wi often be at extremey cose ranges. Fire support must be responsive enough to support troops in cose contact, quicky and decisivey. Depending on the size of enemy eements, supporting arms empoyment may be decentraized to accompish responsive fires. used wi vary with the type vegetation and terrain. Knowedge and empoyment of the type of munitions best suited for the terrain is vita. Varying terrain incudes tripe canopy junge, heavy ground vegetation, swamps, and sma cearings. In tripe canopy junge WP is effective as a marking round and in initia adjustments. Tripe canopy junge makes observation beyond 25 to 50 meters very difficut. Target ocation, sef-ocation, and friendy unit ocation is difficut. FOs often cannot see rounds and must be abe to adjust fire by sound. This requires experience (see MCWP 3-16.6). Marking rounds can be fired to assist in sef-ocation. Marking rounds are usuay fired center of sector or at east 400 meters forward of friendy units. After the round is fired, the FDC sends the grid of the impact. GPS is essentia for quick target and sef-ocation. Night vision devices are essentia for ow ight observation. can see exposed movements and positions that the ground observer cannot. They can assist in reay of fire support communications and mark targets for CAS. are ineffective in tripe canopy junge. are very effective. Proactive counterfire based on IPB must be rehearsed and fuy integrated into the fire support pan to be effective. Ground surveiance radars and remote sensors are effective. HE/VT, HE/Time, and ICM and other payoadsubmunitions (CBUs, FASCAM) are ineffective or ess effective. HE/deay wi penetrate treetops and create additiona fragmentation from spintering. Heavy CAS ordnance with fuze extenders can cear away junge canopy. M825 Smoke has imited effectiveness uness fired graze burst. SHELREPs may ony be usabe for inteigence coection versus reactive counterfire. Isoated units prepare 360 degree defenses with appropriate fire pans incuding FPFs. Consider panning munitions specific required suppy rates (RSR) to support operations.
Fire Support Coordination in the Ground Combat Eement P-3 Artiery positions are imited and often inaccessibe by road. Static positions require 6400 mi firing capabiity and defensive fire panning. Units empoying CAS need positive identification of friendy troops; e.g., prearranged signas and procedures. Increased requirements on heicopter support resuts in increased SEAD support. Communications in tripe canopy are severey degraded. Proper use of antennas, reays, and retransmission stations heps offset this imitation. DESERT OPERATIONS See FM 90-3, Desert Operations, fore more information. The three types of desert terrain are mountainous, rocky pateau and sandy dunes. Fire support panning considerations wi vary significanty between operations in each type of desert terrain. Typica engagements are at extended and maximum ranges with greater dispersion and mobiity of units. Continuous fire support for highy mobie maneuver forces requires considerabe panning. Mountain and Rocky Pateau Deserts effectiveness for mountain deserts is the same as for any mountainous region except that the considerations of snow are not usuay appicabe. Sandy or Dune Deserts HE/deay, ICM, and CBUs are ineffective in deep sands. Laser-guided munitions can be empoyed at max ranges. Smoke and iumination can be used effectivey to obscure or sihouette enemy. Targets can be detected by observing dust signatures. Training in vehice ID at extended ranges is required. Equipment maintenance increases due to heat, sand, and dust. Aeria navigation/target ocation is difficut in featureess terrain. Aircraft are vunerabe to enemy air defenses at maximum ranges. Positive identification of friendy troops is more difficut; use prearranged signas and procedures. are effective to maximum ranges. Effective integration into counterfire programs is essentia. Identify trafficabe terrain for wheeed and tracked vehices and ikey mortar and artiery positions. Assess the impact of wadis, guches, wet akebeds, and other significant terrain to compartmentaize or canaize friendy and enemy units. Identify ikey enemy forward observation positions. Mobiity may affect supporting arms abiity to maintain fire support for maneuver. Aircraft are vunerabe to maximum ranges of enemy ADA. CAS can empoy standoff ranges in target engagement. Target marking requirements increase. LOCs for sustainment increase. Voumes of fire for simpe munitions increase with dispersion of target eements (target size increases). Heicopter operations are difficut due to dusty conditions. Laser range finders and GPS are essentia for target ocation.
P-4 MCWP 3-16 COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS FM 90-11, Cod Weather Operations, contains additiona information on aspects of operating in a cod weather environment. Fire panning for cod weather operations is simiar to that for more temperate regions. However, imited ground mobiity of artiery weapons and ammunition suppy and increased time of operation must be considered by the fire support panner. effectiveness in snow is the same as those isted under mountain operations. Low temperatures may cause iuminating rounds to mafunction. Visibiity diagrams require constant update due to drifting snow. Ground burst may be difficut to observe in deep snow. are not as prone to disorientation as are ground observers. Weather conditions may reduce the avaiabiity of aircraft. Extreme cod weather may degrade radar s operations. Ground surveiance radars are effective. Deep snow may reduce remote sensors effectiveness. Visua target detection may be imited. Heavy precipitation may reduce LOCs to predictabe routes. Ice fogs and snow couds created by moving enemy formations revea targets. Tracks in the snow may indicate enemy positions. Extreme cod weather wi reduce the range of weapons. Mobiity of maneuver and indirect fire assets is often imited. Frequent poor weather reduces avaiabiity of CAS. Target marking and friendy unit sef-marking requirements increase. Effective communications are hampered by eectronic interference, weakened batteries. Routes and firing positions may be imited due to frozen terrain. May require exposives to empace howitzers. MILITARY OPERATIONS ON URBANIZED TERRAIN MCWP 3-35.3, Miitary Operations on Urbanized Terrain, contains additiona information on aspects of operating in a MOUT environment. FMFM 4-7C-3/ FM 101-61-10, MOUT JMEMS, provides specific information on munitions effects. Characteristics of the MOUT environment incude high concentrations of popuace and infrastructure and the consideration of coatera damage to both. Intensity of confict and ROE have an exponentia effect on the empoyment of fire support in the MOUT environment. The effective empoyment of fires in what can be a constraining environment is essentia to success. HE/VT and time fuzes can effectivey cear rooftops of enemy troops. Varying heights of buidings can cause VT to prematurey function. HE/PD is effective on masonry targets ony in PD mode. HE/Deay may ony penetrate the first wa or roof. Ony concrete piercing (CP) fuzes can penetrate mutipe-ayer masonry structures. Cacuated minimum safe distances are not accurate in cities since buidings give added protection. NSFS effectiveness is decreased by height of buidings. Try to position so GTL is parae with urban canyon.
Fire Support Coordination in the Ground Combat Eement P-5 Dead-space beyond buidings is 5 times the height of the buiding for ow ange fire and 3 times the height of the buiding for high-ange fire. Laser-guided munitions are effective against hardened targets. Have to be wary of specuar refectivity. Heavy CAS ordnance, artiery, and NSFS can quicky and effectivey create rubbe and demoish structures. Rubbization, however, can often create probems for friendy forces, especiay during ater cearing operations. Smoke, WP, and iumination are effective and can create incendiary effects but tend to hep the enemy defenders since they pan and ay their defensive fires for imited visibiity. OPs can be estabished in high structures. However, survivabiity conditions may precude the occupation of rooftops. Ground observation may be imited or compartmentaized by buidings. Ground obstaces wi imit or impede movement. Buid observer pan with observers inside and outside the buit-up area to essen gaps in coverage. GPS functioning may be degraded since buidings may mask sateite signas. can quicky ocate exposed or moving targets; however, they have to be aware of dead space and air defense ambushes in contained urban areas. often cannot ocate origin of fires from within buidings. FAC(A)s can faciitate CAS empoyment, especiay masked targets. FAC(A)s and observers must be wary of aser empoyment. Specuar refectivity off the various refective surfaces wi demand detaied panning for the successfu use of aser designators and IR pointers. The mutitude of ight from a city can decrease a FAC(A) or observers abiity to identify targets. Lights wi degrade NVG effectiveness. Empoyment can be degraded due to masking by buidings. Empacement outside of buit up areas may provide more effective empoyment. Identify mobiity corridors, resuppy routes, and appicabe choke points. Identify civi infrastructure points (communications, utiities or government). Identify ikey enemy artiery and mortar positions. Pan fires to accompany penetrations, uness the enemy is withdrawing. Identify ROE restricted targets. Be aware of shoot and scoot tactics within buit-up areas. Determine what is acceptabe coatera damage to popuace and infrastructure. Interdict and canaize by creating rubbe and obstaces. Use fires to prevent enemy movement on streets and occupation of rooftops for observation. Empoyment of howitzers in direct fire may be required (possibe attachment to maneuver units). Howitzers can be used to create breaches in was or be set on PDFs. Kier junior wi be the munition of choice. 155mm towed howitzers may often have difficuty maneuvering through city streets or digging in on pavement or concrete. High ange indirect fires may be required due to masking by buidings. In many cases, high-ange fire on a howitzer may sti not be abe to prosecute the targeted area. As a resut, mortars may become the indirect fire weapon of choice. NSFS engagements may be imited due to masking. IPs and BPs for CAS aircraft must be thoroughy panned. Prominent buidings, structures, and parks may be used. Must be easiy identifiabe.
P-6 MCWP 3-16 CAS is effective, especiay against masked targets, but may have to increase dive ange. CAS is vunerabe to enemy air defenses, especiay when compartmentaized. Positioning for artiery and mortars incudes masking, dispersion, and trafficabiity. Radio communications are degraded; consider wire or existing civi communication ines. Buid a comm reay pan. Current miitary mapping does not provide the detai to move, target, and observe fires in MOUT. Smaer scae maps such as tourist maps may be required to operate effectivey. 8-digit grids wi be required within cities. MET conditions in the city are different than those outside the city. The atmospheric changes in the city (ambient heat radiated from buidings, industria smog, and deviation in winds) may increase the frequency of MET measurements. Survey datums in most underdeveoped countries are at best unreiabe. Survey must be extended into the town. Compasses and magnetic equipment may be adversey affected by the structures. Pan and secure resuppy routes. Ammunition expenditure (cass V(w)) increases during MOUT. Create Mootov cocktai and RPG screens on vehices and howitzers to defeat or decrease effectiveness of these weapons. The reease of toxic industria chemicas due to fires must be panned for. Pace RFA or NFAs on ikey ocations of industria chemicas. Have NBCD officer determine effects of chemicas if reeased (down wind hazard area and time viabe). Pan and disseminate how friendies wi mark occupied buidings. Aircraft must be abe to identify. Hod CAS aircraft over non-hostie terrain to aow aircrew to buid SA without overy worrying about threat. Fixed wing aircraft generay need 16 km (4X4) area to hod effectivey. Parks, fieds, schoo yards, and other obvious positions are obvious to the enemy and wi be targeted. Mortar base pates on concrete may be stabiized by sandbags. MLRS shoud not be positioned in buit up areas due to the ow trajectory of the weapon.