Biomechanics of Human Motion Applications in the Martial Arts Emericflrus,PhD. Lester Ingber. PhD.. ScienNfic Consultant @ CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an inform a business
Contents Foreword, xxiii Preface, xxv Acknowledgments, xxix Author, xxxi Symbols, xxxiii PART I The Anatomical Foundations of Biomechanics CHAPTER 1 Introduction 3 1.1 WHAT IS BIOMECHANICS? 3 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF BIOMECHANICS 4 1.3 BIOMECHANICS AND ITS DIVISION 5 1.3.1 Statics 5 1.3.2 Dynamics 5 CHAPTER 2 The Anatomy of Human Motion 7 2.1 BONES (OSTEOLOGY) 7 2.1.1 Types of Bones 7 2.1.2 Composition and Structure of Bones 8 2.1.3 Growth of Bones 8 2.1.4 Bone Characteristics 9 2.2 JOINTS (ARTHROLOGY) 9 2.2.1 Terminology of Joint Movements 11
x Contents 2.3 MUSCLES (MYOLOGY) 12 2.3.1 Muscle Types 12 2.3.1.1 Smooth Muscle 13 2.3.1.2 Striated Muscle (Skeletal Muscle) 13 T i l i Cnrilinr Musrlp 14 2.3.1.4 Composition and Shapes of Striated Muscle 13 2.3.1.5 Muscle Attachments 13 2.3.1.6 Muscle Insertions and Levers 14 2.3.2 Basic Structure of Striated Muscle 15 2.3.3 Muscle Fiber Function 17 2.3.3.1 Other Roles 17 2.3.3.2 Spurt and Shunt Muscles 18 2.3.3.3 Movement Types 18 CHAPTER 3 Functional Anatomy and Biomechanics 21 3.1 THE HEAD 21 3.2 THE NECK 22 3.2.1 Lateral Region of Neck Muscles 23 3.2.2 Median Region of Neck Muscles 24 3.3 THE SHOULDER COMPLEX 24 3.4 THE MUSCLES OF THE ARM 31 3.5 THE ELBOW AND THE RADIOULNAR COMPLEX 33 3.6 THE WRIST AND THE HAND UNIT 38 3.7 THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN AND ITS REGION 40 3.7.1 Structure and Function 40 3.7.2 Articulations of the Vertebrae 42 3.7.3 Muscles Operating the Vertebral Column (Dorsal Part) 43 3.7.4 Muscles of the Back 46 3.8 THE THORACIC REGION 47 3.8.1 Upper Thoracic Region 48 3.8.2 The Axillary Region 49 3.8.3 Fasciae of the Antero-Lateral Region of the Thorax 50
Contents xi 3.8.4 Muscles of the Thorax 50 3.8.5 Lower Thoracic Region (Muscles of the Abdomen) 51 3.9 THE HIP GIRDLE 53 3.9.1 Muscles of the Pelvis 55 3.9.2 Anterior Muscles of the Pelvis 56 3.9.3 Posterior Muscles of the Pelvis 57 3.9.4 Muscles of the Pelvis and Their Role 59 3.10 THE THIGH 60 3.10.1 Ventral Muscles of the Thigh (Extensors) 61 3.10.2 Observation about Quadriceps Femoris 62 3.10.3 Muscles of the Medial Region of the Thigh (Adductors) 62 3.10.4 Muscles of the Dorsal Region of the Thigh (Flexors) 64 3.11 THE KNEE AND THE LEG 66 3.11.1 Dor sal Ligaments 67 3.11.2 Biomechanics of the Knee 69 3.12 THE LEG 70 3.12.1 Ventral Muscles (Extensors) 71 3.12.2 Lateral Muscles 71 3.12.3 Dorsal Muscles (Flexors) 73 3.12.3.1 Superficial Layers 73 3.12.3.2 Deep Layers 74 3.12.4 TheNecessaryMusclesfor the Movement of the Leg 75 3.13 THE ANKLE AND THE FOOT 75 3.13.1 First Layer (Plantar) 76 3.13.2 Second Layer (Plantar) 76 3.13.3 Third Layer (Plantar) 78 3.13.4 Fourth Layer (Plantar) 78 3.13.5 Dorsal Region 78 3.13.6 The Plantar and the Transverse Arch of the Foot 80 3.13.7 The Movements of the Foot 81 3.13.8 Summary 82
xii Contents PART II The Biomechanical and Physiological Foundations of Human Motion CHAPTER 4 The Concept of Muscular Mechanics 85 4.1 LEVER SYSTEMS, CENTER OF GRAVITY (CoG), CENTER OF MASS (CoM), BASE OF SUPPORT (BoS) 85 4.1.1 Lever Systems 85 4.1.2 Center of Gravity and Center of Mass 91 4.1.3 Base of Support 92 4.2 KINEMATIC CHAIN 93 4.3 STATIC ACTIVITY 94 4.4 DYNAMIC ACTIVITY AND NEWTON'S LAW 94 4.4.1 Important Governing Factors 95 CHAPTER 5 Movement Control (Muscular Physiology) 97 5.1 MUSCULAR CONTROL 97 5.1.1 Mechanics of Contraction (Sliding Filament Theory) 97 5.1.2 Action Potential 99 5.1.3 Excitation of Muscle Contraction 99 5.1.4 Contributory Factors in Muscle Contraction 100 5.2 NEUROLOGICAL CONTROL 100 5.2.1 Neuron 100 5.2.2 Classification of Neurons by Function 101 5.2.3 Cell and Its Function 101 5.2.4 Transmission of Nerve Impulses 102 5.2.5 Generation of Action Potential 102 5.2.6 Muscle Innervations 103 5.3 SUMMARY 106 PART III The Fundamentals of Biomechanics CHAPTER 6 Kinematics in Linear Motion 111 6.1 DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT 111 6.2 SPEED AND VELOCITY 112 6.3 ACCELERATION 113
Contents xiii 6.4 MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION 115 6.5 SCALARS AND VECTORS 118 6.6 MEASUREMENT OF THE VECTORS 120 6.7 METHODS OF SOLVING VECTOR COMPONENTS 120 6.8 TRIGONOMETRY BASICS 122 6.9 STUDY QUESTIONS 125 CHAPTER 7 Kinematics in Angular Motion 127 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT CIRCLES, QUADRANTS, AND THEIR ANGLES SPEED, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION STUDY QUESTIONS 128 129 131 132 CHAPTER 8 Kinetics in Linear Motion 8.1 INERTIA, MASS, WEIGHT, AND FORCE 8.2 FORCES 8.2.1 Force of Gravity 8.2.2 Specification of Forces 8.2.3 Calculation of Different Forces 8.3 FRICTION 8.4 MOMENTUM 8.5 IMPULSIVE FORCES, COLLISIONS (IMPACT) 8.6 ENERGY, WORK, AND POWER 8.6.1 Energy 8.6.2 Work 8.6.2.1 Concept of Work Related to Force 8.6.3 Power and Strength 8.7 MUSCLE POWER 8.8 STUDY QUESTIONS 133 133 133 134 134 137 138 143 143 147 147 149 149 151 152 156 CHAPTER 9 Kinetics in Angular Motion 159 9.1 FORCES 159 9.1.1 Couple and Eccentric Force 159 9.1.2 Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces 161
xiv Contents 9.2 CENTER OF MASS 162 9.3 EQUILIBRIUM 164 9.4 TORQUE AND LEVER 165 9.5 MOMENT OF INERTIA 167 9.6 PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM 168 9.7 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 172 9.8 ANGULAR MOMENTUM, MOMENT OF INERTIA, IMPULSE, ENERGY, AND POWER RELATIONSHIP 173 9.9 STUDY QUESTIONS 176 9.10 SUMMARY 177 PART IV Martial Arts Biomechanics CHAPTER 10 The Biomechanics of Throwing Arts 183 10.1 JUDO: THROWING TECHNIQUES (NACE-WAZA) 184 10.1.1 Anatomophysiological Considerations 184 10.1.2 Objectives 184 10.1.3 Classification of Throwing Techniques 185 10.1.4 Biomechanical Principles in Judo 186 10.1.5 Judo Throwing Techniques Executions 188 10.1.6 Biomechanical Analysis of the Techniques 188 10.1.6.1 Break-Fall (Ukemi) 188 10.1.6.2 Observation of Physical Properties of the Break-Fall 191 10.1.6.3 Off-Balancing (Kuzushi) 191 10.1.6.4 Positioning (Tsukuri) 192 10.1.6.5 Arm Wheel (Te-guruma) 192 10.1.6.6 Execution of the Throw (Kake) 194 10.1.6.7 Observation of Physical Properties of the Te-guruma Technique 195 10.1.7 Springing Hip (Hane-goshi) 197 10.1.7.1 Off-Balancing (Kuzushi) 197 10.1.7.2 Positioning (Tsukuri) 198
Contents xv 10.1.7.3 Execution of the Throw (Kake) 199 10.1.7.4 Observation of Physical Properties of the Hane-Goshi Technique 200 10.1.8 Lift-Pull Foot Sweep (Harai-tsuri-komi-ashi) 201 10.1.8.1 Off-Balancing (Kuzushi) 202 10.1.8.2 Execution of the Throw (Kake) 202 10.1.8.3 Observation of Physical Properties of the Harai-tsuri-komi-ashi Technique 204 10.1.9 Conclusion about the Judo Throwing Techniques (Nage-waza) 207 10.2 JUJUTSU AND SAMBO: THROWING (NAGE) AND TAKE-DOWN TECHNIQUES (HIKI-OTOSHI-WAZA) 209 10.2.1 Similarities and Differences between Judo, Jujutsu, and Sambo 209 10.2.2 Objectives 210 10.2.3 Biomechanical Principles in Jujutsu and Sambo 211 10.2.4 Biomechanical Analysis of the Techniques 211 10.2.4.1 Take-Down 212 10.2.5 Arm Bar (Ude-gatame) as Arrest Technique 212 10.2.5.1 Observation of Physical Properties of the Arm Bar Technique 216 10.2.6 Leg Locks (Ashi-garami) as Arrest Technique 217 10.2.6.1 Observation of Physical Properties of the Leg Locks Technique 219 10.2.7 Defense against Grabbing 219 10.2.7.1 Observation of Physical Properties of the Defense against Grabbing 222 10.3 AMATEUR WRESTLING: TAKE-DOWN AND THROWING TECHNIQUES 224 10.3.1 Historical Background 224 10.3.2 Similarities and Differences between Judo, Jujutsu, Sambo, and Amateur Wrestling 224 10.3.3 Objectives 225 10.3.4 Biomechanical Principles in Amateur Wrestling 226
Contents 10.3.5 Biomechanical Analysis of the Techniques 229 10.3.5.1 Take-Down Techniques and Equilibrium 230 10.3.5.2 First Take-Down Technique (Arm Pull, Head Wrap with Knee Drop) 231 10.3.5.3 Second Take-Down Technique, Grabbing (Body Scoop and Drop) 234 10.3.5.4 Third Take-Down Technique (Fireman's Carry) 236 10.3.5.5 Fourth Take-Down Technique (Variation of the Fireman's Carry) 238 10.3.5.6 Fifth Take-Down Technique (Outside Leg Hook with Bear Hug) 240 10.3.6 Conclusion about Wrestling Take-Down Techniques 241 10.4 GROUND TECHNIQUES (NE-WAZA): JUDO 242 10.4.1 Anatomophysiological Considerations 242 10.4.2 Objectives 243 10.4.3 Biomechanical Principles in Judo Ground Fighting 243 10.4.4 Biomechanical Analysis of the Techniques 245 10.4.4.1 Scarf Hold (Kesa-gatame) 245 10.4.4.2 Half-Cross Strangle (Kata-juji-jime) 248 10.4.4.3 Entangled Arm-Lock (Ude-garami) 252 10.4.4.4 Arm Bar (Ude-gatame) 254 10.5 GROUND TECHNIQUES (NE-WAZA): JUJUTSU AND SAMBO 256 10.5.1 Anatomophysiological Considerations 256 10.5.2 Objectives 257 10.5.3 Biomechanical Principles in Ground Fighting of Jujutsu and Sambo 257 10.5.4 Biomechanical Analysis of the Techniques 258 10.5.4.1 Leg-Entanglement (Ashi-garami) Nr.l 259 10.5.4.2 Leg-Entanglement (Ashi-garami) Nr.2 261 10.5.4.3 Rolling Strangulation (Kaiten-jime) 263
Contents xvii 10.5.4.4 Attack with "Arm Wheel" (Te-guruma) and Immobilization with "Ankle Key" (Ashi-kubi-garami) 265 10.6 GROUND TECHNIQUES: WRESTLING 269 10.6.1 Anatomophysiological Considerations 269 10.6.2 Objectives 269 10.6.3 Biomechanical Principles in Ground Fighting of Wrestling 270 10.6.4 Biomechanical Analysis of the Techniques 270 10.6.4.1 Greco-Roman Nr.l Technique (Half Nelson with Body Rolling) 271 10.6.4.2 Free Style Nr.2 Technique (Half Nelson with Leg Grabbing) 272 10.6.4.3 Free Style Nr.3 Technique (Half Nelson with Arm Pulling) 274 10.7 AIKIDO AND AIKIJUJUTSU: THROWING AND IMMOBILIZATION TECHNIQUES 276 10.7.1 Classification of the Aikido Techniques 277 10.7.2 Anatomophysiological Considerations 277 10.7.3 Objectives 278 10.7.4 Biomechanical Principles in Aikido and Aikijujutsu 278 10.7.5 Biomechanical Analysis of the Techniques 279 10.7.5.1 Throwing Techniques (Nage-waza) 279 10.7.5.2 Entering Throw (Irimi-nage: Tenkan) or Negative Motion 280 10.7.5.3 Wrist Out-Turn Throw (Kote-gaeshi) 283 10.7.5.4 Rotary Throw (Kaiten-nage) 286 10.7.5.5 Four-Side Throw (Shiho-nage) 290 10.8 AIKIDO IMMOBILIZATION TECHNIQUES (KATAME WAZA) 294 10.8.1 Arm Grabbing Liberation (Kokyu-ryoku) 295 10.8.2 Biomechanical Analysis of the Techniques 298 10.8.2.1 Arm Pin (Ude-osae) or Ikkyo 298
xviii Contents 10.8.2.2 Wrist In-Turn (Kote-mawashi) or Nikyo 302 10.8.2.3 Wrist Twist (Kote-hineri) or Sankyo 302 10.8.2.4 Wrist Pin (Tekubi-osae) or Yonkyo 305 CHAPTER 11 The Biomechanics of Striking, Kicking Arts 309 11.1 KARATE 309 11.1.1 General Description 310 11.1.2 Anatomophysiological Considerations 310 11.1.3 Objectives 311 11.1.4 Biomechanical and Technicotactical Principles in Karate 311 11.1.4.1 General Principles 311 11.1.5 Hand-Arm Techniques (Те- Ude-waza) 313 11.1.6 Punching Techniques (Tsuki-waza) 313 11.1.6.1 Biomechanical Analysis of the Techniques 313 11.1.6.2 Reverse Punch (Gyaku-zuki) 314 11.1.6.3 Lunge Pushing Punch (Jun-zuki No Tsukkomi) 316 11.1.6.4 Reverse Pushing Punch (Gyaku-zuki No Tsukkomi) 317 11.1.6.5 Lunge or Stepping Punch (Jun-zuki or Oi-zuki) 319 11.1.7 Striking Techniques (Uchi-waza) 320 11.1.7.1 Ridge Hand Strike (Haito-uchi) 321 11.1.8 Hand and Arm Blocking Techniques (Te-Ude-Uke-waza) 322 11.1.8.1 Technical and General Characteristics 322 11.1.8.2 Biomechanical Characteristics 324 11.1.8.3 Rising Block (Jodan-age-uke) 325 11.1.8.4 Downward Block (Gedan-uke) 326 11.1.8.5 Downward Sweeping Block (Gedan-barai) 326 11.1.9 Leg Techniques (Ashi-waza), Kicking Techniques (Keri-waza) 328
Contents xix 11.1.9.1 General and Technical Characteristics 328 11.1.9.2 Front Thrust Kick (Mae-geri-kekomi) 329 11.1.9.3 Back Roundhouse Kick (Ushiromawashi-geri) 333 11.1.10 Leg Sweeping Techniques (Ashi-harai-waza) 335 11.1.10.1 Attacking the Front Leg (from Inside) (Ko-uchi-harai) Using the Front or Rear Leg for Sweeping 336 11.1.10.2 Attacking the Front Leg from Outside (De-ashi-harai) 338 11.1.10.3 Examples of Different Leverage for Attacking the Front Leg (from Outside) (De-ashi-harai) Using the Attacker's (Tori) Front Leg 340 11.1.10.4 Sweeping in Defense (Tempo Sweeping) 344 11.1.11 Conclusion about Karate Techniques 346 11.2 BOXING 347 11.2.1 Anatomophysiological Considerations 347 11.2.2 Objectives 348 11.2.3 Biomechanical and Technicotactical Principles in Boxing 348 11.2.4 Styles and Techniques of Boxing 350 11.2.5 Biomechanical Analysis of the Techniques 352 11.2.5.1 Jab 352 11.2.5.2 Observation of Physical Properties 352 11.2.5.3 Cross (Reverse Punch) 355 11.2.5.4 Observation of Physical Properties 356 11.2.5.5 Hook 357 11.2.5.6 Observation of Physical Properties 358 11.2.5.7 Uppercut 358 11.2.5.8 Observation of Physical Properties 359 11.2.6 Biomechanical and Physiological Analysis of the Punching Technique Executed with the Boxing Glove and Bare Fist 360
xx Contents CHAPTER 12 The Defense and Attack on Vital Points (Kyusho): Finger(s) Manipulation 365 12.1 BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF THE TECHNIQUES 369 12.1.1 Defense against Two Hands Grabbing 369 12.1.1.1 Observation of Physical Properties 370 12.1.2 Defense against One Arm, Front Collar Grabbing 371 12.1.2.1 Observation of Physical Properties 372 12.1.3 Defense against Double Collar Grabbing 372 12.1.3.1 Observation of Physical Properties 375 12.1.4 Defense against Rear Choking 375 12.1.4.1 Observation of Physical Properties 376 CHAPTER 13 The Biomechanics of the Sword Art 379 13.1 MODERN (OLYMPIC) FENCING 381 13.1.1 Anatomophysiological Considerations 381 13.1.1.1 Objectives 382 13.1.1.2 Biomechanical and Technicotactical Principles in Fencing 383 13.1.2 Biomechanical Analysis of Techniques 383 13.1.2.1 Weapons, Target of the Body, Weapon Positions, and Foot Movements (Distancing) 384 13.1.3 Biomechanical Analysis of the Attack and Defensive Techniques 390 13.1.4 Attack and Defensive Techniques in Foil and Epee: Biomechanical Characteristics 392 13.1.4.1 Particularities of Foil Fencing 392 13.1.4.2 Nr.l. Engagement, Attack, Parry, and Riposte 393 13.1.4.3 Nr.2. Engagement, Parry, and Coupe Riposte with Lunge 394 13.1.4.4 Nr.3. Engagement, Parry, and Riposte with Disengagement and Sliding 398 13.1.4.5 Nr.4. Engagement, Quarte Beat Attack, Prime Parry, and Riposte 401
Contents xxi 13.1.4.6 Particularities ofepee Fencing 403 13.1.4.7 Nr.l. Attack Direct on the Arm Nr.2. Attack Direct on the Knee 404 13.1.5 Attack and Defensive Techniques in Saber: Biomechanical Characteristics 405 13.1.5.1 Particularities of Saber Fencing 406 13.1.5.2 Nr.l. Quarte Beat and Head Cut 407 13.1.5.3 Nr.2. Back Edge Beat and Inside Cheek (Face) Cut 409 13.1.5.4 Nr.3. Attack Direct Head Cut, Flying Parry, and Riposte 410 13.1.5.5 Nr.4. Quarte Beat-Arm Cut 413 13.1.5.6 Nr.5. Head Feint-Flank Cut 415 13.1.5.7 Nr.6. Direct Attack with Coupe Cut (Touch) 416 13.2 BIOMECHANICS OF THE KNIFE (TANTO) DEFENSE 419 13.2.1 Nr.l. Attack Direct into the Defender's Abdomen and Its Defense 419 13.2.2 Observation of Physical Properties 422 13.2.3 Nr.2. Attack the Abdomen, Then the Neck or Face and Its Defense 422 13.2.4 Observation of Physical Properties 424 13.2.5 Nr.3. Arrest Technique with Stabbing and Its Defense 425 13.2.6 Observation of Physical Properties 427 13.2.7 Nr.4. Slashing and Stabbing Attack, Defense with Side Kick 427 13.2.8 Observation of Physical Properties 430 13.2.9 Summary 431 APPENDIX A, 433 A.1 MUSCULO-SKELETAL FIGURE REPRESENTING THE MOST IMPORTANT VITAL POINTS: FRONT PART OF THE BODY 433 A.2 BACK PART OF THE BODY 437
xxii Contents APPENDIX B, 441 B.1 KINEMATIC (MUSCULAR) CHAINS OF DIFFERENT TECHNICAL EXECUTIONS 441 APPENDIX C, 445 C.1 ESTABLISHING THE CENTER OF MASSES (CoM) OF TWO KARATEKA BEING IN THE POSITION OF SEMI-PERMANENT OR PERMANENT/CONTACT LINK, DESCRIBED IN THE SUMMARY OF PART IV 445 C.2 447 C.3 449 APPENDIX D, 451 D.1 STANDARD INTERNATIONAL (SI) UNITS, SYMBOLS, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND QUANTITIES 451 ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS, 453 CHAPTER 8 453 CHAPTER 9 455 GLOSSARY, 457 BIBLIOGRAPHY, 485 CONCLUSION, 489 ADDENDUM, 491 INDEX, 501