Introduction to Conflicts with Northeastern Tribes ( )

Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. History: War, Volume1 Finals/ 1/22/2008 08:25 Page 1 Introduction to Conflicts with Northeastern Tribes (1621 1697) The permanent British colonization of North America began with a meeting and a peace treaty between the Plymouth colonists and Massasoit, the great sachem (leader) of the powerful Wampanoag Nation. It ended in flames and death, with the Wampanoag and other tribes dead, scattered, or sold into slavery. Generational differences, short-term memory of debts owed, and a basic need for land to support a burgeoning population drove the shift from peace to war. When Massasoit and William Bradford, Plymouth s long-serving governor, signed their peace treaty in 1621, they did so for complex but sensible reasons. Each wanted the protection the other had to offer. Bradford wanted the security of having a powerful Native American group as an ally and Massasoit wanted the benefit of having the well-armed colonists on his side. Their treaty stood for forty years, with the Plymouth colonists demonstrating their trust in the relationship by aiding Massasoit in a time of desperate need, and Massasoit doing the same by providing the colonists with warning of impending attacks from unfriendly native groups. But the constant arrival of new settlers coupled with changing leadership as one generation aged and the other took power led to a struggle over land that the Native Americans ultimately lost. In their quest to acquire acreage to support the exploding population, the generation of colonists forgot or chose to ignore any debt owed to Native Americans like Massasoit and his people. As insults, both intended and perceived, against the native people accumulated, Massasoit s sons, first Wamsutta (also known as Alexander) and then Metacom (also known as Philip), became unwilling to try to work with the colonists any longer and began agitating with other tribes to join them in an uprising. After Wamsutta s death in 1662, Metacom took over leadership, and following an initial period of trying to maintain a treaty with the colonists, he gave up and started recruiting neighboring tribes, including the powerful Narragansett people. In 1675, before Metacom succeeded in amassing the necessary number of warriors, native outrage against the colonists prematurely triggered one of the most terrible wars in New England s history, which came to be known as King Philip s War. By the time the war ended, Metacom had been killed, his people and those of many other native nations were dead, dispersed, or enslaved, and Native American tribes and culture had essentially vanished from the area. The only large group to remain standing in the northeast was the Iroquois Confederacy, which included the Mohawk and Oneida people. This Confederacy managed to work as allies with the British colonists well into the eighteenth century. The Native Americans lost to the colonists for many reasons, but the chief imbalance between the two groups consisted of organization and the ability to replenish resources. The English had the upper hand with both, having their motherland of Britain to back them up, and having well-organized and trained troops to engage in battle. The efforts of the Native Americans were sporadic and not synchronized, and they had only the land and themselves for support in any conflict. The colonists took the land, leaving nothing behind but the memories of the relatively few Native American survivors. 1

Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. History: War, Volume1 Finals/ 1/22/2008 08:25 Page 2 Conflicts with Northeastern Tribes (1621 1697) J Causes Early Conflict in the New World In the seventeenth century, the New World experienced the growing pangs of conflict between the native peoples and new arrivals, tensions that arose first through the need for more land to support a rapidly exploding population. More food, more housing, and the trade associated with these demands, which resulted in expanded trade and transportation networks, also contributed to the wars that sprang up during this century. This chapter of American history opened in a surprisingly peaceful way in 1621 with the completion of a treaty between the Plymouth settlers and Massasoit (c. 1580 c. 1661), leader of the Wampanoag, the largest Indian nation in the region. Although these two parties managed to keep their bargain for forty years, other Native American tribes and newly arrived Europeans were not so amenable to peaceful agreement. The century neared its close with a great war, brought about by a confluence of factors, including ignored treaties. It ended with Native Americans scattered and their native lands fractured. As colonists continued trying to satisfy their voracious need for more and more land, mistreatment of Native Americans escalated, as did their enslavement. The Indian nations also fought among themselves, often over whether or not to ally with the new arrivals. Even the much-vaunted treaty of peace that was upheld for forty years really resulted from a combination of Native American maneuvering to use Puritan firepower for security, and Puritans using Native American connections to expand their presence and ensure their safety. Acrimony and dissension were no strangers to the colonists either. Originally establishing themselves in the New World to worship freely, the colonists found themselves at odds with those who did not share their beliefs. Colonists fought among one another because of religious differences and land and class conflicts. Plymouth Colony was founded on a base of religious cohesiveness and central authority, but this cohesion collapsed with 2 the appearance of newcomers whose agendas were grounded in acquisitiveness and survival, rather than religion. To many new arrivals, the treaty between Plymouth colonists and Massasoit was almost quaint and not worth consideration. As new generations emerged, this disregard for previous agreements grew, and the New World became increasingly unstable with each arriving newcomer and each deed of mistrust between settlers and the Native Americans. Great conflict was inevitable, and two major conflicts bracket this period of American history: the Pequot War of 1637 and King Philip s War in 1675 1676. The Pequot War The first major conflict to break out between Indians and colonists was the Pequot War. Settlers arrived and began clearing huge tracts of land, which was contrary to native traditions of preservation. They brought with them smallpox and other diseases that decimated the native peoples, who had no natural resistance. In addition, many native tribes became dependent on European goods, including weaponry. Heightened tensions, bolstered by resentment over land and health issues and combined with access to guns, finally led to an outbreak of war in 1637. At that time, the New England European population had peaked at about four thousand people. Within four years, it would almost triple. With the burgeoning growth, the settlers were encroaching westward, into Pequot lands. The Pequots already had reason to dislike the colonists because of their shaky alliance with their traditional enemy, the Narragansetts. The settlers just wanted the Pequots out of the way, but the economic power of the tribe was at least as great as that of the colonists. The colonists, eager for an excuse to attack, found one when the captains of some English trading vessels turned up dead. Pointing the finger at the Pequots, the enraged colonists demanded that they turn over the murderers, even though the murderers origins were, in fact, unknown. The Pequots claimed ignorance and even

Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. History: War, Volume1 Finals/ 1/22/2008 08:25 Page 3 Conflicts with Northeastern Tribes (1621 1697) The Pequot War, fought in 1637, resulted from conflicts between European and Native American powers over control of trade. Stock Montage/Getty Images offered to negotiate with the colonists. However, seeing their chance, the Europeans sent a colonial force led by John Endecott (c. 1588 1665) from Massachusetts to attack the tribe. The army made its attack on Block Island (which lies off of the coast of Rhode Island) the first salvo in the Pequot War. Striking back, the Pequots laid siege to a colonial fort. After a lull and some sporadic sorties, the settlers hit back hard with an attack in 1637 in what is now Mystic, Connecticut, in which almost every Pequot was killed and their entire village burned to ashes. Behind this raid was an alliance between the English and the Mohegan leader Uncas (c. 1588 c. 1682), who was well on his way to becoming leader of the most powerful tribe in Connecticut after the fall of the Pequots. In addition, the settlers talked the Narragansetts, their reluctant allies, into joining forces with the Mohegans against the Pequots. With this combined force, the colonists attacked the Pequots on the Mystic River, hacking to pieces or shooting anyone who tried to escape the conflagration. The death count for the Pequots was about four hundred men, women, and children. William Bradford (1590 1657), governor of Plymouth Colony and witness of the peace treaty with Massasoit, described this toll as a fearful sight, yet as a victory that seemed a sweet sacrifice. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. HISTORY: WAR The Narragansett and Miantonomoh The colonists reluctant allies, the Narragansett, saw things differently. They did not fight like Europeans, razing villages and annihilating every living thing in sight. Their emphasis in fighting was on bravery, not body counts. The Narragansett leader, Miantonomoh (c. 1565 1643), had demanded assurances from the colonists that women and children would not be killed in the attack, but the assurances were not granted. When the Narragansett witnessed the brutal and merciless tactics of the colonists, he and his people were horrified. The sachem turned against the colonists, recruiting other tribes to fight with his people against them. Although this pan-indian alliance was visionary, the sachem failed to execute it successfully because he was too focused on attacking Uncas and the Mohegans for their alliance with the colonists. This distraction proved to be his demise. During a great battle with the Mohegans, Miantonomoh was captured. Uncas, the Mohegan leader, was eager to demonstrate his trustworthiness to the Puritans. He asked the colony authorities what he should do with the Narragansett sachem. The authorities left the decision to Uncas, and taking quick advantage, his brother dispatched Miantonomoh with a hatchet as they walked the path between 3

Conflicts with Northeastern Tribes (1621 1697) Hartford and Windsor, Connecticut. The few Pequot survivors of the Pequot War either were later killed or scattered across the countryside. The Treaty of Hartford officially declared the end of the Pequot Nation in 1638. King Philip s War King Philip s War, begun by Massasoit s son and heir, Philip (c. 1640 1676; also known as Metacom), closed this chapter of discord. Philip initiated the violence after becoming angry with the colonists treatment of Native Americans and violations of treaties. Philip also carried a powerful hatred for the colonists because his older brother, Alexander (1634 1662; also known as Wamsutta), had died under somewhat strange circumstances while in their custody. Philip responded to these offenses by arranging an uprising known as King Philip s War. The bloody attacks against the colonists during King Philip s War engendered hatred against the Indians that ended in a vicious campaign of search and destroy. After the war ended with the colonists as victors, surviving Native Americans were killed or sold as slaves, some of whom had surrendered under promises of mercy from the colonial governments. In a very brief period of time, the northeastern landscape, once the domain of vast and powerful tribes, was devoid of Native American life and culture. J Major Figures Massasoit Massasoit (c. 1580 1661) was the leader of the Wampanoag. He was best known as the Native American who helped the original colonists forge and keep a peace treaty with the Wampanoag that lasted for forty years. Although history books have portrayed him as the beneficent and high-profile Indian who attended the first Thanksgiving, a closer look at his decisions and maneuvers reveals a shrewd leader who made some smart moves to position his people and himself in the best possible way given the rapidly changing landscape literally and figuratively of the world around them. Adding to this more nuanced understanding of the great sachem is the perception by his Native American contemporaries that he accommodated the settlers too much and primarily for his personal advantage. Before the Settlers Massasoit was born in about 1580 and grew to become leader of what is today known as the Wampanoag Nation, although the tribe may not have achieved its massive status until Massasoit was well into his tenure as leader. He had several names, including Ousamequin (Yellow Feather), but Massasoit is the name that has survived in English-language histories. The central seat of his people was Pokanoket, or Mount Hope (present-day Bristol, Rhode Island). Massasoit was also leader of some other related tribes in southeastern New England. No one really knows what Massasoit looked like. The only existing descriptions detail the traditional dress of a leader of his people: red face paint and a thick whitebead necklace. The settlers caught their first glimpse of this formidable figure as he stood atop a hill overlooking their colony. His appearance, with the red paint and his accompanying band of sixty warriors, struck the colonists with fear and sent them rushing for weapons. But his arrival really signaled their salvation. They had come to the New World without an inkling of how to plant appropriate crops, hunt the game that lived there, or fish the waters that surrounded them. Only half of them survived the first harsh winter of 1620 1621. Cultures Meet Although the sight of a very lusty man with an able body standing on a hillside with sixty warriors at first frightened the winter-weary settlers, they soon realized that Massasoit intended no harm. He gave them food in exchange for what they considered to be mere trinkets and offered protection for them against bands of warriors from other tribes. Massasoit had made his appearance in March 1621 with two other famous Native Americans, Squanto (c. 1585 1622) and Samoset (c. 1590 1653). Both knew how to speak English, Squanto because he had been kidnapped by a sea captain, sold into slavery in Spain, and freed by some monks who taught him English. Squanto managed to make his way back to his homeland, only to find that his people had been completely wiped out by diseases brought across the ocean on European ships. Squanto joined the Wampanoags. When he and Samoset emerged from the forest for the first time, Squanto greeted the settlers in their own language. Tradition holds that Squanto served as a bridge to friendship between the colonists and Massasoit. Treaty with the Colonists Massasoit himself knew the costs of disease brought from overseas, having lost a substantial number of his people to foreign illnesses, such as smallpox and measles. He also was no stranger to the Europeans themselves, having encountered Captain John Smith (1580 1631) and others prior to the arrival of the Pilgrims. Whatever his agenda, Massasoit managed to see beyond the dangers of disease and land acquisition associated with Europeans and produce the peace treaty with the Plymouth colonists in which they agreed to live harmoniously and defend one another from outside attacks. The treaty had obvious benefits for both sides: The Native Americans could take advantage of the superior European weaponry, while the settlers had the advantage of friends on their home turf. Even though Massasoit stuck to this treaty for so long, he did not earn accolades among other Native American tribes. They viewed his pact with the Europeans as a weakening of his own people for material goods, personal fame, and security against his greatest native enemy, the Narragansetts. Massasoit made his decision 4 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. HISTORY: WAR

Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. History: War, Volume1 Finals/ 1/22/2008 08:25 Page 5 Conflicts with Northeastern Tribes (1621 1697) This detail of a 1650 map of New England shows the coast of the thirteen colonies as observed by John Smith. Mansell/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images against a backdrop of death from European-borne disease and a history of previous conflict between Europeans and the native peoples. But Massasoit had a tough decision to make. The future seemed inevitable Europeans were arriving no matter what he decided to do. Many of his people had died from disease, and other tribes may have wanted to attack his. With a choice between losing to another sachem or treating with the English and their superior weapons, he made the more secure choice. Diplomacy and Disease Massasoit s willingness to enter into an alliance with the Plymouth colony left open the way for the colonists to use the Wampanoags just as the Wampanoags intended to use the colonists. Two Plymouth leaders, Edward Winslow (1595 1655) father of Josiah Winslow, who would clash with one of Massasoit s sons, and Stephen Hopkins (c. 1582 1644) traveled to the Wampanoag home seat to visit. They were shocked to find the grounds littered with human skelgale ENCYCLOPEDIA OF U.S. HISTORY: WAR etons, the remains of those who had died of disease in such great numbers that not enough survivors remained to bury them all. They also were shocked and displeased to spend two sleepless nights fighting off lice and other vermin in their sleeping quarters before returning to the colony. Yet, they and the leaders back at Plymouth believed that maintaining this friendship with Massasoit was of great importance, as subsequent events showed. Winslow again went beyond the call of diplomatic duty when he was sent in response to a message from Massasoit in 1623 that he was dying. As Winslow approached the settlement, Massasoit sent word that he was actually dead, explaining to the perplexed diplomat after his arrival that this tactic was a custom intended to make people even happier when the dead person turned up alive. But Massasoit was, in fact, near death. His tongue was furred and he could not swallow food. Winslow did more than probably any diplomat before or 5