Kinematic Characteristics of High Step Frequency Sprinters and Long Step Length Sprinters at Top Speed Phase

Paper:Biomechanics Int. J. Sport Health Sci. Kinematic Characteristics of High Step Frequency Sprinters and Long Step Length Sprinters at Top Speed Phase Ryoji Toyoshima 1 and Shinji Sakurai 2 1 Graduate School of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University 101 Tokodachi, Kaizu-cho, Toyota, Aichi, 470-0390 Japan toyoryo@sass.chukyo-u.ac.jp 2 School of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University 101 Tokodachi, Kaizu-cho, Toyota, Aichi, 470-0390 Japan [Received July 22, 2015; Accepted June 29, 2016; Published online July 11, 2016] The present study aimed to clarify kinematics among sprinters with similar step length but dišerent step frequencies, and with similar step frequencies but dišerent step lengths in sprinting. We collected kinematic data from 54 sprinters at approximately the 60 m point of a 100-m sprint using a high-speed camera. The sprinters within 0.5SD from the mean value of each of step frequency and length at top speed phase were included in the `SL-similar' (n=22, step frequency: 3.99-5.19 Hz, step length: 2.07-2.15 m) and the `SF-similar' (n=22, step frequency: 4.51-4.72 Hz, step length: 1.93-2.33 m) groups, respectively. In the SL-similar group, higher step frequency was correlated with shorter stance time (r=-0.899), and a more vertical thigh angle at take-oš (r=0.623). In the SF-similar group, longer step length was correlated with greater distance of the hip during ight phase (r=0.847), and a larger vertical acceleration of the forward swinging leg relative to the hip (r=0.438). In conclusion, leg kinematics at touchdown and takeoš are important for high step frequency in similar step length, and forward swinging leg kinematics are important for long step length in similar step frequency. Keywords: Sprint running velocity; Stance leg; Swing leg; 100 m race; Relative acceleration 1. Introduction The track and ˆeld 100-m sprint can be divided into the acceleration, top speed, and deceleration phases (Delecluse et al., 1995; Mackala, 2007; SchiŠer, 2009). In the top speed phase, the maximum sprint speed is produced, and Mackala (2007) have reported that this speed has a strong correlation with race times. Many previous studies have been reported kinematic characteristics of sprinters with high sprint speeds (Ae et al., 1992a; Ito et al., 1998; Kunz and Kaufmann, 1981; Mann and Herman, 1985; Novacheck, 1998). These kinematic researches are likely to be understood by sprinters and coaches, and be helpful for improving sprint performance in practical situation. Sprinting speed is the product of step frequency and step length. Therefore, in order to increase sprinting speed, it is necessary to increase at least one of the two. Some previous studies (Mann and Herman, 1985; Ae et al., 1992a, Morin et al., 2012) showed that the higher the sprinting speed, the higher the step frequency. In contrast, in other previous studies (Gajer et al., 1999; Hunter et al., 2004), it was suggested that step length has a stronger association with the sprinting speed among sprinters at various speed levels. In addition, Salo et al. (2011) suggested that the degree of reliance of race time on step frequency or step length was dišerent among sprinters. These reports do not lead to a deˆnite conclusion on whether step frequency or step length is more important in high sprinting speed, or the relative importance of step frequency or step length for sprinting speed vary among sprinters. The factors associated with step frequency and steplengthshouldbeunderstoodinordertoimprove running speed at top speed phase. However, International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.14, 41-50, 2016 http://taiiku-gakkai.or.jp/ 41

Ryoji Toyoshima and Shinji Sakurai sprinters should take note of the negative interaction between step frequency and step length (Hunter et al., 2004). That is, the factors which contribute to improving step frequency are likely to decrease step length, and vice versa. To improve sprinting speed, sprinters must improve one of step frequency or step length whilst maintaining the other. Therefore, it would be required to reveal characteristics of sprinters who have dišerent step frequency but similar step length, and vice versa. Step frequency is composed of stance and ight time (Hay, 1993), and previous studies reported that short stance time was associated with small angle between both thighs, small horizontal distance between toe and centre of gravity at touchdown. (Kunz and Kaufmann, 1981) and less extension angle of hip joint at take-oš (Mann and Herman, 1985). In contrast, it has been reported that step length was associated with vertical factors such as vertical ground reaction force (Weyand et al., 2000), and vertical jumping performance (Kale et al., 2009). However, in these reports, interaction between the step frequency and the step length did not considered. Knowledge from interindividual comparison may be able to be applied to the intraindividual increase of sprint speed. There is a possibility that we could get useful knowledge from characteristics of sprinters with high step frequency andwithlargesteplength. Based on the above, the aim of the present study was to reveal kinematic characteristics of sprinters with high step frequency among similar step length sprinters, and sprinters with long step length among similar step frequency sprinters in the top speed phase of a 100-m sprint. We hypothesized that step frequency is associated with leg angle at touchdown and take-oš, and step length is associated with vertical movement of the forward swing leg in the present study. 2. Methods 2.1. Participants Fifty-four adolescent and adult men who had participated in a 100-m sprint at o cially approved competitions were included as participants. The mean±standard deviation (SD) of o cial record was 11.71±0.48 s (range: 10.80-12.76 s). Their age, height and body mass were unidentiˆed. According to Otsuka et al. (2016), sprinters achieve higher sprintingspeedduringaracethanduringspeed training. Moreover, it is possible to collect a wider range of sprinters' data at a competition. Therefore, performances in competition were analysed. Video data of participants during 100-m race were obtained after the purpose of the study, the research methods and the method of handling data were explained in writing to the organisers of the competitions. 2.2. Data collection Fixed photography (sampling rate: 300 Hz, shutter speed: 1/2000 s) was conducted using a high speed camera (EX-F1: Casio, Tokyo, Japan) to obtain the kinematics data. According to Ae et al. (1992a) and Gajer et al. (1999), many sprinters reach their maximum speed in 50-60 m. Therefore, the camerawaslocated20mtotherightsideofthe60m point of the track such that the optical axis was perpendicular to the plane of movement. The camera was angled to capture the 55.5-64.0 m section of all lanes. The images in order to calibrate coordinates at each lane were obtained before races: a pole 2.0 metres long was stood at the 55.5, 60.0, and 64.0 m points in the centre of the lane, and was photographed by the camera. 2.3. Measurement and data treatment The moments that a foot touches and leaves the ground were deˆned as touchdown and take-oš, respectively. The duration from the touchdown of a foot to the next touchdown of the opposite foot was deˆned as `1 step'. Our analysis period consisted of two steps from the right foot touchdown. In addition, `stance phase' was the period when either the left or right foot was in contact with the ground, and ` ight phase' was the period when neither foot was in contact with the ground. The position of the right greater trochanter, knee joint, lateral malleolus, heel, and toe during the analysis period and 20 frames before and after the analysis period were digitised by using the Frame DIAS V system (DKH Co., Tokyo, Japan). The running direction and upward vertical direction were deˆned as the X-axis and Y-axis, respectively. The actual coordinates of each sprinter were calculated using a two-dimensional direct linear transformation (2D-DLT) on the X-Y plane of each lane (e.g., when we analyse a 42

Characteristics of High Step Frequency and Long Step Length sprinter in 1 lane, the calibration data for that lane was used). Calibrated errors of X in each lane (from lanes 1 to 8) were 0.006, 0.008, 0.004, 0.009, 0.000, 0.001, 0.004 and 0.005 m, respectively. Those of Y were 0.007, 0.005, 0.006, 0.008, 0.009, 0.009, 0.009 and 0.006 m, respectively. The coordinate data were smoothed at a cut-oš frequency of 7 Hz (Ito et al., 2008) using a fourth order Butterworth low-pass ˆlter. From the obtained data, step frequency, step length, sprint speed, stance time, ight time, stance hip distance, ight hip distance, and kinematic variables of the right leg were calculated. Except for right leg kinematics, we calculated these parameters for each step, and average values of 2 consecutive steps were calculated as representative values of each sprinter for analysis. We deˆned step frequency as the reciprocal of the time required for a 1-step. Because video data were at 300 Hz, 1/300 s errors of time were possible at start and end of each step. The errors at the end of the ˆrst step and at the start of the second step cancelled each other out. Thus, the required timing error of the 2-steps was within 2/300 s. When this error was considered, the error range of step frequency was approximately 0.05-0.08 Hz (e.g. 120 frames of 2 steps is transformed to5.00hzwhereas122framesof2stepsistransformed to 4.92 Hz). The step length was the horizontal distance from the toes of the foot touching the ground to the toes of the next foot touching the ground. Sprint speed was deˆned as the product of step frequency and step length. Stance and ight times were deˆned as the periods of stance and ight phases, respectively. Stance hip and ight hip distances were deˆned as the horizontal distance travelled by the greater trochanter during the stance and ight phases, respectively. These distances are dišerent from stance and ight distances using centre of mass (Hay, 1993). However, the dišerence between the centre of mass and the great trochanter was expected to be small (Nagahara et al., 2014). Moreover, step length had a strong positive correlation with sum of the stance and ight hip distances (r=0.983, y=0.975x+0.053, x: sum of the stance and ight hip distances, y: step length, mean of absolute residual=0.02 m). Therefore, the movement distances of the hip were analysed as a spatial factor related to step length. As for the kinematics of the right leg, we calculated the angles and the angular velocities of the thigh, shank, knee joint, and ankle Fig. 1 Deˆnitions of thigh and shank angles. joint at the touchdown of right foot (right touchdown), take-oš of right foot (right take-oš), and the touchdown of left foot (left touchdown), respectively. Thigh and shank angles were deˆned as the angle formed by each segment and the vertical line, to which a positive value was assigned when the distal end of the segment was positioned in front of the proximal end (Fig. 1). Moreover, the leg length of each sprinter was deˆned as sum of the right thigh and shank length, which were calculated using coordinate data of the greater trochanter, knee and ankle. In order to clarify kinematics of the swing leg in detail, the acceleration of the centre of mass of the right leg relative to the greater trochanter was calculated, and we investigated the relationship between the acceleration at left touchdown and step frequency, step length. To calculate the position of the centre of mass of leg, we used body segment parameters for Japanese athletes, as provided in Ae et al. (1992b). The frames corresponding to touchdown and take-oš were visually identiˆed 2 times at dišerent day. The maximum dišerence between 2 identiˆcation at the same event was 2 frame. All variables were calculated based on both of 2 identiˆcation. Then, its average values were used for analysis. The intraclass correlation coe cient for step frequency and step length were 0.990 and 0.986, respectively (95z conˆdence interval: 0.981-0.994, 0.974-0.993). 2.4. Grouping method and its relevance Fig. 2 shows the grouping for the analysis based on step frequency and length. Sprinters whose step lengths were within ±0.5 SD from the mean value were extracted for the analysis. These sprinters were labelled `SL-similar group'. The range of the step length in the SL-similar group was 2.07-2.15 m. 43

Ryoji Toyoshima and Shinji Sakurai kinematic factors excluding the ešect of step frequency. From the above, it was assumed that these groups based on ±0.5SD were suitable as the analysis subject to reveal factors relevant to step frequency and step length considering the negative interaction. 2.5. Statistics Fig. 2 Relationship between step frequency and step length in all participants, and the grouping for the analysis. The dotted lines and solid lines show mean and ±0.5SD, respectively. Table 1 Correlation coe cients of between sprint speed, step frequency and step length. SL-similar SF-similar Sprint speed Step frequency 0.970*** 0.231 (N.S.) Sprint speed Step length -0.120 (N.S.) 0.957*** Step frequency Step length -0.356 (N.S.) -0.061 (N.S.) ***: p<0.001, N.S.: non-signiˆcant Similarly, sprinters whose step frequencies were within ±0.5SD from the mean value were labelled `SF-similar group'. The range of the step frequency in the SF-similar group was 4.51-4.72 Hz. The number of sprinters in each group was 22. The range of ±0.5SD was chosen because nonsigniˆcant correlation between step frequency and step length within both group was found (Table 1). Moreover, if step lengths are similar, dišerence of speed among sprinters depend on only dišerence of step frequencies. Similarly, if step frequencies are similar, dišerence of speed among sprinters depend on only dišerence of step lengths. It was conˆrmed that these requirements were met in both of the SL-similar and SF-similar group (Table 1). By contrast, if range of ±0.75SD was chosen, there was signiˆcant negative correlation between step frequency and step length in SF-similar group. This relationship means that there was a measureable spread of step frequency as well as step length. In addition, correlation coe cient between step length and sprint speed decreased to 0.887 (in the case of ±0.5SD was 0.957). That case was not suitable to investigate the relationship between step length and Relationships between step frequency and kinematics in the SL-similar group and relationships between step length and kinematics in the SF-similar group were assessed. For this purpose, Pearson product-moment correlation coe cients were calculated. However, it was possible that sprinters' body height in uenced their step frequencies and step lengths (Paruzel-Dyja et al., 2006). Therefore, when the leg length had signiˆcant correlation with step frequency or step length within each group, partial correlation coe cient analysis to control the leg length was conducted. The signiˆcance level was set at p<0.05. 3. Results 3.1. The relationship among spatiotemporal parameters In the SL-similar group, there were signiˆcant negative correlations between step frequency and stance time (Fig. 3 a: r=-0.899, p<0.001), ight time (Fig. 3 a: r=-0.669, p<0.01), and stance hip distance (Fig. 3 c: r=-0.693, p<0.001), and no signiˆcant correlation between step frequency and ight hip distance (Fig. 3 c: r=0.358, p=0.102). In the SF-similar group, step length had a no signiˆcant correlation with stance time (Fig. 3 b: r= -0.406, p=0.061), whereas step length had a positive correlation with ight time (Fig. 3 b: r=0.465, p<0.05) and ight hip distance (Fig. 3 d: r=0.847, p<0.001). No signiˆcant correlation was observed between step length and stance hip distance (Fig. 3 d: r=0.323, p=0.142). 3.2. The relationship between step frequency or length and leg kinematics In the SL-similar group, there was no signiˆcant correlation between step frequency and leg length (r=-0.099, p=0.661). 44

Characteristics of High Step Frequency and Long Step Length Fig. 3 Relationships between step frequency or step length and stance time, ight time, stance hip distance and ight hip distance. ST: Stance time, FT: Flight time, SD: Stance hip distance, FD: Flight hip distance. Solid line: p <0.05, Dotted line: p<0.10. Table 2 shows the average value (±SD)ofeach kinematics variable for right touchdown, right take-oš, and left touchdown and their correlation coe cients with step frequency in the SL-similar group and with step length in the SF-similar group. In the SL-similar group, at the right touchdown, step frequency had signiˆcant negative correlations with angular velocities of the thigh (r=-0.626, p<0.01) and shank (r=-0.701, p<0.001). At the right take-oš, step frequency had signiˆcant positive and negative correlations with the thigh (r=0.623, p<0.01) and the knee angles (r=-0.638, p<0.01), respectively. At the left touchdown, step frequency had signiˆcant positive correlations with the angles of the thigh (r=0.576, p<0.01) and shank (r= 0.461, p<0.05), and angular velocities of the thigh (r=0.524, p<0.05). In the SF-similar group, leg length had a signiˆcant positive correlation with step length. Therefore, partial correlation coe cients controlling leg length were calculated. At right touchdown, there were signiˆcant negative correlations between step length and angular velocities of the shank (r=-0.603, p<0.01) and the knee (r=-0.517, p<0.05). At right take-oš, there were signiˆcant negative correlation between step length and shank angle (r=-0.452, p<0.05), shank angular velocity (r=-0.463, p<0.05) and ankle angular velocity (r=-0.467, p<0.05). At left touchdown, step length had a signiˆcant negative correlation with the knee joint angle (r=-0.500, p<0.01). The acceleration of the centre of mass of the right leg relative to the hip at left touchdown was investigated (Table 3). In the SL-similar group, there were no signiˆcant correlation between step frequency and both horizontal and vertical acceleration (horizontal: r=-0.181, p=0.421; vertical: r=0.101, p=0.655). In the SF-similar group, horizontal acceleration was not associated with step length (r=-0.043, p=0.853). In contrast, there was a signiˆcant positive correlation between the 45

Ryoji Toyoshima and Shinji Sakurai Table 2 Average and standard deviation values of each kinematic variables of right leg, and the correlation coe cients between the SL-similar group and between the SF-similar group. Step frequency [Hz] in the SL-similar group Step length [m] in the SF-similar group (Partial correlation analysis) Right touchdown Right take-oš Left touchdown Right touchdown Right take-oš Left touchdown Thigh angle Shank angle Knee angle Ankle angle Thigh angular velocity Shank angular velocity Knee angular velocity Ankle angular velocity 34 (4) -0.338 4(4) -0.415 150 (6) -0.055 94 (6) 0.024-462 (60) -0.626** -595 (94) -0.701*** -133 (78) -0.356-275 (116) -0.350-30 (5) 0.623** -56 (2) -0.352 153 (6) -0.638** 118 (3) 0.130-422 (75) -0.087-475 (69) -0.253-53 (110) -0.101 862 (220) 0.280-1 (7) 0.576** -134 (8) 0.461* 48 (5) -0.126 120 (7) 0.099 703 (102) 0.524* -138 (150) 0.407-841 (96) 0.081-226 (99) 0.330 33 (4) -0.031 2(5) 0.082 149 (6) 0.082 92 (6) -0.042-491 (47) 0.040-597 (87) -0.603** -106 (106) -0.517* -331 (99) -0.242-28 (4) 0.125-56 (2) -0.452* 151 (5) -0.290 116 (5) -0.133-379 (91) -0.222-495 (65) -0.463* -116 (107) -0.108 872 (204) -0.467* 2(8) 0.087-130 (7) -0.405 48 (8) -0.500** 119 (7) -0.264 690 (91) 0.277-41 (214) 0.119-731 (181) 0.002-211 (127) -0.026 ***p<0.001, **p<0.01, * p<0.05.mean (SD)and Pearson's correlation coe cients (partial correlation coe cients in the SF-similar group) are shown in the upper and lower rows, respectively. Units of angles and angular velocities are degree and degree/s, respectively. At right touchdown and right take-oš, right leg is stance leg. At left touchdown, right leg is forward swing leg. Table 3 Average and standard deviation values of relative acceleration of right leg at left touchdown, and the correlation coe cients between the SL-similar group and between the SFsimilar group. Step frequency [Hz] mean (SD) in the SL-similar group r Step length [m] mean (SD) in the SF-similar group (Partial correlation analysis) r Horizontal Vertical 14.4 (7.3) -0.181 10.9 (12.8) -0.043 2.6 (12.2) 0.101 4.4 (13.2) 0.438* * p<0.05. Mean (SD) and Pearson's correlation coe cients (partial correlation coe cients in the SF-similar group) are shown in the upper and lower rows, respectively. Unit of the acceleration is m/s 2. step length and the vertical acceleration (r=0.438, p<0.05). 4. Discussion The aim of the present study was to reveal kinematic characteristics of sprinters with high step frequency among similar step length sprinters, and sprinters with long step length among similar step frequency sprinters in the top speed phase of a 100-m sprint. As a main results, in the SL-similar group, the high step frequency was associated with the short stance and ight time, the high angular velocity of the backward swing leg at touchdown. In the SF-similar group, the long step length was associated with the long ight hip distance, large vertical acceleration of the forward swing leg relative to the greater trochanter. Each characteristics of the high step frequency sprinters in the SL-similar group and long step length sprinters in the SF-similar group are discussed in the below. 4.1. Characteristics of high step frequency sprinters in the SL-similar group Step frequency is composed of stance time and ight time (Hay, 1993). That is, when step frequency is high, at least one of stance time or ight time is short. Toyoshima et al. (2015) indicated that if sprint speed is similar among dišerent trials, high step frequency is caused by not short stance time but short ight time at top speed phase. In contrast, in the SL-similar group, the high step frequency was associated with the short stance time as well as the short ight time. The relationship between the step frequency and the stance time seems to be caused by the dišerence of sprint speed among sprinters. Running at high speed is likely to induce a short stance time because the grounding point moves backward rapidly relative to the body. In fact, previous studies 46

Characteristics of High Step Frequency and Long Step Length indicated that high sprint speed is associated with short stance time during top speed phase (Fukuda and Ito, 2004; Kunz and Kaufmann, 1981; Morin et al., 2012). The high step frequency meant the high running speed in the SL-similar group. That is, it is suggested that if step lengths are similar among dišerent sprinters, sprinter whose step frequency is higher has both shorter stance and ight time compared with other sprinters at top speed phase. Moreover, in researches about intraindividual changes of running speed, it is reported that increase of running speed at high speed is associated with increase of the step frequency and decrease of the short stance time without decrease of the step length (Otsuka et al., 2016; Weyand et al., 2000). Therefore, when step lengths are similar among dišerent trials, a high step frequency is likely to be associated with a short stance time at top speed phase even if longitudinal variations are analysed. In the SL-similar group, sprinters with higher step frequency had a shorter stance hip distance. A short stance hip distance could lead to a short step length because sum of the stance and ight hip distances of each sprinter is nearly equal with the step length. However, the step length was similar among sprinters in the SL-similar group. It is likely that the dišerence of the stance hip distance in the SL-similar group was cancelled out by the dišerence of the ight hip distance or by the slight dišerence between the step length and sum of the stance and ight hip distances. In addition, it is possible that the dišerence of stance hip distance in uenced the slight dišerence of step length in the SL-similar group (2.10-2.16 m). In the SL-similar group, the sprinter whose step frequency was higher did not have shorter ight hip distance although they had shorter ight time compared with the other sprinters. The similar ight hip distance during shorter ight time compared with that of the other sprinter may achieve higher running speed. The dišerences in stance and ight times as well as stance and ight hip distances mentioned above were in uenced by dišerences in leg motion. In the previous study, short stance time is associated with less extension of thigh at take-oš (Mann and Hermann, 1985) and early recovery of thigh at touchdown (Kunz and Kaufmann, 1981; Kigoshi, et al., 2015). In light of these knowledge, the large right thigh angle (i.e. less extension position) at right take-oš and the large right thigh angle at left touchdown of the sprinter whose step frequency was higher compared with other sprinter in the SL-similar group may result in short stance time. These relationships were consistent with the hypothesis. Moreover, the high step frequency in the SL-similar group was associated with the high backward angular velocities of the right thigh and shank at right touchdown, and the small right knee angle at right take-oš. Minimizing knee joint extension during the latter part of stance phase is important in order to enhance the extension velocity of the swing leg (the vector from the hip to the ankle) ešectively (Ito et al., 1998; Ito et al., 2008). This suggests that step frequency at top speed phase in the case of similar step length among dišerent sprinters is associated with angular velocity. Fukuda and Ito (2004) demonstrated that the decreases of running speed at the stance phase during top speed phase were similar among dišerent speed sprinters, and the short deceleration duration was associated with the high running speed. It is likely that fast extension motion of backward swing leg during the stance phase associates to the high running speed with the short stance time. 4.2. Characteristics of long step length sprinters in the SF-similar group In the SF-similar group, there was no signiˆcant correlation between stance hip distance and step length, with dišerences of step length in the SFsimilar group largely dependent on the dišerence in ight hip distance. Weyand et al. (2000) reported that contact length (the estimated horizontal movement distance of the body during the stance phase) is irrelevant to top speed whereas step length is relevant to that. The report is supported by the results of the present study. Weyand et al. (2000) mentioned that unnaturally long contact length is disadvantage for the ability of the active muscles to apply the ground force. It may cause the short ight hip distance, and step length seems not to be lengthened. Therefore, the sprinter whose step length was larger compared with the other sprinter in the SFsimilar group did not have longer stance hip distance. Longer step length sprinters had longer ight time compared with the other sprinters in the SF-similar group. This relationship corresponded with the result of the previous study (Toyoshima et al., 2015), which showed the characteristics of long step 47

Ryoji Toyoshima and Shinji Sakurai Fig. 4 Relationships between stance and ight time in the SFsimilar group. length and low step frequency sprints at top speed phase. These facts indicate that long step length is associated with long ight time regardless of whether step frequencies are similar or dišerent among sprinters at top speed phase. The long ight time is likely to cause the long ight hip distance. Thestancetimeofthesprinterwhosesteplength was longer tended to be shorter compared with the other sprinter in the SF-similar group (r=-0.406) although it was not signiˆcant. When the relationship between stance and ight time in the SF-similar group was investigated, strong negative correlation was detected (Fig. 4). It is assumed that step frequencies in the SF-similar group became similar as a result of the fact that the dišerence of the ight time was cancelled by the dišerence of the stance time. In order to achieve both short stance time and long ight time, sprinters must gain large vertical impulse during short stance phase by exerting a large force against the ground. This ability is likely to be associated with high leg stišness considering the equation to estimate leg stišness from a few simple mechanical parameters (body mass, forward velocity, leg length, ight time and stance time) indicated by Morin et al. (2005). Kuitunen et al. (2002) showed that high ankle joint stišness is associated with short stance time during sprint running at top speed. Ito and Ishikawa (2000) and Ito et al. (1998) claimed that immobilizing ankle joint by high stišness of triceps surae during stance phase induces e cient transmission of force toward the ground. Based on these reports, high ankle joint stišness which induce high leg stišness may contribute to obtain large vertical impulse during short stance time. The sprinter whose step length was longer had the lower plantar exion velocity of the right ankle joint at right touchdown compared with the other sprinter in the SF-similar group. There is a possibility that this ankle joint property was associated with high stišness of the ankle joint, and contributed to the large ground reaction force although it could not be proved in the present study. The large vertical ground reaction force may be caused by the forward swing leg as well as the stance leg. As predicted, the step length was relevant to the vertical movement of the forward swing leg. The long step length associated with large vertical acceleration of the centre of mass of the right leg relative to the right greater trochanter at left touchdown in the SF-similar group. Kigoshi et al. (2015) investigated the horizontal movement of the forward swing leg, and reported that relative acceleration to the centre of gravity could have in uence on the ground reaction force. Our results supported the ˆndings of Kigoshi et al. (2015) from the aspect of vertical component. A vertical ground reaction force could be changed by the vertical acceleration of each segment of the body. Therefore, it is likely that the vertical acceleration of the leg relative to the greater trochanter in uenced the vertical ground reaction force. The leg linear acceleration is result from various factors (e.g., angle, angular velocity and angular acceleration of each lower limb segment). Although there was a possibility that the smaller knee angle was related to larger acceleration, the main factor of the larger vertical acceleration in the present study could not be clear. Further studies are required in order to demonstrate relationships between leg kinematics and ground reaction force. The sprinter whose step length was longer had higher shank angular velocity of the stance leg at right touchdown compared with the other sprinter in the SF-similar group. This characteristics was common with the sprinter whose step frequency was high in the SL-similar group. Other similar characteristics between high step frequency and long step length sprinters was short stance time. Therefore, rapid backward swing of shank might be associated with short stance time, and have in uence on both step frequency and step length. 5. Conclusions The aim of the present study was to reveal kinematic characteristics of sprinters with high step 48

Characteristics of High Step Frequency and Long Step Length frequency among similar step length sprinters, and sprinters with long step length among similar step frequency sprinters in the top speed phase of a 100-m sprint. Characteristics of the sprinter whose step frequency was high in the SL-similar group were the short stance time, the short ight time, short stance hip distance. These factor seem to be associated with rapid angular velocity of backward leg at touchdown, small thigh and knee angle at take-oš, and early recovery of forward swing leg. In contrast, characteristics of the sprinter whose step length was long in the SF-similar group were long ight hip distance, and long ight time which was compensated by short stance time. These factors seem to be associated with low angular velocity of the ankle joint at take-oš, and large relative vertical acceleration to the hip of the forward swing leg at touchdown of opposite leg. It is not clear whether results of the present study could be applied to improvement of sprint speed. Further researches are required in order to reveal whether these characteristics correspond or not with longitudinal changes of step frequency and step length. References Ae, M., Ito, A., and Suzuki, M. (1992a). The men's 100 metres. New Stud. Athl., 7: 47-52. Ae, M., Tang, H., and Yokoi, T. (1992b). Estimation of inertia properties of the body segments in Japanese athletes. Biomechanism, 11: 23-33. (in Japanese) Delecluse, C. H., Coppenolle, H. V., Willems, E., Diels, R., Goris, M., Leemputte, M. V., and Vuylsteke, M. (1995). Analysis of 100 meter sprint performance as a multi-dimensional skill. J. Hum. Mov. Stud., 28: 87-101. Fukuda, K. and Ito, A. (2004). Relationship between sprint running velocity and changes in the horizontal velocity of the body's center of gravity during the foot contact phase. Jpn. J. Phys. Educ. Health Sport Sci., 49: 29-39. (in Japanese) Gajer, B., Tháepaut-Mathieu, C., and LeháenaŠ, D. (1999). Evolution of stride and amplitude during course of the 100 m event in athletics. New Stud. Athl., 14: 43-50. Hay, J. G. (1993) Track and ˆeld, running. In the biomechanics of sports techniques (4th ed.) (pp. 396-411). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Hunter,J.P.,Marshall,R.N.,andMcNair,P.J.(2004).Interaction of step length and step rate during sprint running. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 36: 261-271. Ito, A., Fukuda, K., and Kijima, K. (2008). Mid-phase movements of Tyson Gay and Asafa Powell in the 100 metres at the 2007 World Championships in Athletics. New Stud. Athl., 23: 39-43. Ito,A.,Ichikawa,H.,Saito,M.,Sagawa,K.,Ito,M.,and Kobayashi, K. (1998). Relationship between sprint running movement and velocity at full speed phase during a 100 m race. Jpn. J. Phys. Educ., 43: 260-273. (in Japanese) Ito, A. and Ishikawa, M. (2000). Tankyorisou ni okeru sunappu no imi [A meaning of a snap during sprint running]. Jpn. J. Biomech. Sports Exerc., 4: 159-163. (in Japanese) Kale, M., Aºsçi, A., Bayrak, C., and Açikada, C. (2009). Relationships among jumping performances and sprint parameters during maximum speed phase in sprinters. J. Strength Cond. Res., 23: 2272-2279. Kigoshi, K., Yamamoto, K., Seki, K., Nakano, M., and Ogata, M. (2015). The relationship between sprinting velocity and the movement of the swing leg on sprint running. Jpn. J. Stud. Athl., 13: 45-52. (in Japanese) Kuitunen, S., Komi, P. V., and Kyr äoläainen, H. (2002). Knee and ankle joint stišness in sprint running. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 34: 166-173. Kunz, H. and Kaufmann, D. A. (1981). Biomechanical analysis of sprinting: Decathletes versus champions. Br. J. Sports Med., 15: 177-181. Maáckala, K. (2007). Optimisation of performance through kinematic analysis of the dišerent phases of the 100 metres. New Stud. Athl., 22: 7-16. Mann, R. and Herman, J. (1985). Kinematic analysis of Olympic sprint performance, Men's 200 meters. Int. J. Sport Biomech., 1: 151-162. Morin, J. B., Bourdin, M., Edouard, P., Peyrot, N., Samozino, P.,andLacour,J.R.(2012).Mechanical determinants of 100-m sprint running performance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol., 112: 3921-3930. Morin, J. B., Dalleau, G., Kyr äoläainen, H., Jeannin, T., and Belli, A. (2005). A simple method for measuring stišness during running. J. Appl. Biomech., 21: 167-180. Nagahara, R., Matsubayashi, T., Matsuo, A., and Zushi, K. (2014). Kinematics of transition during human accelerated sprinting. Biol. Open, 3: 689-699. Novacheck, T. F. (1998). The biomechanics of running. Gait Posture, 7: 77-95. Otsuka, M., Kawahara, T., and Isaka, T. (2016). Acute response of well-trained sprinters to a 100-m race: Higher sprinting velocity achieved with increased step rate compared with speed training. J. Strength Cond. Res., 30: 635-642. Paruzel-Dyja, M., Walaszczyk, A., and Iskra, J. (2006). Elite male and female sprinters' body build, stride length and stride frequency. Stud. Phys. Cult. Tour., 13: 33-37. Salo,A.I.T.,Bezodis,I.N.,Batterham,A.M.,andKerwin, D. G. (2011). Elite sprinting: Are athletes individually stepfrequency or step-length reliant? Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 43: 1055-1062. SchiŠer, J. (2009). The Sprints. New Stud. Athl., 24: 7-17. Toyoshima, R., Tauchi, K., Endo, T., Iso, S., and Sakurai, S. (2015). Supurintoso ni okeru pitti oyobi sutoraido no kojinnnai hendo ni eikyo wo ataeru baiomekanikusu teki yoin [Biomechanical factors that in uence intra-individual variations in step frequency and length during sprinting]. Jpn. J. Phys. Educ. Health Sport Sci., 60: 197-208. (in Japanese) Weyand, P. G., Sternlight, D. B., Bellizzi, M. J., and Wright, S. (2000). Faster top running speeds are achieved with greater ground forces not more rapid leg movements. J. Appl. Physiol., 89: 1991-1999. 49

Ryoji Toyoshima and Shinji Sakurai Name: Ryoji Toyoshima A liation: Experimental training assistant, Graduate School of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University Address: 101 Tokodachi, Kaizu-cho, Toyota, Aichi, 470-0390 Japan Brief Biographical History: 2011-2013 Master's Program in Graduate school of Education, Osaka Kyoiku University 2013-2015 Doctoral Program in Graduate school of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University 2015- Experimental training assistant in Graduate school of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University Main Works: Toyoshima, R., Tauchi, K., Endo, T., Iso, S. and Sakurai, S. (2015). Biomechanical factors that in uence intra-individual variations in step frequency and length during sprinting. Jpn. J. Physic. Educ. Health Sport Sci., 60: 197-208. (In Japanese) Membership in Learned Societies: Japan Society of Physical Education, Health and Sport Sciences Japanese Society of Coaching studies Japanese Society of Biomechanics 50