The previous module provided some key information regarding the conservation biology of cheetah and African wild dog, which is the basis for this evaluation of their conservation needs and what is threatening their survival. This module presents each threat in the context of the conservation needs of the two species, helping to explain clearly why each threat is of concern. CONSERVATION NEED: Large areas (>10 000km2) of contiguous habitats suitable for cheetah and wild dogs, with abundant prey: THREATS - Habitat loss/fragmentation/degradation Loss of habitat and its increasing fragmentation represents the greatest overarching threat to both cheetah and wild dogs. Because both species live at such low densities and range so widely, their populations require much larger areas of land to survive than do other carnivore species. For this reason, wild dogs and cheetah are more sensitive to habitat loss and fragmentation that are other large carnivores. In the long term, conserving viable populations of wild dogs and cheetah is likely to need land areas far in excess of 10 000km2, unless very intensive management can be maintained (eg. in the small fenced reserves in South Africa). Fortunately, both species have the ability to survive and breed in human-dominated landscapes under the right circumstances - available wild prey, permeable fences, tolerance to their presence, protected livestock, income generated from their presence (tourism). We need to work to create these circumstances in areas that may be protected, unprotected, or a combination of the two. They also have excellent dispersal abilities, so that conserving connecting habitat should make it possible to maintain gene flow between populations, and enable re-colonisation should recoverable areas of their range become suitable again. New concerns in many range states are the impacts of large scale commercial agriculture (both agrarian and livestock), large scale extractive mining and power generation projects (eg. jatropha plantations and also some carbon offset schemes). 1. 1
2. CONSERVATION NEED: Given the large areas needed to maintain viable populations of cheetah and wild dog sustainable coexistence between these two species and humans (and their domestic animals) is necessary: THREATS - Conflicts with livestock and/or game farmers. Disease from domestic dogs (mainly issue with wild dogs) Both cheetah and wild dogs are threatened by conflict with livestock and game farmers in parts of their geographical range. While both species tend to prefer wild prey over livestock both may kill livestock under some circumstances and are therefore killed by farmers. Such conflict may involve both subsistence pastoralists and commercial ranchers. As neither species regularly scavenges, they are less susceptible to poisoning than are other carnivores, such as hyaena and leopards, but may be shot or speared. However, many projects throughout their range have been working to develop livestock management techniques that prevent depredation and it is key to ensure that this knowledge and understanding (and the tolerance that comes with it) is spread throughout communities who keep livestock. In the case of game farms the farmed game often represent the two species natural prey, there are few, if any, measures which can be taken to reduce predation by cheetah and wild dogs. Wild dogs are particularly unpopular with game farmers not only because they take valuable game, but also because their tendency to chase large prey into fences which can cause serious damage to the fences. It is imperative that the conservation community work with game farmers to encourage them wherever possible to make use of the tourism potential of cheetah and wild dogs and not to view them as a cost to their industry. 2
3. CONSERVATION NEED: Availability of wild prey populations and reduced mortality of both adult and cubs/puppies to maintain viable populations. THREATS - Bushmeat trade through snaring and other forms of illegal hunting as this reduces prey populations. Overstocking of livestock. Illegal cheetah live animal capture, either adults (farmland) or cubs (Horn of Africa). Retaliatory killing of adults (farmlands). Both cheetah and wild dogs are highly efficient hunters, able to survive in areas of comparatively low prey density. Nevertheless, the worrying trend in many parts of their range is that wild prey is being lost to bush meat hunting (increasing in much of their range), high livestock densities, habitat conversion and/or veterinary cordon fences. As well as reducing the chances of cheetah and wild dog populations surviving, prey loss can also have serious indirect effects, since predation on livestock may become more frequent where wild prey are depleted intensifying conflict with livestock farmers. Although neither species is regularly targeted by snaring, both species may become captured accidentally in snares set for other species, the snares usually set by people wanting meat for the bush meat trade and for their own family consumption. Such accidental snaring is a major source of wild dog mortality in many parts of southern Africa and is the most serious threat to wild dog populations in several areas of their range. While effects on cheetah populations are less well quantified, snared cheetah are reported and snaring my threaten some populations such as those in Kafue national park and along the Zambezi river in Zimbabwe. Infectious disease can have major impacts on wild dog populations. Rabies contributed to the extinction of the wild dog population in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem in 1991 and there have been several outbreaks documented in southern Africa. Both rabies and canine distemper viruses are maintained with populations of domestic dogs, hence disease risks are likely to be particularly high for wild dogs living outside protected areas, or in areas where domestic dog populations are increasing. Disease probably represents a smaller threat to cheetahs, although in some areas anthrax has caused substantial mortality. There is urgent need to initiate or revive veterinary vaccination campaigns in all range states to prevent disease transmission from domestic dogs. Such campaigns would also be a major benefit to the human communities living with, or adjacent to cheetah and wild dog populations. Cheetah are rarely hunted for their fur anymore, of for cultural uses. However, high levels of illegal trade in live cheetah has been documented in the Horn of Africa for the Middle East market, this trade resulting in a sink for cheetahs in this area. The focus of the trade is on cubs but often the mother is killed when the cubs are removed from the den. Illegal trade in cheetahs has also been documented in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa and may be an increasing problem throughout the southern African region. The main sink area for such trade in the latter region appears to be the captive breeding industry of South Africa. Wild dogs are occasionally taken for cultural uses (especially in Zimbabwe and Malawi) and there are a few documented cases of wild dog being captured for the sale as live animals, the market being the Far East, but as present this use is probably uncommon to constitute a serious threat to the population viability. The challenge to the conservation world is to find effective mechanisms to monitor trade in the two species to ensure that it is survival of wild populations. 3
4. CONSERVATION NEED: Improved communications increase positive perceptions and sense of value of the species in their natural context. THREATS - Poor outreach to counter negative perceptions. Lack of awareness of cheetah and wild dog. A lack of a unified advocacy to trade in live cheetah and/or wild dogs. In many areas where cheetah and wild dog exist, there is little or no communication between all stakeholders often resulting in resentment of wildlife authorities and the two species. There is also little understanding of the policy makers of the country as to the conservation needs, and importance of these two species. Forums at the local and national level are critical to creating a platform for open, transparent and therefore enabling discussions to take place, which in turn create awareness and interest in the conservation of cheetah and wild dog. 5. CONSERVATION NEED: All management decisions evidence based and made to ensure that there are sustainable populations of prey and cheetah and wild dog. THREATS - Uninformed decisions made using inappropriate data. There is a tendency in range states with limited resources to import a management model from a country with more resources (eg. USA, UK or other countries within Africa) when in fact the models are inappropriate for the type of landscape and the stakeholders involved (eg. use of substantial game fences in areas of Africa where fences have never been used to protect wildlife/human communities). An alternative approach is to engage with all stakeholders locally, review what mitigation options are available (see next module on Conflict mitigation) and work together to come up with an appropriate local solution, bearing in mind the scale of landscape required for cheetah and wild dog conservation. 6. CONSERVATION NEED: Given the wide ranging nature of cheetah and wild dog and that many viable populations cross national borders, effective transboundary management and coordination (includes protection of prey populations, protection of habitat, combined law enforcement and harmonious policies and legislation) is critical to the long term survival of these two species. THREATS - Limited boundary cooperation. Disjunction in policies and legislation across countries. The willingness to work boundaries to protect valuable natural resources such as wildlife and water is increasing throughout Africa, and cheetah and wild dog range states are no exception. However, it is critical to continue to motivate for improved transboundary cooperation wherever it is needed, enabling law enforcement agencies to cross national borders, and advocating for harmonised policies and legislations with regard to the protection and use of wildlife across range states (for example - managers should advocate for a united approach to illegal trade and for similar penalties to be in place in all range states). 4
7. CONSERVATION NEED: Tourism that promotes and relies upon cheetah and wild dog should be encouraged as a means of increasing value of the two species. THREATS - Competing interests (mining, agriculture and power generation) and unregulated tourism. Unregulated tourism has the capacity to threaten both cheetah and wild dog populations. In cheetah, negative effects of tourism may include interference with hunting, scaring cheetah away from kills to which they are unlikely to return, and separation of mothers from cubs as a result of interference from tourist vehicles. In wild dogs most impacts results from tourists visiting wild dog dens on foot causing the packs to move dens or even abandon their pups. Well regulated tourism must be encouraged in areas with cheetah and wild dog populations, as it has the potential to provide much needed revenue to communities in the same area, and to wildlife authorities. 5