Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 Issue: Feeds & Nutrition Aquafeeds & Reduction Fisheries

Albert G.J. Tacon Ph.D Aquaculture Development & Coordination Program - AQUAHANA University of Hawai i E-mail: atacon@hawaii.edu

AQUACULTURE: THE GROWING BLUE REVOLUTION Million tonnes 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 - Fastest growing food sector for over 3 decades (8.6%/yr) - 2003 production: 54.8 mmt, $ 67.3 billion, 247 species - by 2015 exceed capture fisheries 2003 91.5 mmt 54.8 mmt 0 1950 1952 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 AQUACULTURE - WORLD CAPTURE FISHERIES - WORLD

World Marine finfish Aquaculture and shellfish Task Force production Meeting from Jan capture 19-21, 2006 fisheries, and disposition of the catch 1970-2003 (FAO, 2005) Million tonnes 70 60 50 40 30 Global trends in capture fisheries: - Over 30.9% of catch destined for reduction - Decreasing per caput food supply max at 11.2 kg in 1987 decreasing to 9.8 kg 2002 - Supplies <1% total calorie intake - Reverse production pyramid 2003 63.23 mmt 28.28 mmt 20 10 0 Mainly pelagic plankton filter feeders/omnivores: includes anchovies, herring, capelin, sardines, pilchards, mackerel, sand eels, menhaden, trash fish 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 CAPTURE - NON-FOOD (FEED) CAPTURE - FOOD

Total world capture fisheries production in 2003 (FAOSTAT, 2005) CRUSTACEANS 6.6% MOLLUSCS 7.8% AQUATIC PLANTS 1.4% Finfish 76.44 mmt Molluscs 7.14 mmt Aquatic plants 1.27 mmt Crustaceans 6.06 mmt Others 0.60 mmt Total marine/brackish 90.8% Fish marine/brackish 90.0% FINFISH 83.5% Total production by weight 91.5 mmt

Current answer to the above question: YES Capture fisheries has been feeding the world on carnivorous fish species since mankind first started hunting or fishing the oceans - Alaskan pollock - Skipjack tuna - Yellowfin tuna - Atlantic cod Majority of captured marine food fish spp have carnivorous feeding habits, actively consuming animal protein within pelagic or benthic zone, includes macrofauna, benthos or other fish (piscivores tuna) Herbivores (plant/detritus feeders) rep. <2% all fish, more frequent at low than high latitudes (mullets, milkfish, rabbitfish, parrot fish)

Production pyramid of capture fisheries landings in 2003 CARNIVOROUS FINFISH 41.23 mmt CRUSTACEANS 6.06 mmt Alaskan pollack Skipjack tuna Yellowfin tuna Atlantic cod 2.89 mmt 2.11 mmt 1.48 mmt 0.85 mmt FRESHWATER FINFISHES 7.62 mmt FILTER FEEDING PELAGIC FISH 28.28 mmt FILTER FEEDING MOLLUSCS 7.14 mmt AQUATIC PLANTS 1.17 mmt CARNIVOROUS FINFISH 45.1% CRUSTACEANS 6.6% OMNIVORES/HERBIVORES 48.3%

World Marine finfish Aquaculture and shellfish Task Force production Meeting from Jan capture 19-21, 2006 fisheries, and disposition of the catch 1970-2003 (FAO, 2005) Million tonnes 70 60 50 40 30 2003 63.2 mmt 42.3 mmt 28.3 mmt 20 10 0 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 CAPTURE - NON-FOOD (FEED) CAPTURE - FOOD AQUACULTURE - FISH & SHELLFISH

Total world aquaculture production in 2003 (FAOSTAT, 2005) AQUATIC PLANTS MOLLUSCS 22.8% 22.4% OTHERS 0.3% FINFISH 49.3% Total production by weight CRUSTACEANS 5.1% Finfish 27.04 mmt Molluscs 12.30 mmt Aquatic plants 12.48 mmt Crustaceans 2.79 mmt Others 0.17 mmt Marine sp. 50.5% Brackishwater sp. 5.3% Freshwater sp. 44.2% Total marine/brackish 55.75% Fish 85.6% freshwater sp. 54.78 mmt

CARNIVOROUS FINFISH 3.98 mmt 7.3% OMNIVOROUS CRUSTACEANS 2.79 mmt 5.1% HERBIVOROUS/ OMNIVOROUS/ FILTER FEEDING FINFISH, MOLLUSCS AQUATIC PLANTS 47.84 mmt 87.6% CRUSTACEA OMNIVOROUS/ HERBIVOROUS FINFISH 16.02 mmt 29.2% FILTER FEEDING FINFISH 7.04 mmt - 12.8% FILTER FEEDING MOLLUSCS 12.30 mmt 22. 4% PHOTOSYNTHETIC AQUATIC PLANTS 12.48 mmt - 22.8% Global aquaculture production pyramid in 2003

Total world aquaculture production by region in 2003 PRODUCTION BY WEIGHT 54.78 mmt EUROPE 4.0% PRODUCTION BY VALUE US $ 67.31 billion EUROPE 7.6% ASIA 91.2% ASIA 81.9% SOUTH AMERICA 1.9% BY WEIGHT 5.8% BY VALUE NORTH AMERICA 1.6% BY WEIGHT 2.7% BY VALUE AFRICA 1.0% BY WEIGHT 1.2% BY VALUE OCEANIA 0.2% BYWEIGHT 0.7% BY VALUE

TOP AQUACULTURE PRODUCERS IN 2003 01. China 38.64 mmt (70.5%) $ 36.19 billion 02. India 2.21 mmt $ 2.5 billion 03. Philippines 1.45 mmt $ 0.7 billion 04. Japan 1.33 mmt $ 4.4 billion 05. Indonesia 1.23 mmt $ 1.7 billion 06. Vietnam 0.97 mmt $ 2.0 billion 07. Bangladesh 0.86 mmt $ 1.2 billion 08. Korea Rep. 0.84 mmt $ 1.1 billion 09. Thailand 0.77 mmt $ 1.9 billion 10. Chile 0.63 mmt $ 2.2 billion 11. Norway 0.58 mmt $ 1.3 billion 12. USA 0.54 mmt $ 0.8 billion China: pigs, rice, eggs, fish (over 2000 year tradition) Hawaii: 400 years, earliest record in the Americas

Ancient Hawaiian Fishponds Like their Polynesian forebears, Hawai ians ians were among the first aquaculturists on the planet. Date back to the 13 th century Generally, the Hawai ians kept and raised mullet, milkfish, and shrimp in these open ponds, as well as Moi;

World Marine finfish Aquaculture and shellfish Task Force production Meeting from Jan capture 19-21, 2006 fisheries, and disposition of the catch 1970-2003 (FAO, 2005) Million tonnes 70 60 50 40 30 2003 63.2 mmt 42.3 mmt 28.3 mmt 20 10 0 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 CAPTURE - NON-FOOD (FEED) CAPTURE - FOOD AQUACULTURE - FISH & SHELLFISH

CARNIVOROUS FINFISH 3.98 mmt 7.3% OMNIVOROUS CRUSTACEANS 2.79 mmt 5.1% HERBIVOROUS/ OMNIVOROUS/ FILTER FEEDING FINFISH, MOLLUSCS RUSTACE AQUATIC PLANTS 47.84 mmt 87.6% CRUSTACEA OMNIVOROUS/ HERBIVOROUS FINFISH 16.02 mmt 29.2% FILTER FEEDING FINFISH 7.04 mmt - 12.8% FILTER FEEDING MOLLUSCS 12.30 mmt 22. 4% AQUAFEED FED SPECIES PHOTOSYNTHETIC AQUATIC PLANTS 12.48 mmt - 22.8% Global aquaculture production pyramid in 2003

Estimated global compound aquafeed production in 2003 for major farmed species (values expressed as % total aquafeed production, dry as-fed basis) FRESHWATER CRUSTACEANS TILAPIA MARINE SHRIMP 3.6% 8.1% 15.0% SALMON 8.4% TROUT 3.7% MILKFISH 2.7% EEL 2.0% MARINE FISH 7.6% CATFISH 4.1% FEEDING CARPS 45.0% MARINE/BRACKISHWATER SPECIES 7.7 MMT - 39.4% Total estimated compound aquafeed production in 2003 19.5 million tonnes

Estimated global industrial feed production in 2004 for major farmed animal species (values expressed as % dry as-fed basis) AQUACULTURE OTHERS 3.0% POULTRY 38.0% 3.0% CATTLE 24.0% PIGS 32.0% TOTAL ESTIMATED INDUSTRIAL ANIMAL FEED PRODUCTION IN 2004 620 MMT (Source: Gill, 2005)

At present the culture of carnivorous finfish, crustaceans & and to a lesser extent omnivorous/ herbivorous finfish is dependent upon reduction fisheries for sourcing key feed ingredient inputs, either in the form of fishmeal & fish oil, or directly in the form of whole fish or trash fish

Reported global fishmeal and fish oil usage in 2002 (Source: Pike, 2005) Ruminants 1% 7% Others Edible 14% Industrial 5% 24% Pigs Aquaculture 46% Poultry Aquaculture 22% 81% Fishmeal Fish oil

Typical fishmeal inclusion levels within livestock feeds and aquaculture feeds include: Pig: creep 5-10%, 5 weaner 5-10%, grower 3-5%, 3 finisher 3%, sow 3%; Poultry: chick rearing up to 3%, broiler 2-5%, 2 breeder 1-5%, 1 layer 2%; turkey 3-10%, 3 Pheasant/game 3-7%; 3 Dairy cattle: late pregnant 2.5-10%, lactating 5-10%, 5 calves 2.5-10%; Sheep: breeding ewes/pregnant 2-7.5%, 2 lactating 5-10%, 5 growing lambs 2.5-10%; Fish/carnivores: salmonids/eels/marine finfish):starter 35-70%, grower 20-50%; Fish/omnivores: carp/tilapia/catfish): starter 10-25%, grower 2-15%; 2 and Marine shrimp: starter 25-50, 50, grower 15-35%.

. Production Marine Aquaculture of finfish Task by feeding Force Meeting habit: 1970-2003 (Source: Jan 19-21, FAO, 20062005a) Issue: (values Feeds expressed & Nutrition in thousand Aquafeeds tonnes - tt, &, live Reduction weight equivalents) Fisheries 30000 25000 20000 15000 tt GROWTH (% APR) 1970-1980 1980-1990 1990-2000 1970-2002 2002-2003 Carnivores 11.0% 9.5% 10.6% 10.3% 4.6% Filter feeders 6.0% 12.5% 9.1% 8.6% 3.6% Omnivores/herbivores 5.7% 12.5% 10.6% 9.2% 6.5% Total finfish 6.4% 12.1% 10.3% 9.2% 5.4% Carnivorous species: salmon, trout, eels, amberjack, seabass, seabream, black carp, mandarin fish, groupers, snakeheads 10000 5000 0 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 CARNIVORES FILTER FEEDERS OMNIVORES/HERBIVORES TOTAL FINFISH

Estimated global use of fishmeal within compound aquafeeds in 2003 by major cultivated species (% total fish meal used within aquafeeds, dry as-fed basis) FRESHWATER CRUSTACEANS 4.7% CATFISH 0.8% TILAPIA 2.7% CARP 14.9% MARINE SHRIMP 22.8% MARINE/BRACKISHWATER SPECIES 2,255 tt or 76.8% MARINE FISH 20.1% MILKFISH 1.2% EEL 5. 8% SALMON 19.5% TROUT 7.4% Total estimated fishmeal used in aquafeeds in 2003 was 2, 936 thousand tonnes or 53.2% of total reported world fishmeal production of 5,520 thousand tonnes in 2003

Estimated global use of fish oil within compound aquafeeds in 2003 by major cultivated species (% total fish oil used within aquafeeds, dry as-fed basis) MARINE FISH 13.8% MARINE SHRIMP 7.3% FW CRUSTACEANS 1.7% CATFISH 1.0% TILAPIA 2.0% TROUT 15.4% CARPS 5.5% MILKFISH 0.6% SALMON 51.0% EEL 1.4% MARINE/BRACKISHWATER SPECIES 718 mmt or 89.5% Total estimated fish oil used in aquafeeds in 2003 was 802 thousand tonnes or 86.8% of total reported world fish oil production of 924,426 tonnes in 2003

Largest consumer of fish meal and fish oil SEALAB SUSTA INA BLE ECOLOGICA L AQUA CULTURE LA BORA TORY

T Total estimated FM & FO consumption in 2003 (thousand tonnes) FM FO FM+FO Production Salmon 573 + 409 982 1,259 Marine shrimp 670 + 58.3 728.3 1,805 Marine fish 590 + 110.6 700.6 1,101 Feeding carp 438 + 43.8 481.8 10,179 Trout 216 + 126 342 554 Marine eels 171 + 11.4 182.4 232 Fw. Crustaceans 139 + 13.9 152.9 688 Tilapia 79 + 15.8 94.8 1,678 Milkfish 36 + 5.2 41.2 552 Catfish 24 + 8 32 569 Total marine/brackish 2256 + 720.5 2,976.5 5,503

Fishmeal and Fish oil dietary inclusion levels 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Fishmeal 60 50 45 40 35 Fish oil 10 15 25 30 35 Above changes have resulted in improved fish growth & feed efficiency

T Estimated Economic FCR for farmed aquaculture species (Tacon, 2005) Harvest body weight Time Salmon 1.3 4 kg? Trout 1.3 < 1 kg Catfish 1.6 < 500 g Marine shrimp 1.9 <15-25 g Tilapia 2.0 < 750 g Milkfish 2.0 < 1 kg Marine fish 2.0 < 1 kg Feeding carp 2.0 < 1 kg Marine eels 2.0 < 500 g Fw. Crustaceans 2.3 < 50 g

T INPUT:OUTPUT BALANCE SHEET Total estimated use of FM & FO in 2003 was 3.74 million tonnes ( 2.94 + 0.80 million tonnes) or the equivalent input of 15 to 18.7 million tonnes of pelagics (using a dry meal plus oil to wet fish weight equivalents conversion factor of 4 to 5) for the production or output of 29.83 million tonnes of total farmed finfish and crustaceans in 2003 or 18.62 million tonnes of fed finfish and crustacean species production. Moreover, coupled with the use of trash fish as a direct food source for farmed fish (especially marine finfish, and to a lesser extent crustaceans) currently estimated at 5-6 million tones it is estimated that the aquaculture sector consumed the equivalent of 20-25 million tonnes of fish as feed in 2003 (either in the form of fishmeal, fish oil or trash fish, expressed in live weight equivalents) for the total production of about 30 million tonnes of farmed finfish and crustaceans in 2003.

World Marine finfish Aquaculture and shellfish Task Force production Meeting from Jan capture 19-21, 2006 fisheries, and disposition of the catch 1970-2003 (FAO, 2005) Million tonnes 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 20-25 mmt as feed Double counting? Not much left anyway? 2003 63.2 mmt 42.3 mmt 28.3 mmt 0 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 CAPTURE - NON-FOOD (FEED) CAPTURE - FOOD AQUACULTURE - FISH & SHELLFISH

Status of reduction fisheries and ecosystem impacts from fishmeal and fish oil use

Million tonnes 70 60 50 Total finfish & shellfish production from capture fisheries and aquaculture destined for food use, and proportion of catch destined for reduction into fishmeal & fish oil (FAO, 2005) Disposition of total global fish & shellfish catch in 2003; 63.23 million tonnes (69.1%) for direct human consumption, 21.38 million tonnes (23.4%) for reduction into fish meals and oils, and 6.9 million tonnes (7.5%) other miscellaneous purposes (FAO, 2005) 2003 63.2 40 30 20 10 0 LIMITED STOCKS - flat 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 AQUACULTURE CAPTURE - REDUCTION CAPTURE - FOOD 42.3 21.4

Major fish species currently used for fishmeal and/or fish oil production Species Reported production in 2003 Peruvian anchovy 6,202,447 tonnes Blue whiting 2,385,007 Japanese anchovy 2,088,744 Atlantic herring 1,958,795 Chub mackerel 1,851,753 Chilean jack mackerel 1,735,625 Capelin 1,148,106 European pilchard 1,049,344 Californian pilchard 691,625 European sprat 631,823 Gulf menhaden 522,195 Sandeels 341,512 Atlantic horse mackerel 214,889 Norway pout 37,833

Fishmeal and Fish Oil production by Region in 2003 (FAO, 2005) FISHMEAL Production % FISH OIL Production % S. America 2,083,560 37.7 S. America 351,388 38.0 Asia 1,693,582 30.7 Europe 338,385 36.6 Europe 1,054,700 19.1 N. America 112,211 12.1 N. Amercia 422,307 7.6 Asia 98,308 10.6 Africa 223,884 4.1 Africa 21,284 2.3 Oceania 42,237 0.8 Oceania 2,850 0.3 Total 5,520,270 100 Total 924,426 99.9 (% of total global production)

World fishmeal production by major country producers 1976 2003 (values expressed in thousand tonnes, dry as-fed basis; FAO, 2005) Thousand tonnes 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 PERU CHILE CHINA JAPAN THAILAND DENMARK USA NORWAY ICELAND OTHERS

World fish oil production by major country producers 1976 2003 Thousand tonnes 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 (values expressed in thousand tonnes, dry as-fed basis; FAO, 2005) 0 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 PERU CHILE USA DENMARK ICELAND NORWAY JAPAN CHINA SPAIN OTHERS

Reported total world fishmeal production in 2003 (FAO, 2005) Fishmeal from pelagic fish (thousand tonnes, dry, as-fed basis) Oily-fish meal (nei) 4,152 Jack mackerel meal 227 Anchoveta meal 211 Menhaden meal 175 Mackerel meal 123 Capelin meal 112 Pilchard meal 60 Tuna meal 55 Herring meal 20 Clupeoid fish meal (nei) 9 Fishmeal from demersal fish White-fish meal (nei) 199 Blue whiting meal 21 Other marine meals Fish meal (unspec) 111 Fish solubles 38

Reported total world fish oil production in 2003 (FAO, 2005) Pelagic body oils (thousand tonnes, dry, as-fed basis) - Anchoveta oil 214 - Capelin oil 104 - Menhaden oil 89 - Herring oil 7 Cod liver oil 3 Other fish liver oils 31 Other marine oils -Fish body oils (nei) 474 Total fish oil production 924,426 tonnes

Global fish meal and fish oil production by major species groups in 2003 (values expressed in million metric tons, as-fed basis; FAO, 2005) SPECIES SPECIFIC FISH MEALS 1.00 million tonnes SPECIES SPECIFIC FISH OILS - 0.416 million tonnes 18.2% 45% 81.8% 55% NON-SPECIES SPECIFIC FISH MEALS 4.52 million tonnes NON-SPECIES SPECIFIC FISH OILS 0.508 million tonnes Total reported fish meal and fish oil production in 2003 was 5,520,270 tonnes and 924,426 tonnes respectively

Fishmeal and Fish Oil production by Region in 2003 (FAO, 2005) FISHMEAL Production % FISH OIL Production % S. America 2,083,560 71.4 S. America 351,388 41.3 Asia 1,693,582 99.1 Europe 338,385 66.9 Europe 1,054,700 96.6 N. America 112,211 12.0 N. Amercia 422,307 45.1 Asia 98,308 97.0 Africa 223,884 89.1 Africa 21,284 100 Oceania 42,237 99.0 Oceania 2,850 100 Total 5,520,270 81.8 Total 924,426 55.0 (% of total regional production reported as non-species specific)

World production of fishmeal & fish oil (metric tonnes; Shepherd, 2005) 8 7 6 5 4 3 Fishmeal 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 (est) 2 1.6 Fish Oil in million MT 1.2 0.8 0.4 Fish oil 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 (est)

Landings of feed grade fish from IFFO-5 countries (Shepherd, 2005) 25000 22500 20000 IffO-5 Annual Landings (in thousand MT of fish) Chile Peru Denmark Iceland Norway 17500 Average 89/04: 15,870 15000 12500 10000 7500 5000 2500 0 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005

Reported capture fisheries landings of small pelagic fish destined for reduction into fish meal and fish oil (FAO, 2005) Million tonnes 30 The two main fish families destined for reduction into fish meal and fish oil are the Family Engraulidae (anchovies) and the Family Clupeidae (herring, sardines, pilchard, menhaden) 25 20 2003 18.99 15 10 9.81 9.18 5 0 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 ENGRAULIDAE CLUPEIDAE TOTAL

6 5 Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 Reported capture fisheries landings of Chilean jack mackerel & Chub mackerel 4 3 2 1 0 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 Chub mackerel Chilean jack mackerel

3 2.5 Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 Reported capture fisheries landings of Capelin & Atlantic herring 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 Capelin Atlantic herring

14 12 Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 Reported capture fisheries landings of Peruvian & Japanese Anchovy 10 8 6 4 2 0 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 Peruvian anchovy Japanese anchovy

2.5 2 Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 Reported capture fisheries landings of Blue whiting & Sandeels 1.5 1 0.5 0 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 BLUE WHITING SANDEELS

1.2 1 Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 Reported capture fisheries landings of Gulf menhaden & Californian pilchard 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 GULF MENHADEN CALIFORNIAN PILCHARD

1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 Reported capture fisheries landings of European pilchard & European sprat 0 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 EUROPEAN PILCHARD EUROPEAN SPRAT

0.6 0.5 Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 Reported capture fisheries landings of Atlantic horse mackerel & Norway pout 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 ATLANTIC HORSE MACKEREL NORWAY POUT

Status Marine of these Aquaculture reduction Task fisheries: Force Meeting If these fisheries Jan are 19-21, seen 2006 as sustainable Question/s: Status what of criteria these reduction are used fisheries - If these fisheries are seen as sustainable what criteria are used FAO (1999). Indicators for sustainable development of marine capture fisheries. FAO. (2005). Review of the state of world marine fishery resources. FAO, Rome. FIN (2005). Fin Dossier 2005 Annual review of the feed grade fish stocks used to produce fishmeal and fish oil in the UK market Huntington, T.C. (2004a). Feeding the fish: sustainable fish feed and Scottish aquaculture. Report to the Joint Marine Programme (Scottish Wildlife Trust and WWF Scotland) and RSPB Scotland. Huntington, T., C. Frid, R. Banks, C. Scott & O. Paramor. (2004). Assessment of the sustainability of industrial fisheries producing fish meal & fish oil. Report to RSBP Lankester, K. (2005). Sustainability in the anchoveta fisheries in Peru (in press) Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (2004). Turning the tide: addressing the impact of fisheries on the marine environment. SEAFEEDS (2003). Sustainable Environmental Aquaculture Feeds, Final report of the Seafeeds Workshop. University of Stirling Tuominen, T-R. & M. Esmark. (2003). Food for thought: the use of marine resources in fish feed. WWF-Norway. University of Newcastle/Poseidon Aquatic Resource Management Ltd (2004). The fishmeal & fish oil industry: its role in the common fisheries policy. EU Report.

Question/s: Status of reduction fisheries (FAO, 2005) U-underexploited, M-moderately exploited, F-fully exploited, O-overexploited, D-depleted, R-recovering Northwest Atlantic (FAO Statistical Area 21): Atlantic herring Atlantic menhaden Atlantic mackerel Capelin Northeast Atlantic (FAO Atlantic salmon Blue whiting Norway pout Sandeels Atlantic herring European pilchard European sprat Atlantic horse mackerel Atlantic mackerel Capelin Canada,, USA U-F-R USA Canada,, USA F Canada (FAO Statistical Area 27):. Norway, Finland, Denmark, Sweden Norway, Russian Fed., Iceland, Faeroe Denmark, Norway Denmark, Norway, Sweden Norway, Iceland, Russian Portugal, Spain Denmark, Poland F F F-D O?-F Russian Fed., Denmark F Spain, France,, UK?-F Poland, Sweden,, Latvia?-F F Netherlands, Norway, Ireland, France UK, Norway, Ireland, Russian Fed. Iceland, Norway, Russian Fed. F F F

U-underexploited, M-moderately exploited, F-fully exploited, O-overexploited, D-depleted, R-recovering Western Central Atlantic (FAO Statistical Area 31): Atlantic menhaden USA F Atlantic thread mackerel USA, Cuba? Gulf menhaden USA F Round sardinella Northwest Pacific Chum salmon Pink salmon Japanese anchovy Japanese pilchard Pacific herring Chub mackerel Pacific (FAO Venezuela. (FAO Statistical Area 61): Japan, Russian Fed. Russian Fed., Japan China, Japan, Korea Rep. China, Japan Russian Fed., China China, Japan, Korea Rep. Japanese jack mackerel Japan, Korea Rep. M/F F F F M F F

U-underexploited, M-moderately exploited, F-fully exploited, O-overexploited, D-depleted, R-recovering Northeast Pacific (FAO Statistical Area 67): Chinook salmon Chum salmon Coho salmon Pink salmon Sockeye salmon Alaska pollock Pacific herring Eastern Central Pacific California pilchard California anchovy Pacific anchoveta Pacific thread herring Chub mackerel Pacific jack mackerel USA, Canada USA, Canada USA USA, Canada USA, Canada USA USA, Canada F-O F F-O F F F M-O Pacific (FAO Statistical Area 77): Mexico,, USA M-F USA, Mexico Panama Panama. Mexico,, USA M USA U M-F M-F M-F

U-underexploited, M-moderately exploited, F-fully exploited, O-overexploited, D-depleted, R-recovering Southeast Pacific (FAO Statistical Area 87): Anchoveta Peru,, Chile R-O Araucanian herring Chile F-O Pacific thread herring Ecuador F South American pilchard Chile, Peru,, Ecuador F-O Chilean jack mackerel Chile, Peru F-O Chub mackerel Chile, Peru M-F

Question/s: Status of reduction fisheries: - If these fisheries are seen as sustainable what criteria are used - Evidence of ecosystem damage/stress from these fisheries Depends upon definition of sustainability and criteria employed, and who is evaluating the fishery: government, FAO, ICES, NGO (MSC), Industry etc. For example, according to the report of. University of Newcastle/Poseidon Aquatic Resource Management Ltd (2004). The fishmeal & fish oil industry: its role in the common fisheries policy: Management and sustainability of the industrial fisheries `In EU waters most of the targeted feed fish stocks, for which data are available, are considered to be within safe biological limits

Question/s: Status of reduction fisheries: - If these fisheries are seen as sustainable what criteria are used - Evidence of ecosystem damage/stress from these fisheries Different views: Huntington, Frid, Banks, Scott & Paramor (2004) Assessment of the Sustainability of Industrial Fisheries Producing Fish Meal and Fish Oil executive summary: `most feed fisheries. are in reasonable condition when considered from the traditional single stock perspective. However there is still only a weak understanding of the relationship between these fisheries and the wider ecosystem, both in terms of 1) their impact on non-target species and the trophic interactions resulting from fishing mortality and 2) the relative importance of climate/oceanography in determining population dynamics

Question/s: Status of reduction fisheries: - If these fisheries are seen as sustainable what criteria are used - Evidence of ecosystem damage/stress from these fisheries Different views: Huntington (2004) Feeding of Fish: Sustainable Fish Feed and Scottish Aquaculture synthesis: using a modified MSC-based principles and criteria for sustainable fishing, sustainability. assessment undertaken `preliminary analysis demonstrates that the sustainability of feed fish stocks is still far from certain..concerning the Peruvian anchovy `it is therefore impossible to conclude whether this fishery is sustainable or not

Is theremarine sufficient Aquaculture research Task onforce the sustainability Meeting of Jan reduction 19-21, 2006 fisheries to certify Issue: them? Feeds & Nutrition Aquafeeds & Reduction Fisheries As mentioned previously, this depends upon the definition of sustainability employed and criteria and indicators used. As mentioned in the SEAFEEDS (2003) report concerning the sustainability of feed grade fisheries: `There is a lack of agreed criteria and integrated reporting systems for the broader dimensions of sustainability relating to effects. on other fisheries and wider ecosystem and socio-economic impacts... we currently lack the information to make broader assessments of sustainability taking account of wider socio-economic and ecosystem impacts There is an urgent need to develop appropriate internationally agreed sustainability standards and criteria for feed-based fisheries at present these exist for `Sustainable Fishing (MSC) and `Indicators for Sustainable Development of Marine Capture Fisheries (FAO, 1999).

Question/s: Potential for use of fishery byproducts for minimizing demand on reduction fisheries - Are the `by-product product fisheries sustainable and does focusing more pressure on them create incentives for more bycatch, or pressure on the sustainability of the target fisheries? Industry estimates that there were 5.6 million tonnes of trimmings and rejects from food fish in 2002 (FIN, 2004).. For example, within the European Union (EU) it is estimated that in 2002 about 33% of the fishmeal produced in the EU-15 was manufactured from trimmings from food fish processing, including Spain 100% trimmings, France 100%, Germany 100%, Italy 100%, UK 84%, Ireland 60%, Sweden 25%, and Denmark 10% (Huntington et al. 2004). As mentioned previously, no information is currently available from FAO concerning the total global production of fishmeals and oils produced from fishery and aquaculture trimmings and offal. Clearly this deficiency needs to be rectified.

Marine Aquaculture ALASKA FISHERIES Task Force BYPRODUCT Meeting UTILIZATION Jan 19-21, 2006 EXISTING FISHERY RESOURCES & WASTE STREAMS SEAFOOD PROCESSING IMPROVED FISHERY RESOURCE USE & PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT FERTILIZER/CONDITIONER SALMON FISHERY PROCESSING ON-SHORE PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL EVALUATION ENERGY SOURCE FISHERY BYCATCH FACTORY TRAWLERS INPUTS DEVELOPMENT OF NEW & IMPROVED FISH PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES OUTPUTS FEED ADDITIVES FEED INGREDIENTS COD FISHERY POLLOCK FISHERY PROCESSING AT-SEA BIOLOGICAL & ECONOMIC EVALUATION CO- PRODUCTS ANIMAL FEEDS EXISTING AMERICAN FISHERIES ACT & ALASKAN FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN INCREASED ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES & REDUCED ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Utilization of marine by-products (Rubin, 1998) SEALAB SUSTA INA BLE ECOLOGICA L AQUA CULTURE LA BORA TORY

Question/s: Potential for use of fishery byproducts for minimizing demand on reduction fisheries - Are the `by-product product fisheries sustainable and does focusing more pressure on them create incentives for more bycatch, or pressure on the sustainability of the target fisheries? Report: SCAHAW (2003): The use of fish by-products in aquaculture. Report of the Scientific Committee on Animal Health & Animal Welfare; Adopted 26 February 2003 In most European countries the fishmeal Industry is the major receiver of by-products from traditional fisheries, followed in importance by the ensiling of by-products.. With regard to aquaculture, by-products also arise from the slaughter and processing of fish for human consumption, including farmed salmon.

Question/s: Potential for use of fishery byproducts for minimizing demand on reduction fisheries - Are the `by-product product fisheries sustainable and does focusing more pressure on them create incentives for more bycatch, or pressure on the sustainability of the target fisheries? As stated previously, there is a need for the aquafeed industry to utilize the largely untapped existing waste streams within the fisheries sector, including fisheries bycatch and discards (Alverson et al. 1994:. recently estimated at over 7 million tonnes) and fishery processing wastes (Bechtel, 2003; Li et al. 2004; Rathbone et al. 2001); Moreover, as stated in the FAO Code of Conducted for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1995) `States should encourage the use of fish for human consumption and promote consumption of fish whenever appropriate, and discourage the use of food-fish fit for human consumption for animal feeding;

Question/s: Potential for use of fishery byproducts for minimizing demand on reduction fisheries - Are the `by-product product fisheries sustainable and does focusing more pressure on them create incentives for more bycatch, or pressure on the sustainability of the target fisheries? There is no simple answer to the above question: Fristly, we do not have a full grasp on. the exact size of the by-product fisheries and sustainability of these food fishing operations; Secondly, feed manufacturers require consistency in the quality of their feed ingredient sources, and the quality and freshness of fishery byproducts can be highly variable depending upon fishing/processing method employed, season, target species composition and nature of the product (heads, guts, skin, frames, spoiled fish etc.) processed.

Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting i Jan 19-21, 2006 m ALASKA: ESTIMATED FISH-BYPRODUCTS PRODUCED IN 2005 Peter Bechtel (Jan 17, 2006: pers comm.) i Alaskan Pollock Total Harvest Total By-Product Heads Viscera Frames Skin t a t e d F s h B y - P r o d u c t s. P r o d u c e d % of Fish Total MT 100 1414962 66 933875 17 240544 21 297142 22 311292 6 84898 I n 2

Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting i Jan 19-21, 2006 m ALASKA: ESTIMATED FISH-BYPRODUCTS PRODUCED IN 2005 Peter Bechtel (Jan 17, 2006: pers comm.) i Salmon Total Harvest Total By-Product Heads Viscera Pacific Cod Total Harvest Total By-Product Heads Viscera Frames Skin t a t e d F s h B y - P r o d u c t s. P r o d u c e d I n 100 408014 27 110164 18 73443 9 36721 100 225341 46 103657 18 40561 19 42815 18 40561 6 13520 2

Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting i Jan 19-21, 2006 m ALASKA: ESTIMATED FISH-BYPRODUCTS PRODUCED IN 2005 Peter Bechtel (Jan 17, 2006: pers comm.) i Flat Fish Total Harvest Total By-Product Heads Viscera Frames Skin Atka Mackeral Total Harvest Total By-Product Heads Viscera t a t e d F s h B y - P r o d u c t s. P r o d u c e d I n 100 111357 72 80177 20 22271 14 15590 30 33407 8 8909 100 58423 32 18695 19 11100 13 7595 2

Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting i Jan 19-21, 2006 m ALASKA: ESTIMATED FISH-BYPRODUCTS e PRODUCED IN 2005 Peter Bechtel (Jan 17, 2006: pers comm.) Perch Total Harvest Total By-Product Heads Viscera Sable Fish Total Harvest Total By-Product Heads Viscera Yellowfin Sole Total Harvest Total By-Product Heads t a t d F i s h B y - P r o d u c t s. P r o d u c e d I n Viscera 2 14 12290 100 21002 38 7981 26 5461 12 2520 100 14944 32 4782 21 3138 11 1644 100 87787 31 27214 17 14924

Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting i Jan 19-21, 2006 m t Issue: Feeds & Nutrition Aquafeeds i & Reduction Fisheries ALASKA: ESTIMATED FISH-BYPRODUCTS e PRODUCED IN 2005 F d Peter Bechtel (Jan 17, 2006: pers comm.) i Others Total Harvest Halibut Total By-Product Heads Viscera Pacific Herring Total Harvest Total Harvest Total By-Product Heads Viscera t a t e d s h B y - P r o d. u c t s P r o d u c e d I n 2 s m a t F i s h B y - P r o d u c t s P r o d u c e d I n 100 33 18 15 100 100 28 16 12 29092 9600 5237 4364 37610 26016 7284 4163 3122

Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting i Jan 19-21, 2006 m ALASKA: ESTIMATED FISH-BYPRODUCTS PRODUCED IN 2005 Peter Bechtel (Jan 17, 2006: pers comm.) i Rock Fish Total Harvest Total By-Product Heads Viscera t a t e d F s h B y - P r o d u c t s. 100 13447 43 5782 31 4169 12 1614 Total Harvest Total By-Product Total Heads Total Viscera Total Frames Total Skin P r o d u c e d I n 2 2447995 1309212 384468 423818 385260 107327

Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting i ALASKA: ESTIMATED FISH-BYPRODUCTS Jan 19-21, 2006 m PRODUCED IN 2005 Issue: Feeds & Nutrition Aquafeeds a & Reduction Fisheries Peter Bechtel (Jan 17, 2006: pers comm.) Shore Side Plants Bering Aleutian Area *Gulf of Alaska Area Motherships Total Catcher-Processors Bering Aleutian Area Bering Aleutiuan Area Totals t t e d 2000 Meal MT F i s h B y - P r o. d u c t s 36785 15921 52706 12571 P r o d u c e d 814 66091 I n 2 2000 Oil MT 12899 3268 16167 305 585 17057 2005 Meal 47547 15525 63072 15511 5996 84579 2005 Oil 17196 3811 21007 909 21916

. ALASKA: ESTIMATED FISH-BYPRODUCTS PRODUCED IN 2005 Peter Bechtel (Jan 17, 2006: pers comm.) t i m a t e d F i s h B y - P r o d u c t s P r o d u c e d I n 2

Status of fisheries & ecosystem impacts from fishmeal and oil use -Key questions that have yet to be resolved Need to develop internationally agreed standards, principles and criteria for sustainable feed-based fisheries. In line with the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, the special needs of Developing Countries need to be taken into consideration when developing these standards and criteria; On the basis of the above agreed standards, principles and criteria for FAO/MSC or appropriate NGO to then ascertain the sustainability of the major reduction fisheries; Need to estimate total global production of fishmeal and fish oil from fishery by-products and trimmings, including species composition; Need to develop models concerning energy consumption within the different major reduction fisheries, including fishing, meal/oil manufacture

Question: : Status of the development and use of dietary fishmeal and oil substitutes for marine species Like humans, fish have a specific dietary requirement for 40 or so essential dietary nutrients and do not have a specific dietary requirement for a particular ingredient such as fishmeal or fish oil. For example, in their natural environment, the diet of salmonids consists of a mixture of crustaceans, molluscs and to a lesser extent fish; Not withstanding the above, fishmeal and fish oil has a nutritional profile which approximates closest to the known dietary requirements of fish, and as such usually has a high biological value and digestibility for farmed fish if prepared from fresh fish and processed adequately

Question: : Status of the development and use of dietary fishmeal and oil substitutes for marine species Current issues and obstacles to FM/FO usage are mainly ECONOMIC and MARKET DRIVEN: - Limited fish stocks & increasing fishing controls (biological limit) - Increasing proportion used for direct human consumption - Increasing competition for finite static resource - Increasing fishmeal & fish oil prices - Decreasing farmed fish prices due to increased production - Increasing farm production costs & overseas competition - Increasing demand by consumers for cleaner & greener foodstuffs

Constraints to using fishmeal and fish oil within aquafeeds: Mainly economic & market driven: - Limited fish stocks & increasing fishing controls (biological limit) - Increasing proportion used for direct human consumption - Increasing competition for finite static resource - Increasing fishmeal & fish oil prices - Decreasing farmed fish prices due to increased production - Increasing farm production costs & overseas competition - Increasing demand by consumers Solution: ON-GOING FOR ALL FEED MANUFACTURERS - Reduction of levels of usage on purely economic grounds - Increased use of alternative dietary proteins & lipids - Development of Improved feed & food safety controls - Development of greener feeds & farming systems

Current dietary fishmeal and fish oil dietary inclusion levels (%) within major producing countries - 2005 Industry average: Fishmeal 35%, Fish oil 25% (2003) Current levels from the present study (2005): Canada Chile Norway UK Fishmeal 20 25% 30 35% 30 35% 35-40% Fish oil 15 20% 25 30% 25 30% 27 32% Differences used dependent upon economics & market forces within major producing and importing countries: Canada & UK case example

Status of on-going reduction of dietary fish meal & fish oil levels within salmon feeds by major producer Current levels of possible replacement from the present study (2005): Chile Canada Norway UK Marine protein replacement 60% 55% 55% 40% Marine lipid replacement 20% 50% 50% 0% Major fishmeal and fish oil replacers currently used: Chile: soybean meal, soy oil, rapeseed oil, maize gluten meal, canola, lupin, feather meal, poultry byproduct meal, crystalline amino acids Canada: canola, pea meal, soybean meal, rapeseed oil, maize gluten meal, feather meal, poultry byproduct meal, crystalline amino acids Norway: soybean protein concentrate, soybean meal, corn gluten meal, wheat gluten, rapeseed oil, crystalline amino acids UK: maize gluten, soya products (mostly extracted), wheat gluten, and crystalline amino acids role of major retailors/sqs

FOOD PROCESSING WASTES WHICH COULD BE RECYCLED AS FEED INPUTS Seafood/fishery byproducts: meals & oils produced from seafood/fishery processing waste and bycatch, including seaweeds Animal/rendered products: meat meal, meat & bone meal, feather meal, poultry by-product meal, blood meal, fats & tallows Brewing/fermentation products: extracted dried yeast, brewers grains, distillers solubles, SCP, glucans, nucleotides, carotenoids Flour/milling products: flour, middlings, mill run, bran, gluten Plant oilseeds/pulses: oilseed meals, oils, protein concentrates Agricultural wastes/products: fruit, pulp, cannery, hays, straws, fresh leaves, tubers, roots, kitchen scraps, starches, binders Others: invertebrates terrestrial & marine worms

Of the different sources of animal proteins and fats available for use within compound aquafeeds by the largest in terms of volumes available are the terrestrial animal by-product meals, including: Fats - industrial tallows, edible beef tallow, lard, yellow grease, feed grade fats; Animal protein meals - meat and bone meal, meat meal, hydrolyzed feather meal, poultry by-product meal, blood meal, and specialised protein blends; and Other miscellaneous products, including specific organ meals, such as liver meal and lung meals, chick hatchery waste, bone meal, hide fleshing meals, and blood/rumen contents meals.

Current dietary fishmeal and fish oil dietary inclusion levels (%) within major producing countries - 2005

Question/s: Status of feed efficiency Calculate fm/fo fo conversion efficiency for different countries canada best also is already doing what is forecast for 2010

Question/s:

Status of feed efficiency Calculate fm/fo fo conversion efficiency for different countries canada best also is already doing what is forecast for 2010

Animal by-product meals (ca. 15-30 million tonnes/annum, dry basis) exceed that of fishmeal and fish oils (6-8 million tonnes/annum, dry basis) by a factor of two to three and represent the largest source of animal proteins and lipids currently available in the market place for animal feed industry, including the salmon aquafeed sector. Action required: - Consumer education regarding the safety of using adequately processed rendered animal products within aquafeeds, including salmon feeds. - Change of EU legislation allowing the use of rendered protein and lipid sources within aquafeeds - The increased use of rendered products within aquafeeds is typified by the lower levels of fishmeal currently used in salmon feeds in Canada - Aquaculture, and in particular MARINE FISH FISHING, should be viewed as the recycler of feed-grade rendered animal by-products into

Question/s: Status of feed efficiency: Trends in efficiency of feed use Calculated salmon economic FCR Period 1983-1985 > 2.0 Period 1986-1990 1.7 Period 1991-1995 1.6 Period 1996-2000 1.5 Period 2001-2003 1.4 Current 2003 1.3 Current range: 1.2-1.6 depending upon feed, farmer & country

T Trends in feed efficiency Economic FCR Estimated Economic FCR for farmed aquaculture species (Tacon, 2005) Harvest body weight Time Salmon 1.3 4 kg? Trout 1.3 < 1 kg Catfish 1.6 < 500 g Marine shrimp 1.9 <15-25 g Tilapia 2.0 < 750 g Milkfish 2.0 < 1 kg Marine fish 2.0 < 1 kg Feeding carp 2.0 < 1 kg Marine eels 2.0 < 500 g Fw. Crustaceans 2.3 < 50 g

FEED FORMULATION & NUTRIENT CONTENT AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT & NATURAL FOOD AVAILABILITY Main factors affecting the nutritional and economic success or not of a dietary feeding strategy FEED MANUFACTURE & PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ON-FARM FEEDING REGIME FEED TRANSPORT & STROAGE Importance of on-farm feed & water management

/s: Status of feed efficiency trends in efficiency of feed use Question/s:

Question/s: Public health issues related to feed -Which are the most important contaminants from public health viewpoint Concerns raised about the contamination of fish oils & fishmeals with: Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - (Poly Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins (PCDD) & Dibenzo Furans (PCDF) [Dioxins & Furans] - Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCB s) - Dioxin-like PCBs - Poly Brominated Diphenyl Ether (BDE, brominated flame retardants) - Chlorinated pesticides (DDT, Toxaphene, Aldrin etc) Heavy metals & minerals - Mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), Arsenic (As)

/s: Public health issues related to feed Question/s:

BFR of particular importance PBDEs plastics for electrical and electronic equipment (housings of computers, TV sets) textile back coating in furniture HBCD Expanded and Extruded Polystyrene for thermal insulation foams backcoating of textiles, mainly upholstery TBBPA Predominant Bfr in circuit boards ABS plastics

Tons per year 160000 120000 80000 40000 Global anual Production of Brominated Flame Retardants 56100 16700 130000 0 Deca-BDE HBCD TBBPA Source: www.bsef.com (> 2000)

Overview of concentration in fish oil ng/g, dioxin and dl-pcbs in ng TEQ/g Dioxin dioxin-like PCB Toxaphen PBDEs 7 Indicator PCB 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Herrmann et al.

Source: Robb, EWOS

Question: Potential to strip contaminants Three main techniques to reduce POPs that are important for human health risk in fish, farmed on energy rich (oily) feeds a) Selection of marine feed materials with relatively low natural levels of dioxins b) Use of alternative non-marine feed materials with a natural lower level of dioxins c) Removal of undesirables from marine feed materials Berntssen, Hemre & Lie (2004)

C) Industrial decontamination of fish oil The use of industrial patented working fluid (ethylester fraction) increases the efficacy of short path distillation Contaminant PCB Organochloride pesticides, Dieldrin, DDT etc. Brominated flame retardants (28, 47, 66, 99, 100, 154) Toxaphenes (23, 50, 62) Dioxins Dioxin like PCB Reduction % 97% 99 % 99% 90% 91% 99 % Data provided by Pronova BioCare A.S. P.O. Box 2109, N-3202, Sandefjord, Norway

/s: Public health issues related to feed Question/s: -Potential to strip contaminants from a public health point of view Source: Halseth, NUTRECO

Summary-techniques for reducing POPs The selective use of marine oils with natural lower level of organic pollutants will reduce the level of dioxins in farmed fish, however, to a lesser extend the level of dioxin like PCB s and even less on PBDE. The use of vegetable oils will effectively reduce the level of all three mentioned organic pollutants, however, will also affect nutrients (n-3 HUFA) normally rich in marine fish. The use of cleaning techniques might be a promising approach in reducing the level of organic pollutants and maintaining the high nutritional value of seafood.

The substitution of marine feed ingredients with alternative ingredients might introduce new threats for food safety For GM, substitution of fish meal with plant meal had no apparent negative effect on fish health or forms a risk for the consumer In developing novel feeds for the production of a safe and healthy seafood a combination of both reduction of undesirables components and maintenance of health benefit nutrients has to be achieved.

Aquaculture unique opportunity to tailor products Nutrients Maximum health benefits Contaminants

Farmed Feed 0.6 to 7.9 ng/g Example Flame Retardants 1.0 to 4.5 ng/g Wild 0.5 to 1.1 ng/g Hotspots: Lake Michigan in USA 80ng/g Effect in humans? Herring 1 to 3.5 ng/g No maximum limit in EU yet Only a few species analysed Great variations within species Variations between locations Source: M. H.G. Berntssen, G.-I. Hemre and Ø. Lie, (2004)

/s: Public health issues related to feed Question/s: If known that some reduction fisheries are more contaminated than others? Has global mapping or research been done on this?

PCDD/Fs and related PCBs in Fishoil - global differences High in pg WHO-TEQ/g, lipid based 50 Mean Low Source: Scientific committee on animal nutrition, EU commission, C3, 2000

Comparison of dioxins in fish meal from northern and southern hemisphere 75 PCT ng WHO-TEQ/kg, 12 % moisture Median 0.5 25 PCT Source: Ergo

/s: Public health issues related to feed Question/s:

/s: Public health issues related to feed Question/s: If known that some reduction fisheries are more contaminated than others? Has global mapping or research been done on this? Levels in Pacific fish stocks? Anchoveta? Need for global analysis

Key questions Question/s: that have yet Public to be health researched? issues related to feed - Assessment of environmental contaminant levels within the reduction fisheries stocks of the North, Central & South Pacific - Comparative global assessment of environmental contaminant levels within wild marine food fish stocks, including salmon, tuna, sword fish, cod, haddock - Publication of research findings on contaminant levels within fish stocks, including relevant feeding/spot-check analytical studies with farmed salmonids, within high profile peer reviewed non-aquaculture journals, including key medical and environmental science journals - Need to promote the nutritional health merits of farmed salmon (and seafood in general), not only as a source of omega-3 fatty acids, but also as a source of high quality animal protein and essential minerals and vitamins: we have a serious global food/obesity problem and have a solution in our hands

/s: Need to publish in aquaculture journal & non-aquaculture peer reviewed journals Question/s:

/s: Feed/feeding and ecosystem Question/s: Does feeding potentially contribute to additional contaminant loading around net cages? -Of course the answer is yes, and this may include additional contaminant loading from uneaten feed, fish faeces and excreta. -The potential impact (negative or positive) of these contaminants around the cages will depend upon the environmental carrying capacity of the coastal zone/area where the cages are geographically located and the water depth/water current under the cages. -Whilst in the past these contaminants have been considered in a negative sense, these so called contaminants are really `nutrients and as such could be harnessed for the co-culture of associated filter feeding species (ie. mussels) and aquatic plants (ie. seaweeds) rather than just released into the open sea.

/s: Feed/feeding and ecosystem Question/s:

Salmon Aquaculture Feed and the Environment Agriculture like Aquaculture,, has altered our global landscape for our food s sake SEALAB SUSTA INA BLE ECOLOGICA L AQUA CULTURE LA BORA TORY

/s: Feed/feeding and ecosystem Question/s: Key questions that have yet to be researched -Development of cost-effective satellite-assisted automated water quality monitoring techniques for measuring nutrient outputs from salmon farms, including benthos sediment inputs, and assessing the environmental impact of near-shore and off-shore salmon farming operations -Development of environmentally and ecologically sustainable multitrophic culture systems based on the co-culture of salmon, filter feeding molluscs, and seaweeds -Development of cost-effective bioremediation techniques for the exploitation and regeneration of sediments under salmon farms, including the possible culture of benthic invertebrates

There is no doubt that the third millennium will herald marked changes in ALL our global food production systems, including: Aquaculture

The over-riding riding reason for these changes is the stark realization (after years of environmental abuse) that our PLANET has it s LIMITS, both in terms of it s s available natural resources (land, water, energy, nutrients, biota), and through earth s ability and capacity to RECYCLE these resources and sustain LIFE as we currently know it.

Through the activities of our societies, food production sectors & industries we are now negatively impacting the land that we live on, the food that we eat, the water that we drink, the air that we breath, to the weather & climate of our planet and the well-being & health of ALL living things

The upshot of this is that AQUACULTURE, like all other food production systems, will have to become increasingly more ENVIRONMENTALLY & ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIBLE if it is be truly sustainable in the long run and be socially accepted as an economically viable means of producing much needed high quality food for an ever increasing & hungry population

MALNUTRITION is still the number one killer & cause of suffering on earth; causing more deaths than HIV/AIDS, warfare, genocide, terrorism, or any other ailment

Every minute of every day, especially within developing countries, 23 children die of malnutrition and preventable diseases. Even when it doesn't kill, chronic malnutrition can cause blindness, birth deformities and brain damage. By the end of my 60 minute presentation 1,380 children will have died

It is estimated that about one-fifth of the world s s population is currently living in extreme economic poverty; ; defined as living on less than US$ 1 per day

The above tragedy is a particular travesty bearing in mind MALNUTRITION: the over-supply and imbalance of nutrients and consequent global epidemic of obesity which is occurring, especially within industrialized countries: resulting in decreased productivity and increased risk of heart disease, hypertension, stress, diabetes and certain cancers.

US MEAT & SEAFOOD CONSUMPTION Pound per head 1994 2003 Beef 62.9 62.0 Pork 49.0 48.5 Chicken 48.7 57.5 Turkey 13.9 13.7 Total edible meats 176.1 183.1 Eggs 30.3 32.7 All dairy products 579.6 592.8 Total seafood 15.0 16.6 (2004) imports represent 80% of total consumption(16.2 in 1987) American Samoa 4.0 compared with 140.9 for Western Samoa (USA 47.0 liveweight equivalents; FAO 1999-2001 average)

OPPORTUNITIES.. Aquafeeds Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 - Designer feeds: promoting the complete nutritional attributes of farmed fish & seafood in human nutrition and for optimum health & development NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FISH & SEAFOOD - Need to combat the global epidemic of obesity, reduced dietary lipid levels.german case study with carps before & after unification NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FISH & SEAFOOD Not just omega-3 fatty acids, Ca, P, Mg, Fe, Zn, I, F, Cr, Se, protein, vitamin A, D, etc

OPPORTUNITIES.. - Increased use of feed fish for direct human consumption rather than for reduction into fishmeal and oil: anchoveta, mackerel, squid, salmon oil, salmon heads & process residue freezing, canning, drying

OPPORTUNITIES.. Fishmeal & Fish Oil - Organics natural binders (alternatives to synthetics), organic meals & oils prepared from certified stocks (sustainably managed) and/or from cultured species (fish, crustaceans, molluscs, polychaetes) Development of New Organic Culture Techniques for Native Hawaiian Seaweeds

OPPORTUNITIES.. Fishmeal & Fish Oil Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 - Production of a new generation of marine proteins and lipids, including cultured micro & macro algae, marine polychaetes & shellfish. using nutrient effluents from fishmeal plants A. samoa?

OPPORTUNITIES.. Aquafeeds - Coldwater marine finfish species hold greatest potential of all, with less than 1% of the oceans in the world being above 19 o C - Landings of Atlantic cod have steadily decreased due to over-fishing from 3,939,642 tonnes in 1968 to 851,319 tonnes in 2003. Marine cod aquaculture would be viewed as a champion by placing cod back on the table as a much needed low-fat marine white fish for mass consumption (in the first instance, primarily within developed country markets) - Atlantic cod production probably holds the greatest potential for increased global production of any marine fish species, possibly exceeding that of Atlantic salmon five to ten-fold.

OPPORTUNITIES.. Aquafeeds - ATLANTIC COD feeds and feeding technologies

OPPORTUNITIES.. Aquafeeds - Coldwater marine finfish species hold greatest potential of all, with less than 1% of the oceans in the world being above 19 o C - Landings of Atlantic cod have steadily decreased due to over-fishing from 3,939,642 tonnes in 1968 to 851,319 tonnes in 2003. Atlantic cod aquaculture would be viewed as a champion by placing cod back on the table as a much needed low-fat marine white fish for mass consumption (..little or no competition from Asian countries initially that is) - Atlantic cod production probably holds the greatest potential for increased global production of any marine fish species, possibly exceeding that of Atlantic salmon five to ten-fold.

OPPORTUNITIES.. Aquafeeds Marine Aquaculture Task Force Meeting Jan 19-21, 2006 - Development of new zero-exchange freshwater and marine culture systems and low-cost feeds and feeding technologies

OPPORTUNITIES

system concept: A CULTURAL &NUTRITIONAL BLUE REVOLUTION

Weight gain (%) Survival (%) 350 300 250 233.47 242.48 247.33 200 (%) 150 100 78.0 74.5 86.5 50 0 Control Less Vitamins Less Minerals

(% ) CAM 2000-6 6 results 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Body weight gain (% of initial) Control MBM PBM Treatment

CONCLUSIONS - Current dependence of aquaculture feeds upon fishmeal and fish oil and the need to reduce this dependency for the long term sustainability of the aquaculture sector; - Absence of agreed standards and criteria for assessing the sustainability of reduction fisheries; - Current ability of the feed manufacturing sector to reduce from 50 to 75% of the fishmeal and fish oil content of marine/brackishwater aquaculture feeds with alternative more sustainable dietary protein and lipid sources; - Increasing awareness concerning the relative efficiencies of different terrestrial and aquatic food production systems, including modern aquaculture production systems, and the consequent need to undertake a comparative analysis of these farming systems in terms of edible food

CONCLUSIONS - Increasing awareness concerning the presence of environmental contaminants within the marine environment, including reduction fisheries and food fish, and the need to reduce these contaminant loads either through extraction/purification, increasing legislative controls, or through the use of alternative feedstuffs or dietary feeding strategies; - Increasing awareness concerning feed and food safety, and the urgent need to promote the true and complete nutritional value of both wild and farmed fish/seafood in the global fight against malnutrition, including under-nutrition within developing countries, and over-nutrition or obesity within developed countries; - Increasing recognition that as global farmed marine aquaculture production increases and grows into a major protein food-plate commodity, that greater efforts should be focused on market development and the promotion of the nutritional attributes of fish

Mahalo & Aloha