NOMADS OF THE ALTAI MOUNTAINS THE MONGOLS. Ancient Traditions in a Modern World

This book is dedicated to Byambadorj anthropologist, artist, Oriat Mongol, good friend, and great mentor. 7

Prologue This story began in the late 1980s, but the action in the book takes place in the summer of 1999. It is mostly a story in pictures about the Derbet and Oriat Mongols who live in the Altai Mountains of western Mongolia with a few details that point out the reasons for my being there, and to introduce the Mongol s neighbors whom they interact with: the Kazak nomads. Many photographs are available of Mongols who live in the steppes adjacent to Ulaanbaator, the capital of Mongolia. These are primarily Khalkh Mongols, who represent the largest of all Mongol tribes as they gather each July to celebrate Naadam, their most national holiday. There, as well as in all of Mongolia, Naadam is celebrated in essentially the same manner: horseback races, wrestling, archery, and even stately parades. This book, however, looks more at the mundane life and ancient rituals that are at the heart of western Mongolian culture. The first few pages of this book explain the circumstances for my being in the Altai Mountains. This remote western region is not far from where Mongolia, China, Russia, and Kazakstan join borders, and where the glacier capped Tavan Bogd (Five Gods, 13,392 feet), the highest mountains in Mongolia, crown the grassy valleys. In the mid-19th century, a clan of Kazaks, threatened by Russian expansion into the steppes, petitioned the Mongol government for permission to nomadize in the aimag (county) of Bayan Ulgii. Since that time the Kazak in their auls, tiny vil- 8 Map of Mongolia. Area in box is Bayan Ulgii, Khovd, and Uvs aimags. Map: after www.nationsonline.org

lages of yurts, have grazed their herds of sheep, goats, camels, horses, and yaks thoughout this aimag. To the east of Bayan Ulgii lies Uvs aimag, a territory that covers the eastern fringes of the Altai Mountains and extends into the steppes surrounding the great salty lake, Uvs Nuur. Here, the Derbet and Oriat Mongols nomadize and occasionally enjoy some type of commerce with the Kazaks to the west. I first came to Mongolia through a series of serendipitous events that had connected me with UNESCO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. A few years later, with Mongol support, Mongol archaeology students, and American volunteers, we excavated the great mound at Beiram, located at nearly 9,000 feet altitude near the border of Bayan Ulgii and Uvs aimags. It was my long-standing interest in nomadism that served to introduce me to the local nomadic peoples. When we arrived in Uvs aimag on our way to Beiram, the governor of the aimag assigned his anthropologist, Byambadorj, to our expedition. Byambadorj knew the aimag the mountains, steppes and Uvs Nuur like the palm of his hand. It was through his influence that, as we traveled by jeep over hundreds of kilometers of non-existent trails that I was able to meet so many Mongols. I thank them for letting me photograph their lifestyle, recording many aspects of the Derbet and Oriat belief systems. Mongols who nomadize live in a ger, a tent-like structure. The walls are supported by a lattice framework; ribs overhead with a small round opening at the top. The ger is covered with (generally) handmade felt on the exterior; it is often decorated with rugs or wall hangings on the interior. Men and their accoutrements dominate one side of the ger, women and household items, the other. Activities take place outside the ger as well as inside. Oyuna, a beautful and highly educated Kalkh Mongol from Ulaanbaator, tries camel riding for the first time. The ascent is from Ulangoom to Beiram. 9

Ever harsh climatic conditions dominate the life of the Mongols. Sudden changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure can bring near-hurricane winds, or blizzards during peak summer months. Yet the landscapes can be breathtaking and vistas unlimited. The nomad must follow the greening pastures to feed their flocks so their entire household and probably all their possessions must be moved several times a year. All the while the animals must be milked, shorn, ridden, and herded. In Mongolia, shamanism and ancient cultic rituals are intertwined with Lamaism, a form of Buddhism introduced by the Tibetan Lamas. To express these beliefs and petition the gods, specific rituals take elements from both the unorganized and organized spiritual beliefs systems. Visual symbols from ancient times reveal influences from many lands and peoples. The unsophisticated sculpture of the priestess (back cover), the Lady of the Lake, stands near the shores of Uvs Nuur, wearing only a robe and peaked hat. She holds a small bowl in which to supplicate or make offering to the great lake. Sculptures with similar iconography are also found far to the west, near the Azov Sea, establishing that this Lady predates even the Mongols. Yet they still venerate her today. Cultic reminders of ancient times in western Mongolia. An Ibex petroglyph (left), Early Nomad period, probably around the end of the first millennium BCE (Altai Mountains). Opposite right, two uninscribed stelae marking a gravesite, Turkic culture, first half of first millennium AD. Opposite, left, a Mongol hunter with recurved bow and arrow, and elaborated headgear, Mongol period, probably early- to mid-second millennium AD. (Photographs page 9, found in the steppes near Uvs Nuur. Also see pages 42-43.) A stele (stelae, pl.) is an upright and inscribed stone monument. Many stones in western Mongolia are unmarked, yet function as those that are marked. 10

Compared to life in the Western World, the life of the nomad is sparse, frugal, and fraught with difficulty and uncertainty. Yet, over millennia these sturdy people have learned how to not only cope, but to pragmatically accept the inevitable. The Altai Mountains are the birthplace of both the Mongols and the Turkish people. Today, home of nomadic families, the immense but sparsely inhabited mountains and steppes of western Mongolia are a land of simplicity, much awe, and great mysticism. 11

Counting Stones Beiram, Summer 1998 12

Background 1991 Central Asian Dialogue route. Map after fs.huntingdon.edu In 1988 UNESCO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, began a ten-year study retracing the ancient Silk Roads. This project was known as the Integral Study of the Silk Road: Roads of Dialogue 1988-1997. In 1991, the Central Asian Dialogue began in Askhabad, Turkmenistan, passed through Uzbekistan, and skirted the southern edge of Lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgystan. From there it moved northeastward into southern Kazakstan where we were excavating. We were invited to join the Dialogue at the border of Uzbekistan traveling along to Alma Ata, as the thencapital of Kazakstan was called. 1992 Nomad s Route in Mongolia Dialogue For more information on the Dialogue, please go to http:// portal.unesco.org/culture/es/ev.php-url_id=36644&url_ DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html The Dialogue In 1992, The Nomad s Route in Mongolia, was to follow the ancient trails from western Mongolia to Ulaanbaator. As one of two Americans, I was invited to join this entourage. The Dialogue was composed of 44 foreign scholars, several international media crews and, our Mongol support staff. Our rendezvous was Ulaanbaator. We then boarded one of the Mongolian Airline 30-passenger turbojets. Destination was the small aimag (county) center, a town named Khovd (today Togrog), but midway we landed in 13

the steppes to refuel. Upon arrival at Khovd, I marveled at the glacier-clad Altai Mountains in the distance. Then someone mentioned that those seemingly glacier peaks were the home of the Kazak nomads. My curiosity was peaked as I had previously excavated nomadic burials in Kazakstan. It was not until 1996 that I was able to fly into the Altai Mountains (again our Miat airplane landed in the steppes to refuel). I stayed nearly three months, headquartering in Ulgii (now spelled Oilgy) but mostly traveling over mountain trails and living with the Kazak nomads. While there the archaeologists at Ulgii took me to the great stone mound at the top of the Beiram mountain pass. I wondered if this mound would hold ancient treasures. In the summer of 1998 we again went to Beiram, flying into Ulgii, jeeping over the rough mountain trails. This time we carefully surveyed the mound, which was called a kurgan or kheregsur, counting stones as we moved them away to determine how long it might take to excavate to the ancient ground surface. 14

From Beiram to the east The kheregsur at Beiram was located at an altitude of nearly 9,000 feet at the top of the mountain pass. To the west lay Hotgor and then Olgiy and to the northeast is the sum center, Ulaamgom, of the aimag Uvs. 15

Mongol and Kazak workers removing stones from the mound 16

A Kazak worker near the entrance to his yurt Many of the stones at Beiram were removed by Kazak workers who had come from Hotgor, a town to the west. They brought their yurts, slept on felt rugs (as is their custom), and cooked their own meals before the summer sun set. Kazak boots at the end of the day 17

At Beiram the tremendous quantity of huge stones had been brought to this site from many miles away to build what would turn out to be a cenotaph, or a memorial, to a fallen leader of long ago. For many hundreds of years, Beiram has been a sacred mound to supplicate Tengri, the sky god, and other nature gods. When the excavations were finished, all the stones were returned to the mound and the site was again made whole. Mongol worker with unmarked stele 18 If you are interested in the Beiram excavation and would like to see illustrations of the artifacts that were excavated, please go to http://csen.org.

Offering at Beiram. A Mongol archaeologist draws in the background As the nomads pass on their journey either to Olgiy or Ulaamgom, they leave an amazing array of offerings. We found bottles, automobile parts, pieces of cheese, bits of cloth, and even a bovine head. The prayer ritual is to place their offerings, then walk three times around the mound while making a wish. 19

The Derbet and Oriat Mongols Everyday Activities In Ulaangom a wagon loaded with furs on its way to the bazaar passes two Mongol ladies 20

Two women on their way to the bazaar in Ulaangom stop to chat. They probably also hold jobs in one of the local administrative offices. 21

Herding in the steppes in the outskirts of Ulaangom, seen hazily in the background 22

Below, a Mongol craftsman in his open-air workshop strips bark from the slender wooden poles. These will become the ribs to support the roof of a ger. The poles are soaked in water and then bent to the proper shape. The upper ends of the ribs attach to the circular frame that forms the center-top opening. This frame is shaped, using the same process, in wood around the wheels seen on the ground. A Mongol with his horse 23

Nomads gathering wood used for cooking and warmth 24 The altitude at Beiram is too high and the land too barren for trees to flourish, but small valleys lower down catch enough moisture to foster sparse forests of coniferous trees.

At Beiram Only the two-humped Bactrian camel is found in the Altai Mountains. When not being used, the animals free-range in the higher elevations. 25

A Mongol Mother with her children making rope 26 Seated outside their gers, as their conical-roofed home is known to the Mongols, the women perform tasks such as making rope from goat hair. First the hair is beaten with sticks to make it loose and fluffy and so that the fibers can be aligned in one direction, then it is twisted. The rope has many uses including securing animals, and tying the ger coverings down to prevent high winds from lifting the felt.

Mom twists the wool fibers to make a tight and strong rope Felt is also made from wool that is beaten. The fibers, sometimes in natural black and white colors, are decoratively placed on a solid-colored wool background. The entire project must be laid out on a tarp or hide (as in the photograph to the left). When the pattern is complete, the fibers are sprinkled with hot water. The mass is then rolled, wrapped snugly with a rope, and then rolled back and forth between two horses. The hot water and the agitation causes the wool fibers to shrink together into a long-wearing felt rug. 27

This militarily decorated Mongol displays his fine clothing and his snuff pipe along with carpets hanging from the walls of their ger, while his wife is elegant in a gold-colored brocaded deel. 28 The gers are also the locale for displaying wealth and position. The wall hangings are not only decorative, but form an insulating barrier to protect from the harsh winds and the bitterly cold weather.

The Mongol costume, identical for both men and women except for perhaps the fabric from which it is made, is called a deel (pronounced del). The most popular fabric for women is Chinese brocade, or for winter wear, velvet or other heavy fabric. For festive occasions, men s deels will also be brodaced, but a heavy broadcloth-type material is more pratical for everyday wear. A 3-meter silk band, often in a gold color, is wound around the waist (see pages19, 36, and 37 for examples). The pouch formed above the belt serves as a giant pocket. A less affluent mother with her daughter displays a happy smile. 29

30 Food is cooked in the ger in a large rounded basin placed over the direct fire in the metal stove. The stoves are fabricated in one of the villages, such as Hotgor. In the basin, cut-up mutton is boiled in salted water. For seasoning, wild garlic and small amounts of available vegetables, bought at the bazaar in Uvs and hauled up the rocky trail by jeep, are added. Home-made pasta boiled in the broth completes the tasty meal.

Ger stove Drawing by Karen Towry, Bieram 1999 31

32 It is not unusual for the older boys and men to care for a child in mid-day as the women have many tasks to perform from morning til night.

Nomads drink milk tea laced with salt, which is amazingly restorative. In summer, the sheep are milked several times a day. In addition to tea, the milk is made into a soft summer cheese as well as a rock-hard winter cheese. Both are staples. 33

Weather A wind storm threatens... 34 Sudden windstorms approaching hurricane force create havoc with the gers. Mongols place their gers on wooden floors, as seen in the drawing of the stove (page 29). As the structures are not fastened to the ground, they are more vulnerable to being toppled by the wind.

...and wins After the storm subsided, the Mongols rebuilt the ger. It had sustained only minor damage. If it had been placed directly on the ground and further attached, the ger probably would not have collapsed. 35

Moving Camp Trailing sheep over the high Beiram mountain pass during camp move 36 Nomads move camp many times throughout the year, beginning at the lower elevations where they winter. In early spring, they move to a warmer, more sheltered location that is also cleaner, to lamb-out the flock. After a few weeks when the lambs are able to travel, the extended families that live together again load their belongings, including the gers, onto camels and horses and begin the ascent to the higher elevations. As days warm and the grass grows yet higher in the mountains, they follow the fodder. By late mid-summer, forage at these high elevations is nearcompleted, and they begin their descent downward. By early winter they again arrive at their winter home.

Camp on legs While moving, the sheep and goats must be trailed slowly so they do not become over-tired or too thirsty. Frequently it will take several days for the herd to arrive at the new camp. In contrast, the camels and horses loaded with the household goods will generally make the trip in a single day, leaving shortly after first light, traveling quickly, and arriving before evening to set up camp. 37

The youngest now also rides 38 These men, trailing their animals to the next camp, have set up their ger for night. Some may join their families for the evening (commuting by horseback), returning early the next morning, while others will stay with the herd throughout the night. Mongolian ponies are noted for their strength and stamina. They can carry a man 100 kilometers up the mountainside within a day without issue. Opposite, the task of assemblying the gers appears daunting but this small group will have several set up within the hour, a fire built, and hot milk-tea ready to boost the moral.

Unloading camels 40

This little girl, astride her own horse, led the string of pack animals over the Beiram mountain pass to the new camp. The girl-child in the Mongol household assumes responsibility at a very young age. Sister and brother 41

Shearing sheep at summer pasture, the mundane aspect of nomadic life Sheep s wool, a cash crop, can be traded to the Chinese who set up kiosks to barter at the border for a few days once a year. They allow the nomads to cross without a visa to do their business. Or the wool may also be sold at the bazaar in Ulaangom. In either case, transport is a major issue. 42

Summer storm and rainbows near Beiram pass, Altai Mountains The human experience is diminished by the power of Tengre. 43

Beiram pass Uvs Nuur (lake), the largest lake in Mongolia, is 825 feet above sea level, 84 kilometers long, 79 kilometers wide, and covers 3,350 square kilometers. Five times saltier than the ocean, it is quite shallow, and has no exit. Because the lake is so large, it develops its own weather systems, creating huge storms with black, menacing clouds and high winds. The lake and twelve areas around it are protected by UNESCO and are listed as a World Heritage Site. Nominated as one of the largest intact watersheds in Central Asia, 40,000 archaeological sites record the former presence of historically famous nomadic tribes such as the Scythians, the Turks and the Huns. Map and data on Uvs Nuur: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/uvs_nuur 44 Info on UNESCO: http://portal.unesco.org/culture/es/ev.php-url_ ID=36644&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

Byambadorj (left) and friends at Uvs Nuur. Vistas such as this make believers of Tengre and other nature gods who control the nomadic destiny Carefully traversing the very stone-laden trail some 7,500 feet down the side of the Altai Mountains, one reaches the steppes adjacent to Uvs Nuur. This vast area is sparsely populated, although there is evidence of habitation since ancient times as marked by the gatherings of stones carved into stelae that indicate thousands of ancient burials (see page 9). 45

Rain-Making Ritual Derbet Mongols toasting with airak before the rain-making ceremony Rituals are an important element in nomadic life. A group of Derbet Mongols that herd near Uvs Nuur, participate in a ceremony to invoke rain. On the appointed day they gather in the early afternoon on the foothills that flank the lake, making fires to cook their mutton and rice meal. While waiting for the food, they toast with airak (fermented mares milk). After the meal they climb to higher elevations to perform their rituals. 46

Both men and women exchange, and sniff, snuff-bottles during the rain ceremony Some in Mongol costume, with a sprinkling of Western dress, the Derbets exchange snuff bottles. Although the precious hand-carved (and antique) bottles no longer contain snuff, the ritual of exchanging as if sharing snuff is still practiced at all passages of life and ceremonies. 47

Derbet Mongol women build their ritual fire 48 Segregated from the men, the women climb only part way to the top of the mountain. There they pause on a small mesa to build their ritual fire on a long-standing cairn of stones.

Making obeisance to the fire. Uvs Nuur is in the background Once the flames are high, the women begin a procession around the fire chanting prayers to Tengre, beseeching his blessings in the form of rain. As they pass, they throw offerings of cheese into the fire and sprinkle the flames with drops of airak. As the tension increases, some drop to their knees, heads to the ground intensifying the power of their prayers. 49

Men climbing to the mountain top to perform their rain ritual The men, in contrast, climb to the mountain top, make their fire, and perform the obeisance and prayers to beseech Tengri to bring rain. Women are not allowed to participate in the men s ritual. This rain ritual is a remnant from ancient fertility rites that were vital to the survival of the tribe. Without rain there would be no grass to feed the animals. Nomads for millennia have been completely dependent upon the animals for food and other necessities. The animals also served as currency for exchanging necessities and luxury items the people did not produce. A drizzle of rain fell after the ceremonies. 50

The Mongol form of wrestling is very ancient. Illustrations of two men in this popular sport s stance have been found on bronze plaques dating to around 200 BCE. The winner, as seen here in typical wrestling garb, is dancing around, swooping and hopping on first one foot and then the other. All the time his arms are outstretched and he makes cooing-like sounds. He has become the Eagle, the champion wrestler. Mongol wrestling is performed at any and all festivals. Mongol wrestler champion at rain ritual ceremony 51

Entertaining at the rain ritual Mongols love music and their tones are very unusual. Some throat-sing in the Tuvan style. 52

Evidence of Ancient Rituals A Turkic cultic site located near the border of Uvs and Bayan Ulgii aimags The Mongols and Turks are said to have originated as ethnic cultures in this area of Mongolia. Although the Turkic cultic site above is one of the larger in the area, many more of these elaborated prominences dot the steppes. 53

Daughters-in-Law Byambadorj with his nephew (center front), his wife to the right, and the grandchildren. In the back row from left, their 16-year old daughter, the two married sons with their wives, and the youngest son, who sang, acappella, a song in honor of his Mom s new deel. One day while traveling by jeep through the steppes, Byambadorj said he d like tea and directed our driver toward a ger. Our dear anthropologist went into this ger and when he returned he said his nephew and family lived Just over there in those gers, pointing to little white spots far in the distance that I could just barely see. Upon arriving at the main ger, we had tea and then the Mom showed me the new bluebrocaded deel she had just made. The daughters-in-laws, who live next door in their own gers, stood about as if they were quite unwelcome but still very curious. We all had dinner that is, except the daughtersin-law (apparently a custom). But they were allowed to be in the family photo. 54

Visiting Family of Kalkh Mongols Sister, her child, and brother, Kalkh Mongols from Ulaanbaator. He is also Oyuna s husband (page 7) This young Mongol man to the right is the son of the man and cousin to the girl pictured above. 55

Harvesting Camel Hair Baby camels are born white Molting camel mothers waiting to have their hair harvested. Camel hair provides an additional cash crop for the Mongols. 56

Harvesting camel hair Where do camel-hair coats come from? From camels, of course. The Mongols harvest camel hair by pulling it from the animal. As the camel is about to molt, the hair is removed very easily and without hurting the animals. Their biggest indignation is being tied down during the process. 57

Mongol Wedding People arrive from all parts, on horses, motorcycles (the new steppe horse), and even in the back of trucks, dressed in their finest deels. The ceremony takes place at the home of the groom s family. Gifts for the new bride and groom are displayed in the ger (left). They included six beautiful new deels for the bride, three in summer silk brocade and three in heavier winter fabrics, these lined with the finest lambskins. The guests are allowed to parade through the ger to admire the presents. The groom and bride 58

Derbet guests unload a wooden chest, a present for the bride and groom The Mongol traditional hard furniture, brightly painted in colors like this chest, may be color-influence by the Lamas, who wear orange-colored robes. (The main religion of the Mongols is Lamaism.) In addition to chests, furniture in the ger will also include small cabinets for cookware, cots, low tables and stools, and other accoutrements, all painted similar to this chest. Note the orange color on the door (opposite). 59

Wedding guests 60 Guests gather tightly in the ger, women on one side, men on the other. The wedding vows themselves are quickly made and do not seem to be the important function. Rather the camaraderie of gathering and communication (much as seen during the rain-making ceremonies) is paramount. Fried bread and cheese along with milk-tea and hard-tack candies are included in the delicacies that are served.

Snuff Bottle No doubt at one time, the noble Mongols obtained snuff bottles and snuff from the Chinese. The custom passed from the nobles to the rank-and-file and became well established throughout the Mongolian culture. Snuff eventually became unavailable, but the ritual of exchanging snuff bottles was so engrained in that it continues to be practiced, even in the remotest regions of Mongolia. The Mongols have special names for each snuff bottle, depending upon the type of material it is carved from, including coral, jade, and chalcedony. A carved-stone snuff bottle Granite-like stone, 3-1/8 inches tall 61

Offering snuff bottles at the wedding reception 62 Mongol women have risen and cross to the men s side of the ger to offer their snuff bottles. The man in the lower right is offering his snuff bottle to one of the women.

Accepting the snuff bottle The ritual of offering and accepting the snuff bottle is very prescribed and probably very ancient. They seem to roll the bottle from the hand of one person to that of the other. These actions are meant to reaffirm kinship ties and deep friendship. 63

64 Men crowded into their side of the ger for the reception following the wedding ceremony

Other wedding guests gather outside, chatting while enjoying the air and view 65

Excavation gers provided by Mongol nomads herding in the region. Beiram, July 4, 1999 66

July Storm at Beiram Weather is all-important to any nomadic society. Although this sounds like a platitude, one only has to live with, or even adjacent to, nomads to understand the effects of weather and how it will influence the lives of those who live in these remote and harsh regions. We arrived at Beiram in early June and within a day or two the coldest of cold west wind began to blow, continuously day and night, never stopping for a month. Even though I was on a wooden floor, off the ground, I could not keep warm in my ger. In desperation, I erected my tent, with its enveloping walls and floor, within the yurt. That stopped the icy draft enough so that I could sleep. The wind stopped around the first of July. On July 4, I stepped out of my ger to find snow had blanketed the landscape. Frontpiece. Harvesting hair from Bactrian camels Opposite Title Page. Mongol highschoolers on vacation End piece. Moving camp, photographed near Beiram summit Unless otherwise credited, all photographs by Jeannine Davis-Kimball 67