1 Module # 1 Component # 2 High Profile Animal Species Accounts B The
2 This Component will deal with the following species: African Elephant White Rhinoceros Black Rhinoceros Cape Buffalo Hippopotamus Ostrich
3 African Elephant ~ (Loxodonta africana) Simply because of its immense size, the largest land mammal can be extremely dangerous, whether you are in a vehicle or on foot. Nothing more than a bump from the trunk of this 5000kg beast could potentially be enough to kill a human or wreck a car. Generally, bull elephants are less dangerous than cows. Cows with small calves in breeding herds must be approached very carefully. Not only are cow elephants generally considered to be unpredictable and more aggressive, but breeding herds usually consist of numbers of elephants from as few as 5 or 6 to as many as a few hundred. This makes it much more difficult for you as the guide to keep an eye on individuals and to keep a lookout for warning signs. In many areas cows without tusks are found, these are highly aggressive as they are vulnerable to inter-population stress, and have had to defend themselves throughout their lives without tusks as weapons. They must, in times of food shortages, steal stripped bark and other food off tusked members of the herd by attacking them, this leads the tuskless females to be habitually aggressive. Bull elephants are usually found singly or in small groups and are much easier to observe. In addition, they tend to be a lot more relaxed and more predictable than cows. Younger bull elephants are often full of bravado and uncertainty and as a result they often engage in mock charges accompanied by trumpeting and head shaking. This is always very impressive but is usually nothing more than show. Be very careful of bulls in musth. The condition of musth in African elephant bulls is due to a rise in the levels of the male hormone testosterone. They should be avoided as they are highly excitable and totally unpredictable. Fortunately, they are very easily identified by their 'head high' posture and streaming temporal glands. In addition, the inside of the hind legs of a musth bull is always wet from the constant dribbling of urine which gives off a characteristic smell. Because they are so typically unpredictable, musth bulls should never be approached. Elephants will generally give ample warning of increasing temper. Ears held above the neck line or outspread, head shaking with a characteristic slapping of the ears against the neck and a lifted head are all gestures that indicate unease. Under these conditions, it is best to back off slightly until the animal calms down. Mock charges from elephants are usually accompanied by lots of show with trumpeting and head-shaking and ears spread. It is generally accepted that an elephant carrying out a serious charge is quieter, has the ears folded back and carries the trunk curled under the mouth. However, we do not believe that any guide should try and guess the difference during the charge and should rather treat each and every charge as potentially life-threatening.
4 Viewing Elephants from a Vehicle: A 5000kg bull elephant has the potential to destroy a motor vehicle, so elephants should be approached with care, even from a vehicle. It is always a clever idea to have an escape route when you approach an elephant for viewing. If you are on a road, try to have the vehicle in such a position that you have a clear view of the elephant for your guests, but at the same time, that you have a clear road in front of you so that you can drive away forwards should the elephant charge or come towards you. It is important that you can drive away forwards, as it is obviously difficult to get out of a situation if you are driving backwards. Many experienced guides will tell you that even if an elephant charges, it is usually a mock charge and that it is not necessary for you to drive away and in most cases this is true. However, remember that you have a group of guests on your vehicle and they are your responsibility. Also remember that there may be some people who are quite scared of elephants, and a close encounter would be a terrifying experience for them. This would make their safari less than enjoyable which is not what you want. It is therefore always better to have an escape route. If for some reason, you do not have an escape route and an elephant charges you in the vehicle, then there are two things that you can do. Firstly, you can tell everyone to keep still and not make a sound. By sitting quietly in the vehicle this may have a calming influence on the elephant and prevent it carrying through its charge. Another method is to quietly talk in a low gentle voice. Some guides believe that any noise or disturbance now, might provoke the animal further. On the other hand, some guides suggest that you should make as much noise as possible, by shouting, waving your arms and revving the vehicle loudly. It is difficult to know which method is correct, as both have been used successfully in the past. We at EcoTraining believe that the quiet approach is the better one.
5 Invading an Elephant s Space: All animals have a comfort zone and this comfort zone varies from species to species and from one individual to the next within a species. As soon as you invade an animal s comfort zone, the animal will react, mostly in a negative manner, either by moving away from your presence or, in extreme cases, by threatening you. If you want to give your guests the best possible viewing, it is vital that you are aware of the signs that indicate that an animal s comfort zone is being invaded. The comfort zone invasion signs for elephants include the following: As you approach, the animal moves away from you with its tail extended horizontally. If this happens you have already got too close and it is best to stop the vehicle and wait until the animal resumes natural behaviour, before trying to get a better view. An elephant with tail extended is always a sign that it is unhappy. The animal stops doing what it was doing and stands quietly as you approach. For example, the elephant might have been feeding on grass and suddenly stops as you approach. This is an early warning sign that its space is being invaded. Whilst standing quietly it will sniff the air whilst moving the tip of the trunk from side to side. This is often done with the trunk dangling downwards and is therefore often not noticed. More noticeable is when the elephant raises its trunk into the air to smell. If you approach the elephant from behind and it then moves its body sideways to get a better view of you. For an elephant to look over either shoulder, it must move its body to one side or the other so that it can see past its own bulk. The elephant turns to face you. This might be accompanied by ears spread outwards and tail horizontal. This position can precede one of two things: a charge, or the elephant turning and fleeing from you. A slight raising of the head is often an early indication that the elephant is aware of your presence. If you want to give your guests the best view of an elephant, avoid invading the elephant s space.
6 Viewing Elephants on Foot: Firstly, it is best not to approach breeding herds on foot. They are too unpredictable; their numbers are too high and they are potentially too dangerous. It is safer to approach bull elephants. Before approaching elephants on foot, it is a clever idea to have a plan of action should the elephant come towards the group. Discuss with your tracker beforehand that he will lead the group away from potential danger. If you are tracking elephant, then you ll have the tracker walking in front, with you behind him and the guests strung out behind you. Because elephants are so large and make a certain amount of noise whilst feeding it is unlikely that you will be surprised by coming around the corner and suddenly bumping into it. Also, elephants are large enough to view from a safe distance. Once the elephant is spotted, observe carefully to make sure that you haven t walked into a breeding herd. The tracker will then move to the back of the group. You can then approach the elephant until you have a good view, always remembering not to invade the animal s space. The ideal situation is for you to get a good view of the elephant for your guests, and then leave without the elephant being aware that you were there. If the elephant does discover your presence, it will either move away, or it may come towards you. Should the elephant show signs of coming towards you, it is best to get your tracker to lead the group safely away whilst you remain behind with your rifle. Once your guests are safe, you can then also retreat. Warning charges are normally accompanied by a lot of noise, with the animal trying to look as large as possible. Dirt may be kicked up, trees uprooted or damaged and perhaps being thrown around. Under these conditions, it is fatal to run, as it will precipitate a charge. The only thing to do is stand your ground and to back off as soon as it is safe to do so. The animal may be turned if a sharp whistle, shout or clapping of hands is tried. Warning shots may also be used, but the use of warning shots is open to debate.
7 Elephants at Waterholes: When elephants come down to drink at a waterhole, this is often a sensitive time for them. In some areas, such as northern Botswana in the dry season, waterholes might be few and far between. This means that the elephant herds have had to travel long distances to get to the water for their drink, which in turn means that they are at a heightened state of excitement. Also, because the herds have travelled long distances, they may have come from areas where they are not used to vehicles or human activity and they may even have come from hunting areas where they have been shot at. As a guide, you need to be aware of this and always approach drinking elephants with caution. They may not like having their drink disturbed and they can react either by moving off very quickly or by being aggressive. It is not good to know that your presence might be disturbing an animal that has come a long distance just to get a drink of water. It is preferable to keep your distance when approaching elephants, particularly breeding herds, when they come down to drink.
8 White Rhinoceros ~ (Ceratotherium simum) This is the second largest land mammal on earth and, like the elephant; its sheer bulk makes it dangerous. A mere bump from the animal could be life-threatening. Viewing White Rhinoceros from a Vehicle: Generally, White rhinoceroses are docile, timid animals that are more likely to move away should they feel threatened. However, as with any species, individual rhinos have different characters. While most are very placid, others are anything but. So, don t take the general rule for granted and rather approach each and every rhino with caution. When viewing rhinos from a vehicle, there is less likelihood of anything untoward happening, as the animal will more than likely move away from the vehicle if it feels threatened. However, should the unusual happen, and a rhino charges the vehicle it is best, as with elephant, to have an escape route so that you can start up and drive away from the potential danger. Viewing White Rhinoceros on Foot: White rhinos tend to be more active at night and in the early mornings and late afternoon. During the day, they lie up in shaded areas and it is in this situation that a guide could find himself in danger. When an animal is sleeping it usually is making little or no sound which means that it is very easy for a person to stumble onto it without being aware that it is there. It is therefore important, as with the other high profile species, to be very aware of any fresh or semi-fresh signs that the animal is in the area. These signs can alert you to the possibility of the rhino being in the vicinity and reduce the chances of you being caught by surprise. You should have a general awareness of shaded areas, and watch out for paths that are well-defined and link middens.
9 As with most animals, white rhinos would prefer to flee from danger rather than turn and fight. Although they have a good sense of smell and good hearing, rhinos are short-sighted and so they often do not see the danger that they want to avoid, although they may be able to smell it or hear it. This often leads to a confusing situation for the rhino, where it is uncertain as to the direction it should take to avoid danger. It will then often end up just galloping off in any direction and it is often the case that this direction happens to be towards you. There are many stories of guides who have been charged by white rhino where, on closer inspection, it was found that the rhino was merely running away from danger, but was not aware of where the danger is. In this situation, it is usually a good idea to make some kind of loud sound and movement so that the rhino can see you and take the correct avoidance behaviour. Another thing to look out for when approaching a rhino is the position of rhino paths that may be used by the animal on a regular basis. Should the rhino flee for whatever reason, it is quite likely to flee along the path. If you happen to be on or near the path when this happens, you could be in danger.
10 White rhinos can cover ground amazingly fast getting up to speeds of 40km/h and can spin in their own body length at a gallop. While their sight is not very good, in comparison to other animals, their senses of hearing and smell are acute. Rhino's ears allow for omni-directional hearing. Observing them is the best method to ascertain whether they are aware of one's presence. The ears turn towards sound and when both 'lock on' to a source, the rhino can pin point the source very accurately. The tail is another good signal, when calm the tail is loose and hangs vertically, but alarm causes the tail to curl up over the back. Head position is normally low on the square-lipped rhino and a raised head indicates interest. Being grazers square-lipped rhino are most often encountered in the open, so approaching is a question of remaining silent and staying downwind from them. If you are detected, the rhino may close in for a closer look, but will generally move away as soon as it has identified the source of the disturbance as human. In the event of a charge, climbing a tree, or moving behind an obstacle may buy some time. A sharp whistle or other loud noise may turn the animal. If all else fails a thrown rucksack, jacket or other object may well deflect its interest, giving you time to escape.
11 Black Rhinoceros ~ (Diceros bicornis) Like the white rhinoceros, the black rhino s character can vary from individual to individual. It has the reputation for being the more aggressive of the two African rhino species, but this possibly stems from the fact that, as they live predominantly in dense bush, the contact distance is far closer when they are encountered. Like the square-lipped rhino, the hook-lipped has excellent senses of hearing and smell, but not very good eyesight. While certainly not as bad as many people assume, both the rhinos tend to react to movement rather than stationary objects. In real terms, many so called attacks by rhino are really the animal trying to move away from the intrusion, but being forced by circumstance to choose the path that is in the direction of the human. While not denying that some unprovoked attacks have occurred, most are either misread or confusion on the animal's part. In very close encounters aggression will occur due to the animal having no other psychological option. Both rhino species have similar signs of agitation. Generally, a hook-lipped rhino will give a snorting cough as a warning. The charge is done with the head held high and outreached. Just before impact the head is dropped so that the horn can be used to hook the target. On impact a short jump is used to enhance the impact and the target is impaled on the horn. Due to the limited range at which encounters are made, the hook-lip is more difficult to turn from a charge than a square-lip, and there is not much time for attempts to do so. Rather stay out of dense areas where these animals are known to stay. In summary, both black rhino and white rhino should be treated with respect. The black rhino is more inclined to be aggressive and can charge at a speed of 50km/h.
12 Cape Buffalo ~ (Syncerus caffer) As the only true African member of the bovid family, buffalo should not be the wanton killers often portrayed in hunting circles. Buffaloes occur in large breeding herds on the one hand and in smaller bachelor herds on the other. The large breeding herds pose little or no threat and can often be relaxed enough that one is able to drive a vehicle through the middle of the herd. The only danger that a herd poses is an uncontrolled stampede should it be chased by a pride of lions. If you are in the way of such a stampede it would not be possible to defend yourself and the best course of action would be to climb a tree or hide behind something like a tree-trunk, boulders or large termite mound. Real danger can come from the smaller bachelor herds and the older bulls that have had their day in the breeding herds. They are highly unpredictable and, if you are confronted by one on a walk, there is a 50/50 chance that it could come for you. It is therefore better to avoid buffalo, particularly the old bulls. Don t let complacency set in when it comes to buffalo bulls. In many areas, one can regularly see the same group of old buffalo bulls hanging around in a certain area. One can get used to these animals and assume that they are always relaxed. But never forget that these familiar animals may have had a bad experience with lions during the night and as a result could become unpredictable. Also, remember that these familiar groups can change in numbers from time to time, with new bulls joining up with them. These new bulls may not be as relaxed as the other bulls in the group. As with rhinos, buffalos often rest up in dense shade during the heat of the day and as such can pose a danger should you stumble across them during a walk. Again, be aware of tracks and other signs that buffalos are around and avoid potentially dangerous areas such as dense thickets. These older bulls can become aggressive as they tend to be more nervous, as they must fend for themselves. Wounded or sick animals can be highly dangerous. These animals tend to hide out in thickets and will attack without much provocation. Generally curious by nature, buffalo will often approach anything that they are unsure of in a characteristic nose-first posture. This should be taken as a warning that a situation may develop.
13 Hippopotamus ~ (Hippopotamus amphibius) This rather comical looking animal is regarded as the most lethal of the high-profile animal species as it is responsible for more deaths in Africa than any other large animal. While the hippo is a placid animal when unmolested, it can become extremely dangerous if provoked or if it feels threatened. As it uses water for safety, and is nervous on land, to get between a hippo and its aquatic retreat will lead to a confrontation. The hippo s large lumbering size and comical appearance should never be underestimated. Territorial bulls will also sometimes attack boats encroaching into their territory. If you are in a boat approaching a pod of hippos, it is best to avoid them by circling around and keeping your distance if there is enough space. If there is insufficient space, the hippos would usually react to your arrival by submerging themselves. This can be dangerous as you will not know for certain where the animals are. It is best to then move through the area as quickly as possible whilst at the same time keeping an eye out for wakes and bubbles that could indicate the presence of a hippo in your path. Hippos that have been injured in a fight, are stressed due to drought conditions or cows with small calves, should be left well alone. Hippos display aggression by the typical "yawn" - a display of its impressive weapons. They can, despite their ungainly appearance, move at impressive speeds of up to 30km/h at full charge, both on land and in water. When attacking from water, hippos are often invisible, running on the bottom before erupting to the surface. A hippo attacks with the mouth wide open and is not easily turned. Always remember that the main reason that a hippo would attack is because it feels threatened or cornered, so always give the animal space. If you are conducting walking trails in hippo areas, be extremely cautious when walking along the banks of rivers in the early morning. Hippos are nocturnal grazers and there may be hippos still out of the water that, on seeing or hearing you approach would immediately head for the water. If you are in the way, this could be dangerous. It would be preferable not to walk near the water in the early morning. On overcast days, hippos might get out of the water earlier and return to the water later, so you need to be aware of this possibility. If you happen to be guiding in a boat and you know that you are moving through hippo areas, then it is a good idea to make some kind of noise against the boat to warn the hippos of your approach. Also, be aware that hippos will always move towards deeper water if they feel threatened. Therefore, move your boat towards the shallow side of the river or lake to give the hippos space to move into deeper water.
14 Ostrich ~ (Struthio camelus) Most people, who have had little experience with this massive bird, would possibly laugh when told that they are, in fact, potentially dangerous. The truth is that the cock birds have been known to attack, injure and sometimes kill people rash enough to get too close to their nests and chicks. Contrary to popular belief, in the wild, it is the cock and not the hen that does most of the incubating of the eggs, and does all the guarding of the chicks. Ostriches can move incredibly quickly and are extremely strong. Their massive legs, armed with two powerful toes equipped with claws, are used to kick, and can disembowel a man. The ostriches found in South Africa are a mixture of the local and an East African type bought here for the ostrich farms that boomed at the end of the 18th Century. During the breeding season, male birds become extremely territorial and will challenge and attack anything they see as a threat. Initially a display of spread wings and approaching the threat will be tried, if this does not work, then an attack is made. An ostrich is a powerful and fast attacker, the puffed-up feathers and slashing feet are a sight to behold. In the event of an attack, the best course of action is to drop to the ground and to try to roll into cover. This shows a nonthreatening attitude and prevents the downward kick to be less effective. Where possible a twiggy thorn tree branch can be used to deflect the birds attack. Because ostriches are careful about damaging their eyes, this does work. While there are many stories of people wringing ostrich s necks to defend themselves, this is not a course of action to be tried unless nothing else is possible. Ostriches are notoriously hard to kill, their small highly mobile head is an impossible target, unless a shotgun is used. A bullet fired into the breast of the bird will turn it, and is lethal. As with other territorial dangerous species it is best to stay away from breeding ostriches, take note of the nest sites and move well away where possible. Out of the breeding season, ostriches are not too much of a problem.
15 Full Species Accounts This Component has deliberately only dealt with each species from a Dangerous Game perspective. For a much fuller account of these animals, where their full ecology, biology, morphology and ethology is described in detail, please see our Game Ranging and Advanced Animal Behaviour Courses. The following species have been described in full: Lion Leopard Elephant Rhinoceros (black and white) Buffalo Cheetah Hyaena 40 species of Antelope Warthog Wild dog Giraffe Zebra Hippopotamus Suricate Aardvark and Pangolin