Biodiversity issues for sustainable aquaculture Responsible use and control of introduced aquatic species FAO/SPC Regional Scoping Workshop: Development of a Pacific Aquaculture Regional cooperative Programme Nadi, Fiji 11-14 October 2011 Ruth Garcia Gomez ruthgg@spc.int
Biodiversity... Biodiversity for food and agriculture is among the earth s most important resources. Crops, farm animals, aquatic organisms, forest trees, micro-organisms and invertebrates thousands of species and their genetic variability make up the web of biodiversity in ecosystems that the world s food and agriculture production depends on.
The relevance of aquatic biodiversity The projected increase in the world s human population over the next 50 years is thought to require an increase in food production of 1.5-2.0 times. FAO estimates that an additional 40 million tones of fish per year will be required to meet global demand by 2030. Recent results presented by the SPC show that the Pacific region s growing populations will need an additional 100,000 tonnes of fish by 2030, if present per capita fish consumption is to be maintained. Source: SOFIA 2010. Fishstat plus 2011
The relevance of aquatic biodiversity As a region, aquaculture is not the only option for PICTs though it is certainly considered an important one. The "fish for food security" work led by SPC has identified three options to deliver additional fish: (i) land more of the offshore catch for domestic consumption rather than export it, (ii) promote inshore FADs, and (iii) aquaculture. Aquaculture development for food security and to increase rural livelihoods is a priority sector for most PICTs, identified in national and regional strategies and plans.
The relevance of aquatic biodiversity Aquaculture Aquaculture continues to be the fastest-growing animal-food-producing sector and to outpace population growth, with per capita supply from aquaculture increasing from 0.7 kg in 1970 to 7.8 kg in 2009. The contribution of aquaculture to world food fish production soared from 3.9 percent in 1970 to about 46 percent in 2009, with growth expected to continue. Source: Fishstat plus 2011 There are concerns that unconstrained expansion and intensification, coupled with fluctuation of markets and resources, climate change...may have undesirable impacts on the resilience of socio-ecological systems. Sustainability: the ability of aquaculture to achieve future needs will depend on accessing new areas of production and increased efficiency of production from existing areas.
The relevance of aquatic biodiversity The world s wealth of aquatic biodiversity at gene, species and ecosystem levels provides the potential for the aquaculture sector to enhance its contribution to food security and meet future challenges in feeding a growing human population. Aquatic biodiversity underpin the productivity and sustainability of the aquaculture sector growth. Aquaculture, including culture-based fisheries and capture-based aquaculture, involves the farming of: *Source: Fishstat plus 2011
The challenge is to maintain a broad genetic base for the future Which species will be the next Pangasius? How to balance? - The need to produce more fish for food security through fisheries and aquaculture; and - The potential effects of fisheries and aquaculture development on biodiversity.
Aquatic species introductions Aquatic species introductions are a valid means to improve production and economic benefit from fisheries and aquaculture. However, introduced species have also been identified as one of the major threats to native biological diversity. Introduced species may also adversely impact human communities that depend on this native biodiversity for food and livelihood. Benefits and risks: 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 + soc/econ - ecol Source: FAO Database on aquatic species introduction, DIAS
Aquatic species introductions Main reasons for deliberate introductions of aquatic species: - Aquaculture; - Fisheries; - Ornamental purposes; - Biological control; - Research; and - Recreational purposes. Accidental 5% Other 3% Research 3% Bio Control 5% Ornamental 7% Unknown 16% Diffusion 4% Fisheries 17% (Source: DIAS) Aquaculture 40% Aquaculture 39%
Aquatic species introductions Boon or bane? On the other hand Introduced species - Ecosystem change (predation, competition, habitat modification). - Introduction of pathogens. - Genetic impacts (hybridization, introgression, outbreeding depression). Threat to biodiversity Negative socio-economic impacts - Approximately 17 % of the world's finfish production is due to alien species. - Production of the African cichlid tilapia outside Africa reached 2.4 million tones in 2008, representing 8% all finfish produced in inland waters (freshwater and brackish water) outside Africa.
Despite having high biodiversity, out of the top 6 species being cultured by PICTs, 4 of them are introduced species: Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus Seaweed Euchema spp. Freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii Marine shrimp Penaeus stylirostris Species Species Country 2008 2009 Blue shrimp Penaeus stylirostris French Polynesia 44 39 Blue shrimp Penaeus stylirostris New Caledonia 2,036 1,860 Blue shrimp Penaeus stylirostris Vanuatu 20... Eucheuma seaweeds nei Eucheuma spp Fiji, Republic of 660 440 Eucheuma seaweeds nei Eucheuma spp Kiribati 1,083 1,788 Eucheuma seaweeds nei Eucheuma spp Solomon Islands 144 150 Giant river prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii Fiji, Republic of 25 20 Giant river prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii Guam... 1 Giant tiger prawn Penaeus monodon Fiji, Republic of 11 6 Giant tiger prawn Penaeus monodon Papua New Guinea 12 12 Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus Guam 100 80 Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus Fiji, Republic of 192 200 Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus Papua New Guinea 100 180 Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus Samoa 3 5 Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus Vanuatu... 37 Tilapias nei Oreochromis (=Tilapia) spp Cook Islands 2 2 Tilapias nei Oreochromis (=Tilapia) spp Vanuatu 20... Whiteleg shrimp Penaeus vannamei Guam 12 12 Zanzibar weed Eucheuma cottonii Tonga 0 - TOTAL 4,464 4,832 Source: Fishstat plus 2011
Main drivers for species introductions Commercial/economic drivers: Early entry profits for aquaculture; The commercial demand for new aquaculture products to try new markets, diversify, or replace existing species that have culture or marketing problems; Ease of working with many introduced species: Many introduced species used in aquaculture have been the subject of genetic improvement, domestication and health programmes; Promotion of new technologies (e.g. Specific Pathogen Free or high performance stocks); An important driver, uniquely for PICTs, is that, despite the high biodiversity, hardly any of the indigenous species have been domesticated or form the basis for internationally traded aquaculture commodities. Species mostly have complex life cycles, or comparatively slow growth rates, or the capacity to develop domestication programmes is limited. Food security and rural development. Small-scale private and public organizations and large numbers of small-scale farmers use easily raised introduced species as cheap food for the rural poor. Biological control.
Species introduced from Fiji to... Family Species name English common name Country from Country to Date Aquaculture use Established? Status wild Reasons Cichlidae Trochidae Cichlidae Cichlidae Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus niloticus Nile tilapia Fiji Samoa 1991 Rarely used No Data Unknown Aquaculture Trochus niloticus Oreochromis mossambicus Oreochromis mossambicus Oreochromis mossambicus Commercial top Fiji (Viti Levu) Cook Is. 1957 No Data Mozambique tilapia Fiji Islands Cook Is. 1955 Rarely used Mozambique tilapia Fiji Islands Samoa 1955 Rarely used Mozambique tilapia Fiji Islands Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus Nile tilapia Fiji Islands Giant tiger Penaeidae Penaeus monodon prawn Fiji Islands Red Algae Trochidae Trochidae Trochidae Trochidae Trochidae Trochidae Source: DIAS Kappaphycus alvarezii Trochus niloticus Trochus niloticus Trochus niloticus Trochus niloticus Trochus niloticus Trochus niloticus Tonga (Tongatapu Island) 1955 No Data Natural reproduction Unknown Fisheries Natural reproduction Unknown Aquaculture Natural reproduction Unknown Aquaculture Natural reproduction Unknown Mosquito control Cook Is. (Rarotonga) 1993 No Data No Data Not established Aquaculture French Polynesia 1975 No Data No Data Unknown Aquaculture Elkhorn sea moss Fiji Islands Cook Is. 1980 No Data No Data Not established Aquaculture Commercial top Fiji Islands American Samoa 1958 No Data No Data Probably not established Unknown Commercial top Fiji Islands Niue 1992 No Data No Data Unknown Fisheries Commercial top Fiji Islands Samoa 1990 No Data No Data Unknown Fisheries Commercial top Fiji Islands Tokelau 1986 No Data No Data Commercial top Fiji Islands Tonga 1992 Rarely used Probably not established Fisheries Natural reproduction Probably established Aquaculture Commercial top Fiji Islands Tuvalu 1985 No Data No Data Probably established Fisheries
Species introduced to Kiribati... Family Species name English common name Country to Country from Date Aquaculture use Atatus in the wild Ecological effects Socioeconomic effects Reasons Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Mozambique tilapia Kiribati Hawaii 1958 No Data Established Adverse Adverse Accidental Red Algae Eucheuma striatum To be determined Kiribati Hawaii 1977 Widely used Unknown No data Beneficial Aquaculture Trochidae Trochus niloticus Commercial top Kiribati Palau 1937 No Data Unknown No data No data Unknown Pteriidae Pinctada maxima Silverlip pearl oyster Kiribati Papua New Guinea 1904 No Data Not established No data No data Aquaculture Bufonidae Cichlidae Palaemonidae Poeciliidae Pteriidae Red Algae Bufo marinus Oreochromis niloticus Macrobrachium rosenbergii Gambusia affinis affinis Pinctada fucata Eucheuma spinosum To be determined Kiribati South America unknown Never used Established Adverse Adverse No Data Nile tilapia Kiribati unknown unknown Rarely used Unknown No data Beneficial Aquaculture Giant river prawn Kiribati unknown unknown No Data Unknown No data No data Aquaculture Mosquitofish Kiribati unknown unknown No Data Established No data No data Japanese pearl oyster To be determined Mosquito control Kiribati unknown 1902 No Data Not established No data No data Aquaculture Kiribati unknown unknown Widely used Unknown No data Beneficial Aquaculture Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Mozambique tilapia Kiribati (Gilbert Is.) unknown 1963 No Data Established No data No data Aquaculture Source: DIAS
Requests for advice: SPC continues to receive requests from member PICTs for information about possible introduction of aquatic species for aquaculture. SPC has provided technical assistance to several member PICTs for the development of proposals for introduction of... - GIFT Nile tilapia. - Cobia, Rachycentrum canadum. - Sandfish, Holothuria scabra. - Improved Euchema spp. strain. Food security Biodiversity
Potential contradictions exist in Pacific regional and national initiatives The 2010 Framework for Action on Food Security in the Pacific calls for PICTs to Promote commercial aquaculture to supply farmed fish to urban markets; continue to support aquaculture where appropriate. (Theme 3, Strategy 2, Action 7). But also to Strengthen biosecurity and quarantine systems to curb the import of invasive species, pests and diseases and to respond as necessary at national and regional levels (Action 1).
Outcomes of the 7 th SPC Heads of Fisheries Meeting: Aquatic species introductions: national responsibility; Balance benefits and risks of introductions Risk Analysis (need for appropriate tools and information sources to support decisions); Potential for the use of indigenous, rather than introduced, species for aquaculture; A complete prohibition on any new introductions is not consistent with international practices of food production; and Proposal to develop a regional framework for management of aquatic animal health and bio-security (species introductions are included) in support of sustainable aquaculture development.
Benefits vs Risks? How can the two sides of aquatic species introductions be handled? Management of introduced species must address both beneficial and negative aspects. The ability of an introduced organism to become established and to become invasive involves a mixture of the characteristics of the organism and the environment where it is being introduced. Information is the key Uncertainty Arising from a lack of basic information; Arising from unknown interactions within a given system; Arising from shifts on interactions in physical, biological, social and political systems.
The Precautionary Approach A means to handle uncertainty and incomplete information. The precautionary principle is widely adopted in regards to managing uncertainty in aquaculture management. The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1995) encourages States to: apply the precautionary approach widely to conservation, management and exploitation of living aquatic resources in order to protect them and preserve the aquatic environment. The absence of adequate scientific information should not be used as a reason for postponing or failing to take conservation and management measures.
Conclusions While aquaculture, as a production industry, can benefit significantly from conservation and sustainable use of aquatic genetic resources, ironically, the industry also has significant potential to increase the rate of biodiversity loss in the future if genetic resources are not well managed... Responsible management of aquatic biodiversity: use, access, exchange and conservation. Effective policies and plans. Better information including characterization of aquatic genetic resources at different levels. Wider use of genetic applications in fisheries and aquaculture.
Conclusions Regarding introduced species The practice of using species outside their natural range to increase production or profitability can be expected to continue. The issue is not to ban alien species - or to abandon regulation of their movement - but rather to assess associated risks and benefits and then, if appropriate, develop and implement a plan for their responsible use. Decisions to introduce alien species have far reaching social, economic and ecological implications and should be based on careful assessments of longterm benefits and risks. Policy-makers should have the necessary information in order to balance these benefits and risks. The establishment of a Regional Framework for management of aquatic biosecurity in support of sustainable aquaculture development could be a possible approach.
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