Fragmentsofvisibleabsencesandinvisiblepresences:Memorializingand appropriatingtlatlelolco'surbanandsocialspace AThesissubmitted ToKentStateUniversityinpartial Fulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe DegreeofMasterofArts by GabrielaBrindisAlvarez August,2012
Thesiswrittenby GabrielaBrindisAlvarez M.A.,KentStateUniversity,2012 Approvedby Dr.JamesA.Tyner,Advisor Dr.MandyMunro Stasiuk,Chair,DepartmentofGeography RaymondCraig,Assoc.Dean,CollegeofArtsandSciences ii
ABSTRACT Livingghostssit,talkandpassthetimeonthestepsofthe1968commemorative placardwaitingforthesuntocomedown.thespaceofthe"plazaofthethree Cultures"inTlatelolcoisnotonlydeeplyrelatedtotheKillingof1968,oneofthe greatestcatastrophesofmexico'smodernhistory,butalsotootherhistoriesand spacesofmexicoasanationandasacity."in"and"out"oftlatelolco,changeshave beennarratedandrepresentedbydifferentsocialgroupsovertime.theanalysisof whenandbywhommeaningsareascribedmayserveasatooltoapproachhow significanceofspaceandusesofhistoryareconstructedandreproduced.howcan wetrytounderstandtheconstructionofsocialandphysicalspacesinaplacethat hasbeengreatlyimpactedbytraumaandtransformedfromdifferentangles throughouttheyears?howcanspacebeapproachedwhentragiceventshave happenedonthesite?alongthisthesisiwilltrytomakeuseofdifferentfragments, thresholds,heterotopiasandghoststoanalyzetheofficialandunofficialmemoryof Tlatelolco,theplaceofamega housingcomplexinmexicocity,totalkaboutthe officialandunofficialmemoriesthatareappropriatedandnegotiatedbydifferent entitiessuchasthegovernment,aculturalcenter,andlocalgroups.itrytoshow howmemoriesandimaginationplayintothedifferentuses,construction,and representationsofspace.throughanethnographicandarchivalrecollectionand encounterofmaterial(landscapes)andsymbolic(stories)fragments,the identificationofthresholds(traumaticeventsandrupturesinsocialhistorythat createspatio temporalizedheterotopias),andtheawarenessofghosts,twilight zones,andhauntedspacesianalyzetheurbanandsocialspacesoftlatelolcoandits differentrepresentationsinthecontemporarysocio politicalarenainmexicoand beyond. iii
DedicatedtomyabuelaChayoandtomyabueloGabrielwhomIwillalways remember... iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Afteranintensiveacademicandpersonal2 yearperiod,istillfeelasifiamstarting tolivethisexperience.whereisthistakingme?istilldonotknow,andalthoughi amleavingkent,itwillalwaysstaywithme. ItrulythanktheGeographyDepartmentinKentStateUniversityforopening meitsdoors,especiallytomycommitteedr.mandymunro,dr.chrispostanddr. JamesTyner.IparticularwanttoexpressmygratitudetomyadvisorJimforhis guidance,andforlisteningandunderstandingme. Ialsowanttothankmypeeps:AlexC.,AlexP.,Amanda,Brad,Braga,DaveS. Elsa,Judith,Maria,Mohammad,Philip,SarahandStian;forlettingmebearound them.iamverygratefultoallmyfamilyandprincipallymybrothermanolo,my sistercharo,andmymomforencouragingmeandsupportingallmydecisions.i additionallywanttoespeciallythankdanielforhiseverydayloveandsupport. Finally,IwanttothankAdventureTimeandTCMforchillingwithmethose lastcoupleofmonthsofthesisworkandforremindingmehowtheoptimismof modernheroessometimesmightgetitwrong,butthatinpost apocalypsestimes thatmightbetheonlybreadthofhopeleft.andhowassertiveandcomplicatedcan itbetodowrongtherightthingandtodorightthewrongthing,aswellasseeing goodinthatwhichisevilandevilinthatwhichisgood.inowonlyhope v
tocontinuegoingbackandforthgoingandreturningthroughmyfragmentedspaces oftimeandimaginarymemories. vi
TABLEOFCONTENTS Abstract...iii Dedication...iv Acknowledgments...v ListofFigures...ix Chapter1.Fragments,ThresholdsandGhosts:AnIntroduction...1 Methodology...9 MemoryandImagination:Fragments,ThresholdsandGhosts...12 Chapter2.WoundedCityofThresholds:Tlatelolco...20 Cities:WoundsandThresholds...23 Tlatelolco:FromUtopiatoDystopia...27 Government'sPerfectPlanningofDisplacement...28 HeterotopiaandTraumaticKillingsofSpace...43 SocialandPhysicalDestructions...49 DisuseandAbandonment...52 SimulationandHeal:AnewCulturalCenter...58 FromMaterialityintoDifferentRepresentations...62 Chapter3.EngravingFixedMemory:TheKillingof1968...67 PoliticsofMemory...68 InSearchofHistoryandContestedMemory:TheOfficialPlacardin1993..72 ReclaimingMemory...77 InstitutionalizationofMemory...84 FixedMemory...92 Chapter4.UnofficialMemories...94 PersonalIndividualMemory...102 VivirenTlatelolco...104 MemoriaMigrante...113 UnmarkedSitesandAccidentalMemorials...117 ThresholdsandHeterotopias...119 vii
Chapter5.Discussion...125 Nostalgia...127 CountingandNaming...129 ARightToBeRemembered...134 SuspenseandRoleReversalthroughtheCreationofThresholds...134 Chapter6.Conclusion...150 Tlatelolco...152 1968...154 VivirenTlatelolcoandMemoriaMigrante...155 Conclusion...158 References...163 Appendix...176 A.ListofNamesfrom1993...177 B.ListofNamesfrom2003...178 C.ListofNamesfrom2006...180 D.NoSonCifras,TienenNombreExamples...181 viii
LISTOFFIGURES Figure 1.DonCarlossittingandwaiting...3 Figure2.DonCarlostalkingabouthislife...4 Figure3.DonCarlospassingtheafternoon...4 Figure4.RobertoTelloonaSundaymorning...6 Figure5.RobertoTellosellingmusicandmemorabilia...7 Figure6.RobertoTellotellinghisstory...7 Figure7.BellaVista...22 Figure8.Areaofinterest...32 Figure9."Slums"aroundTlatelolco...32 Figure10.RailwayintheareasofTlatelolco...33 Figure11.Officialmapshowingthestudy...33 Figure12.ParkinTlatelolco...35 Figure13.Depictionofhowthearchaeologicalsiteandcolonialchurch...35 Figure14.SandMoundDepictionforTlatelolco...36 Figure15.PlazaoftheThreeCultures...36 Figure16.Photographofafamily...38 Figure17.Depictionofthehousingcomplex...40 Figure18.Today'simageofthehousingcomplex...40 Figure19.Mapshowingthewalkingdistanceplanning...41 Figure20.DepictionofaModernFamily...41 Figure21.DepictionofwhatwasgoingtobetheshinyBANOBRASbuilding...42 Figure22.MinistryofForeignAffairs...42 Figure23.BanobrasoverlookingMexicoCity'svalley...44 Figure24.TlatelolcoArchaeologicalsiteintheunderground...44 Figure25.ThestudentprotestonthePlazaoftheThreeCultures...45 Figure26.StudentrepressioninTlatelolcothenightofOctober2,1968...45 Figure27.Studentsprotestingduringthe4 monthperiod,imageofcheguevara..48 Figure28.Studentsduringaprotestre appropriatingnationalheroimages...48 Figure29.NuevoLeónbuildingalmostcompletelydestroyed...51 Figure30.Banobrasbuildingabandonment...53 Figure31.CarilloninthepeakontheBanobrasbuilding...55 Figure32.Carillon...55 Figure33.Metrobusnewline...56 ix
Figure34.SuburbanTrainstationandmallproject...56 Figure35.ThenewJoséVasconcelosLibrary...57 Figure36.NewUniversityCulturalCenterinTlatelolco...59 Figure37.UVAFlyer...61 Figure38.XipeTótecartinstalation...61 Figure39.FlyeroftheUVAforthefirstsemester...63 Figure40.FlyeroftheUVAforthesecondsemester...63 Figure41.FlyeroftheUVAforthethirdsemester...64 Figure42.CommemorativePlacard'68...74 Figure43.PoemonthebottompartoftheCommemorativePlacard'68...76 Figure44.Memorial'68entranceinCCUT...78 Figure45.Memorial'68exhibitions...80 Figure46.SnapshotofTestimoniesintheMemorial'68...80 Figure47.Internationalandnationalrevolutionaryimages...81 Figure48.PsycheldelicinstalationintheMemorial'68...81 Figure49.Famous1968photographsshowninthevideo...83 Figure50.VideowithtestimoniesandphotographsintheMemorial'68...83 Figure51.Memorial'68Inauguration...88 Figure52.Oldmapsinthehousingcomplex...96 Figure53.Oldannouncements...98 Figure54.Graffitirelatedtothe'68repression...99 Figure55.MuralsinTlatelolco...100 Figure56.ObjectivesofthepublicationVivirenTlatelolco...105 Figure57.SomeofthefrontpagesofthepublicationVivirenTlatelolco...108 Figure58.GentedelaUnidad...110 Figure59.MemoriaMigrantephotos...116 Figure60.Bakeryskeleton...120 Figure61.Originalutensilsandoldcahierinside...120 Figure62.Bakeryoldsmaterials...121 Figure63.Cinemaskeleton...121 Figure64.Cinemaoldspaces...122 Figure65.Oldcommercialspaces...122 Figure66.RepressioninAtenco...137 Figure67.DeadstudentfromAyotzinapa...139 Figure68.StudentsinMoreliaareevicted...139 Figure69.Studentsarearrestedaftereviction...140 Figure70.Studentsadherentstothecallof#YoSoy132...142 Figure71.WarAgainstDrugscomparedtothe'68Massacre...144 Figure72.ComparisonoftheRepressioninTlatelolco...144 Figure73.GustavoDiazOrdaz...145 Figure74.EnriquePeñaNieto...145 Figure75.CartoonsimulatingDiazOrdazandPeña...146 Figure76.Studentsrememberingthe1968...148 Figure77.StudentscallingthemselvestheMexicanSpring...148 Figure78.Theemptinessandpresences...156 x
CHAPTER1 Fragments,ThresholdsandGhosts:AnIntroduction Atalebeguninotherdays, Whensummersunswereglowing Asimplechime,thatservedtotime Therhythmofourrowing Whoseechoesliveinmemoryyet, Thoughenviousyearswouldsay'forget'. LewisCarroll(1965) Livingghostssit,talkandpassthetimeonthestepsofthe1968commemorative placardwaitingforthesuntocomedown.atnight,doncarlosantoniobeltrán Macielstaysthereandtriestosleep,hopingnopolicemenorrainwillcomeand forcehimtomovetoanotherplace.others,likethemusicianandhistorianofart RobertoTello,goeshomeandreturnseveryweekendandoneverynationalholiday tosellhismusicandrecounthisstoryofthemassacreofoctober2,definedbyhim asanunforgivablegenocide. After43yearsinprison,DonCarlosBeltránMacielreturnedtowhathesays istheonlythinghehasleft,the1968commemorativeplacardintheplazadelas TresCulturas(PlazaoftheThreeCultures)whereofficially43peoplewerekilledand unofficiallyhundredsduringastudentprotestmeeting,inthemegahousing complexoftlatelolcoinmexicocity.accordingtohim,hiswifeandkidwhohehas 1
2 lostallcontactwithlivedinthesecondsectionofthehousingcomplexintlatelolco, inthebuildingsthathadtobedynamitedafterthe8.1ritcherscaleearthquakein 1985.HerecountsthatafterbeingarrestedandtorturedonthenightofOctober2in 1968hewasthentransferredtothePrisonofLecumberriandthentotheislandIslas Maríasfederalprison.DonCarlosrelateshisleukemiaillness,acancerthatarisesin thebonemarrowandisthemostcommonradiation inducedcancer(cancerorg 2010),tothelonghourshehadtoworkunderthesunontheislandwhen imprisoned. DonCarloshasbeensittingandwaiting,talkingtovisitors,touristsand neighborssincehewasletfree,inthebeginningof2011,tellinghisstory.heis waitingforhisrealbiologicaldeath,sinceheclaimsthathehasbeendispossessed fromhislife,andevencountedasdead.withnoi.d.orpaperstoproofhisstory,he affirmshisnameisonthe'68commemorativeplacardandonsomeoftheofficial listsofthedeadofoctober2.heisofficiallydead.doncarlosorprofessor,asthe peoplecallhimandneighborsthathelphimsurviveeachday,isachemicalengineer graduatedfromtheinstitutopolitécniconacionalandwasaprofessorintheprepa7. Heclearlyremembersallthenames,placesandeventsofthe4 monthstudent protestin1968inmexicocity.hesayshewasoneoftheleadersandfoundersof thecomiténacionaldehuelgade1968(nationalstrikecommitteeof1968),and thathecloselyworkedwithsócratescamposlemus,oneofthemostpolemical figuresaccusedofbeingaprovocateurandinfiltratorfromthegovernmentduring thestudentmovement(perezsilva2004).figures1,2and3picturedoncarlos sittingonthestepsoftheplacardintheplaza(figure1,2and3).
3 Figure1.DonCarlos(inthemiddle)sittingandwaitingonthestepsofthe'68 CommemorativePlacard.(Photobytheauthor.)
4 Figure2.DonCarlostalkingabouthislifeonthestepsofthe'68CommemorativePlacard. (Photobytheauthor.) Figure3.DonCarlospassingtheafternoononthestepsofthe'68CommemorativePlacard. (Photobytheauthor.)
5 ThemusicianRobertoTellohasbeengoingtothatsameplace,the1968 commemorativeplacardtoperformthesongsthatwerechantintheplazas,inthe meetings,duringthemarches,andinthestreetsinthe'68studentmovementin MexicoCity.Hesingsandsellsthemusicandsomeartisticmemorabiliaevery weekendandholidaysforover5yearsnow.beforethatheparticipatedevery October2inanunofficialcommemorationinthePlazaoftheThreeCultures,inwhat hedefinesasanactto"rescueatradition"thatconsistedofyoungpeopleandkids askingtheold"sixty eighters"iftheyhavebeenhere:"theywouldapproachthe peoplethathadsomewhitehairandask:whereyouhere?andthatwasthemagical phrase...thesixty eighterstartedtocommunicatewiththepeoplearound" (interviewwithrobertotello,july2011).henoticedthatpeoplestartedcomingnot onlyeveryoctober2,butalsoduringtheweekends.robertoaffirmshehasbeen recuperatinginformationaboutthekillingandinvestigatingitforovermorethan elevenyearsnow.heaffirmsthatontheafternoonofoctober2hejustpassedby onhiswaytoanothermeetingwithhisbrigade:"thiswasnotaveryimportant meeting,soionlywalkedbyandwenttoinformmybrigadeaboutit.isawalotof soldiers,therewerebetweenfiveandseventhousandpeople,backthenthatwas notabigimportantnumber,theimportantmeetingshadhundredsofthousands, no?evengottoonemillioninthatotherveryimportantprotest"(interviewto RobertoTello,July2011).Figure4and5showsRobertogettingreadytosellhis musicandfigure6showsrobertotellingpartofhisstory(figure4,5and6).
6 Figure4.RobertoTellogettingreadyonaSundaymorning.(Photobytheauthor.)
7 Figure5.RobertoTellosellinghismusicandmemorabiliaofthe'68.(Photobytheauthor.) Figure6.RobertoTellotellinghisstory.(PhotobyDanielVallejoCaliz.)
8 ThespaceofthePlazaoftheThreeCulturesinTlatelolcoisnotonlydeeply relatedtothekillingof1968,oneofthegreatestcatastrophesofmexico'smodern history,butalsotootherhistoriesandspacesofmexicoasanationandasacity.the creationofmexicoasastatehashadalongrelationshipwiththeappropriationof symbolicplacesandhistoriestowardsitsownterritorialization(alonso1994;brading 2001;Thomas2002;Alonso2005;Dixon2010;).Also,Mexicoasacityhasfunctioned asasymboloforder,progressandmodernitywithinmexico'shistoryandgeographic location(cisneros1993;cantuchapa2000,2005,2009;gallo2010).thematerial anddiscursivespacesofthepublicurbanspaceoftlatelolcohavetremendously changedovertheyears.justaphewofthesechangescanbetracedbackfromit beingapre Hispaniccommercialcityfoundedin1337(MatosMoctezuma2008,29); thelastbastionofaztecresistanceagainstthespanishconquestinearly1500's (MatosMoctezuma2008,32);aphilosophyandLatinschoolfortheconstructionof anindianelitein1536orderedbyspanishfranciscanclerics(escalantegonzalbo 2008,59);aprisonduringtheIndependencefightinearly1800's(Bicentenario2010, CCUT2010);atrainstationandcustomofficeforpulqueduringthelate1800'sand early1900's(máreztapia2010);amodernurbanprojectduringthe1960s(carrillon 1964.);andaneoliberalculturalhubinthe2012(ArroyoGarcía2008).(Alsoseethe 7volumesofBarlow1989). Thesechangeshavebeennarratedandrepresentedbydifferentsocial groupsovertime.theanalysisofwhenandbywhommeaningsareascribedmay serveasatooltoapproachhowsignificanceofspaceandusesofhistoryare constructedandreproduced.howcanwetrytounderstandtheconstructionof
9 socialandphysicalspacesinaplacethathasbeengreatlyimpactedandtransformed fromdifferentanglesthroughouttheyears?howcanspacebeapproachedwhen tragiceventshavehappenedonthesite?alongthisthesisiwilltrytomakeuseof differentfragments,thresholds,heterotopiasandghoststoanalyzetheofficialand unofficialmemoryoftlatelolco,theplaceofamega housingcomplexinmexicocity, totalkabouttheofficialandunofficialmemoriesthatareappropriatedand negotiatedbydifferententitiessuchasthegovernment,aculturalcenter,andlocal groups.itrytoshowhowmemoriesandimaginationplayintothedifferentuses, construction,andrepresentationsofspace.throughanethnographicandarchival recollectionandencounterofmaterial(landscapes)andsymbolic(stories) fragments,theidentificationofthresholds(traumaticeventsandrupturesinsocial historythatcreatespatio temporalizedheterotopias),andtheawarenessofghosts, twilightzones,andhauntedspacesianalyzetheurbanandsocialspacesof Tlatelolcoanditsdifferentrepresentationsinthecontemporarysocio politicalarena inmexicoandbeyond. METHODOLOGY Asamethodologyforfindingoruncoveringlocalstoriesintheurbanpublic spaceoftlatelolcoiusedtheideasofcriticalethnography(thomas1993),writinga fieldjournal,photographicrecord,participantobservation(devereux1985).my methodologyisgreatlyinfluencedby"criticalethnographies"(thomas1993)and "emergentmethods"(nagyhesse BiberandLeavy2006).Criticalethnographyisa waytothinkoftherelationshipsamongknowledge,society,andpoliticalactionand
10 itcriticizestheconstructsof"culture"andtheroleofresearch(thomas1993).in ethnographythe"researcher"studies,writes,thinksandtalkstootherpeople. Criticalethnographiestrytogobeyondthatandinvolvewiththeanalysisof processes,identifyproblemsandrecognizetheproductionthroughtheeveryday. Beingcriticalhastodowithbeginningwiththepremisethat"allculturallifeisin constanttensionbetweencontrolandresistance[andit]isreflectedinbehavior, interactionrituals,normativesystems,andsocialstructure"(thomas1993,9)in space.oneofthemostimportantpartsofcriticalethnographiesistoincorporate theresearchsubjectsindifferentdegreesintotheprojectinordertotransform knowledgeintoacollectiveenterprise"inwhichitsproductionandusearetobe sharedbythosewhoareitsfocus.researchersalsobecomeactiveinconfronting explicitproblemsthataffectthelivesofthesubjects asdefinedbythesubjects ratherthanremainpassiverecipientsof truth thatwillbeusedtoformulate policiesbyandintheinterestsofthoseexternaltothesetting."(thomas1994:28 29).Myintentionwastoapproachthepublicspaceinthisway. Thismethodologyisgreatlyinfluencednotonlybythe"critical ethnographies"(thomas1993)previouslypresentedbutalsobythe"emergent methods"describedbynagyhesse BiberandLeavy(2006).Therearerecent debatesonhowtotreatandtransmitknowledge,onthe"emergentmethods" definedbysharlenenagyhesse BiberandPatriciaLeavyas"thelinkbetween epistemology(aviewonhowknowledgeisconstructed),methodology(the theoreticalquestion[s]thatinformsourresearchandhowitiscarriedout),and method(thespecifictoolsusedtocarryoutresearch)"(2006:xii).thesemethods
11 questionauthorityandpowerandaredefinedasbeinghybridinthesensethatthey arealsocrossdisciplinaryandadaptedtoeachdiscipline.thesemethodsrequirethe researchertoengagefromamultidisciplinarypositionandtheydisrupttraditional positivistwaysofknowtocreatenewmeanings(nagyhesse BiberandLevy2006: xii).thisperspectivetakestheresearcherintobecomingboththeinsiderand outsiderandtobeabletosimultaneouslynegotiatedifferentidentitiesormultiple subjectivities.throughtheuseofsystematicjournalentries,photographicrecords, listeningmethods(arneundheim2006:13 42),conversationanalysis(Maynards 2006,55 94),participant(Deveraux1985),directobservation,openinterviews, differentnarratives,andindepthconversationstocapturethedailylivesofthe peopleinvolvedintheconstructionofthesocialandpublicspace,ipracticeda criticalethnographicalmethodoftlatelolco.alsoicontinuetopracticetheactivity of"reflection"whichrefers"totheactofrigorouslyexamininghowthisinvolvement affectsourdatagathering,analysis,andsubsequentdisplayofthedatatoan audience"(thomas1993:46).throughcriticalethnographiesandmulti method fieldworkresearch,myresearchexaminesthecontemporaryroleofthepeoplein Tlatelolcoandalocalprojectintheproductionofspaces,historyandidentities,as wellasthecreationofplacesandsubjects. ThepeoplewhowithItalkedandengageddonotrepresentamajorityora generalrepresentationofthepeoplewholiveandusethatplace,itisonlya subjectiveexperiencesituatedwithinaplacethatcanhelpusunderstandthe complexnetofrelationships,thecontext,andthedifferentmeaningsthataplace
12 haswithinthesocialandphysicalconstructionofplace,historyandidentity.itisa narrativeoffragmentsandassemblages. Duringmyfieldwork,Ialsousethereadingoflandscapesapproach,a photographicrecordandafieldjournaltodocumentmyobservations.these observations,asproposedbygeorgesdevereux(1985),arefarfrombeing objective,sincebeingstrictlyobjectiveisimpossible.accordingtodevereux,the observermustplaceherselfinthemiddleoftheprocess,knowingthatwhatis observedisalwaysinfluencedbyone sownactivityofobservation.alsothisposition isinfluencedbytheideaofstuarthall:"weallwriteandspeakfromaparticular placeandtime,fromahistoryandaculturewhichisspecific.whatwesayisalways 'incontext',positioned"(hall1994:392). MemoryandImagination:Fragments,ThresholdsandGhosts ThestoriesofbothDonCarlosandRobertoareoneexampleoftheexistingpresence ofthepastinthepublicspacesoftheurbanhousingcomplexintlatelolco.stories arelikemirrors.weliketoholdstoriesofthepresent,toperhapsseeareflectionof thepast.butlikemirrors,storiesaredistorted;theyreflectimperfectlyboththe presentandthepast.storiesarealsocontested;whenthemirrorbreaks,itshatters intoinnumerablefragments.henceeachstorybecomesafragment,eachan imperfectandimpartialreflection.storiesbecomearepresentationofthepast,a fragmentedpastthathasthecapacitytobefaithfultoitsruins(herzog2000). Letspretend,justlikeAlicedid,thateachfragmentofthemirror"glasshasall softlikegauze,sothatwecangetthrough"(carroll1965,10).accordingly,stories
13 canbeseenas'thresholds',which"bothsymbolizeandconcretizethesocially meaningfulactofconnectingwhileseparatingandseparatingwhileconnecting... [Thresholds]areconstructionspresentmentallyaswellasmaterially"(Stavrides 2007,2).Storiesbecomethresholdsforinteractingwithinthecity.Thresholdshave receivedtremendousattentioninrecentyears,largelythroughthewritingsof Agamben(2004),Stavrides(2007,2010)andothers.Thresholdsperforate boundariesandconstructaporousspace.theyarespatialartifactsthatsymbolically andliterallyregulatethepassageoftheinbetweenmaterialorsymbolicspaces. Theirmaterialpermanencemayincludeadoorframe,analley,abridgeorsquares; whilewhentemporalandsymbolictheycanbeidentifiedasanactofephemeral appropriationofaspace,adiscontinuityoratraumaticevent.thesethresholdsexist attheinterfacebetweenin and out,coming and going,here and there.whenyou 'cross'athreshold,youaresimultaneouslyenteringandexiting.thesein betweenareasthatseparatewhileconnecting,relateratherthanseparate,createanurban porosity. Whenoneconsidersbothfragmentsandthresholds,wehavetheparameters oflefebvre(2008[1974])andfoucault(1993)forwardingofheterotopias. Recognizingthepresenceofthresholdsinaplace,orthroughhistory,rupturesor traumaticevents,isawayintoidentifyingthediscontinuities,orturningpointsand thecreationoftheheterotopiasofaplace.byperforatingspacewecanencounter andconnectwithseparateothersandrecognizetheinterdependenceofidentities andspaces.theencounterwiththeothersconductsustoheterotopias,"places wheredifferencesmeet"(stavrides2007,4),wherethereisanemergenceofanew
14 orderanditcancontainmomentsofruptureinsocialandspatialhistory. Heterotopias,"adifferentplace,anotherplace"(Lefebvre2003[1970],37)are producedthroughthresholds.thethresholdcharacterofheterotopiasisthatthey areboth"presentandabsentindifferenttime,existingbothasrealityand potentiality"(stavrides2007,4).throughtheunexpectedconnectionsofthresholds, heterotopiasareform,an"othernessemerges,notonlyasathreatbutalsoasa promise"(stavrides2007,3). Throughtheidentificationofthresholdsintheurbanpublicspacesof TlatelolcoIdelveintoaseriesofheterotopiasinhistoricaltimeandspace.Thesein betweenspacesorplaces,thesetwilightzones,produceghoststhataretrapped representations.'ghosts'inhabitthesespaces;theybecomethepresenceof absencesinhauntedspacesandcansometimesbefoundthroughofficialand unofficialmemoriesorthroughurbanexplorations.urbanexplorationscanbe definedas"interiortourismthatallowsthecurious mindedtodiscoveraworldof behind the scenessights"(ninjalicious2005,3citedingarret2010).thesepractices cantakeusfurtherintothe"narrativesofpsychogeography,materialculture, heritagemanagement,artisticexpression,nostalgia,hauntingandlandscapehistory" (Garret2010). ThelivinganddeadghostsofTlatelolcobothencounteredthroughthe analysisoftheheterotopiasandfrommyurbanexplorationsarepartofthepresent experienceofthespacesintlatelolco.ghostsarepartofthecontemporaryreality andifwewanttounderstandsociallifeweneedtotalkabouttheinvisiblepresences (Gordon2008).Ghoststhenbecome"realandimagined,intenselypersonaland
15 emotive,andhauntoursocialspaceswhenweareopentotheirpresence"(gordon citedintill2005,13).ghostslieinbetweenthecloseandopen,therealandunreal, theyarecapturedinbetweenimaginaryspaces.webecomewitnessesoftheir presenceandifopenandavailable,wemightembodytheirneedsanddesires.we thenbecomehauntedbytheirpresencesandabsences.aswitnesseswebecome boththeperpetratorsandvictimsoftheirexistence. Tlatelolcocanbeanalyzedasafragmentedspacewheredifferentstories interactinthepublicspacesofthehousingcomplex.thesefragments,sometimes comealongintheformofstoriesfromtheneighborsandusersofthatplace,but othertimestheytakeformbysimplywalkingandexperiencingitsdifferentspaces. Theseincompletestoriesandlandscapes,whatsomemightidentifyasdecadent spaces,arepiecesofotherstoriesandthresholdsofthepresentandofthepast. Thesestoriesarelinkedtoaseriesofthresholdsandtraumaticeventsthatproduce heterotopias;andtoconcretespaces,"placesofmemory"(lieuxdemémoire)(nora 1989)thatproduceanofficialmemoryofTlatelolco. Atthesametime,thestoriesoftheneighborsandtheusersoftheplace representtheirmemories,anindividualmemory,locatedinside,thatcanbelinked toasocialmemory,intheoutside,intheformofanarrativeconstructedthrough myths,historiesandstories(halbwachs1994[1925],1997;till2006)producing unofficialmemories.theirstoriesshow"therealnatureofhistory,whichconsistsof catastrophes"(benjamininherzog2000,5),afragmentedwoundedpastdisplaying theabsences,orghosts,andinvisibilityofothers.itisnotimportantiftheirstories are"true",inthesensethattheyhappenedintheexactwayastheyarerecounted,
16 because"memoryisalsoarepresentationofthepastintheformofanimage" (Lavenneetal.2004,4n24),itispartoftheimagination,anditmustnotbe devaluated.imaginationisafacultytomakepresentwhatisabsentandcanbemore comprehensivethanmemory;itcanhelpusseethe"truth"ofthingsbeyond appearances(herzog2000,17).imaginationismadebythede formationofexisting forms,imagesandstoriesthatariseasde formationtakesformanditnever destroys(benjamin1997[1996],280 281). Theimportanceofidentifyingthresholdscanhelpusunderstandand experiencedifferentlymultipleheterotopicspatio temporalspacesoftlatelolco. Theymayrevealencountersbetweendifferentsocialgroups,lifecoursesand memoriesinspace.ghostsaretrappedintheinbetweenspacesorthresholdsofthe past,inheterotopiasandtwilightzones.theybecomerepresentedthroughthe fragmentedstoriesandlandscapesofthepresent,intheofficialandunofficial memoriesofthepast.theycanbothemanateempathyforthoseofthepastand traumaforthoseinthepresent.ghosts,whendisembodiedentities"canprovoke memoriesthatarestrangelyfamiliar,conjuringupahalf recognizableworldthrough theempatheticcontactitmakes;butitcanalsoprovokeasenseoftheineffableand mysteriouswhichisunavailabletorepresentationalfixing"(edensor2005,835).in thatway,ghosts,contrarytofixspacesofmemoryorsites,arefluidandevanescent entitiesthatdisturbthestoriesthatwanttobefixedinspace.theencounteringof ghostsistiedwiththepoliticsofrememberingthepastandwiththespatialisationof memoryand"howmemoryissought,articulated,andinscribeduponspace" (Edensor2005,829).
17 Throughtherecollectionandencounterofmaterial(landscapes)and symbolic(stories)fragments,theidentificationofthresholds(traumaticeventsand rupturesinsocialhistorythatcreatespatio temporalizedheterotopias),andthe awarenessofghosts,twilightzones,andhauntedspacesianalyzetheofficialand unofficialmemoriesintlatelolco;andhowtheseareusedandrepresentedby differententitiessuchasthegovernment,aculturalcenter,andlocalgroups. Memoryhasbeengreatlyanalyzedfromdifferentdisciplinesand perspectives,andithasbecomeacriticalaspectofstudyinthesocialsciencesand onitsculturalrepresentations."modernmemory,asself consciousrepresentation ofthepastthathasbeentransfiguredbyhistory,isarchivalandreliesonthe materialityofthetraceandthevisibilityoftheimage"(till2003,291).throughthis thesis,iwillbeexploringthevisibilityandinvisibilityofmemoryanditsdifferent representationsaccordingtodifferentgroups.therecuperatedfragmentsofthe differentrepresentationsoftlatelolcowillshowtheofficialandunofficialmemories andhowheterotopiasemergefromthresholdsaswellasthepresences,visibility, andabsences,invisibility,ofghoststhatinhabitdifferentspaces. Thematerialanddiscursiverepresentationsofhistoryfromthegovernment practicestranslatesintotheconstructionofanurbanprojectofutopiathatcanbe readasadystopiawhereaseriesofthresholdscreatedadiversityofheterotopias willbediscussedinchapter2.aftertheinaugurationofamegahousingcomplexin 1964,Tlatelolcowasdeeplyhitbytrauma,thresholdsofrupturesandchange, creatingaseriesofheterotopiassuchasthekillingofthestudentsin1968,the differentsocialandphysicalspacescreatedbytheearthquakein1985,andthe
18 disuseanddecadenceofitspublicspaceduringthe1990s.in2007,theemergence ofthecentroculturaluniversitariotlatelolco(ccut,universityculturalcenterof Tlatelolco)inauguratedwiththeMemorial'68marksanattempttohealawound andcreateanewheterotopiaintheurbanpublicspacesoftlatelolco.theofficial memorializationofoneoftheseheterotopiaswithathresholdcharacteristicwillbe exposedinchapter3byanalyzing,througha"biographyofasite"methodology(till 2006,327),howisthemassacreofstudentsof1968rememberedandforgotten today. Theofficialrepresentationofmemoryexposedinthatchapterwillbe comparedandcontrastedtothatofchapter4,whichwillshowtheunofficial memoriesthatalsoexistintlatelolco'smegahousingcomplex.throughfragments andghostsfromwhatiwillcalltwilightzonesandhauntedspaces,andwiththe storiesofvivirentlatelolco(livingintlatelolco) alocalmonthlypublication,anda "workshopofmemory"elaboratedbytheartgroupmemoriamigrante(migrant Memory),thedifferentattemptstorepresentandrememberTlatelolco'sdailylife andmemorieswillbeanalyzed.thischapterwilldelveintopersonalandindividual memories(halbwachs1994[1925],1997;till2006,2012)frompeopleoftlatelolco providingan"autobiographicalnarrativeofmyexperience"(kruseii2003),with walkingtechniquestotravelthroughthresholdsbetweenheterotopias(stavrides 2010)andurbanexplorations(Garret2010)inordertoencounterhauntedspaces (Edensor2005)withothermemoriesandstories."Takingwalkingasapractice[...] exposessomeonetotheexperienceofothernessinthecity"(stavrides2010,19). The"spatialquality"ofporosityandthe"spatialartifact"ofpassages(Stavrides
19 2010,19)areusedtocrossinbetweenheterotopiasproducingorthroughexisting thresholds.thistookmetobeawareofotherunmarksites(tyneret.al2012) definedasexistinglandscapesusuallyrelatedtoviolence,"thathavenotbeen placedwithintheirgeographicalorhistoricalcontexts;placesthatremainunmarked andun remarkedandyetcontinuetohaveanimpact[...]thatare'hiddeninplain sight'[...]thatarenotcommemoratedthroughofficialchannelsbutareinfact experiencedonaday to daybasis"(tyneret.al2012);andotheraccidental monuments(studiobeirut2006)definedashighlyvisiblelandscapesthatarenotan officialsitebutrepresentadecadentorfailedpartofhistoryintheurbanpublic spacesoftlatelolco.finallyinchapter5ipresenttheideasofnostalgia,counting andrememberingaswellastheideasofmarcaugé(1998)ofoblivion,asawayto showthedifferentthresholdsandheterotopiasoftodaycreatedbyofficialand unofficialmemorializationfromthedifferenturbanandsocialspacesoftlatelolco.
CHAPTER2 WoundedCityofThresholds:Tlatelolco In1965,theMexicanSocietyofGeographyandStatistics(SociedadMexicanade GeografíayEstadística)suedtheanthropologistOscarLewisforwritingthebookLos hijosdesánchez(1964[1961],thesonsanddaughtersofsánchez,personal translation)bycondemningittobe"obsceneanddenigratingforourcountry"(luis CatañoMorletcitedinLewis1964[1961]).TheProcuraduríaGeneraldelaRepública (AttorneyGeneralofMexico)acceptedandinvestigatedtheinquirybutabstained fromexercisinganypenalcondemnfornotfindinganycrime.loshijosdesánchez wasatypeofnarrativeethnographyinwhichthesánchezfamilytalkedabouttheir privatelifeanddailyexperienceslivinginaneighborhood,locatedinthedowntown ofmexicocity,withina"biglatin Americancitythatisgoingthrougharapidsocial andeconomicchange"(lewis1964[1961],5 6).LewismettheSánchezfamilyin 1956intheneighborhoodofBellaVista(PrettySight),todayknownastheColonia Guerrero(Neighborhood"Guerrero").BellaVistawaslocatedbetweenthestreets MarteandCamelia(Lewis1964[1961],28),onlyoneblockawayfromthespace wherethenewbuildings,parks,openspaces,andhallsoftheurbanmegahousing projectoftlatelolcowasbeingconstructed.tlatelolco'smegahousingcomplexwas 20
21 inauguratedin1964.figure7showshowclosewasbellavistatotlatelolco(figure 7).OscarLewiscanbetakenasagoodexampletoshowthedifferencesbetweenthe twotraditionsofmexicananthropology,theso called"conflictoffiestas"(roseberry 1994[1989],2)thatreferstothestudyofcultureseenas"anexpressionoffolk society,basedincommunitarianvalues[and]solidarity"vs."avillagetornbyconflict rootedindifferentialaccesstolandaswellasahistorymarkedbyprofoundattimes bloodypoliticalstruggles"(roseberry1994[1989],2).lewis'sethnographical researchduringthe1940'softhevillageoftepoztláninmexicowasacontestation totheanalysisofthatpreviouslydonebyrobertredfieldduringthe1920'sin Tepoztlán(Lewis1951).Contrastingtheneattighthomogenouscommunityand well integratedsocietyredfieldhaddescribed,lewis'smorepoliticaleconomy orientedethnographyshowedtheindividualismoftepoztlán'sinstitutions,the politics,thequarrels,thefears,thesuperstitions,themagicandthespirits,andmost importantlytheeconomiclifeofthepeopleoftepoztlán(lewis1951). Followingthistrainofwork,hebecameinterestedinthestudyofrural immigrantsintomexicocity.hiscriticalapproach,qualitativemethodology,and innovativeuseofataperecorder,placedhimasapolemicalanthropologiststudying povertyintimeswhenmodernityanddevelopmentmodelswerefavored,and povertycouldonlybeanalyzedasamacroeconomicstructuredbutnotasan embodieddaytodayexperience(aceveslozano1994;seealsolewis1964[1961]).i intendtoplacemyselfwithinthedebateofaplacetornbyconflictwithawounded historyofprofoundandattimesbloodypoliticalstruggle;aswellasafocusonwhat isconsidereddecadentorforgottenurbanspacesintimeswhenneoliberal
22 Tlatelolco:Section1 Tlatelolco:Section2and3 Figure7.BellaVistawaslocatedbetweenthestreetsMarte(B)andCamelia(A),todaythis spaceispartofthecoloniaguerrero.thesánchezusedtoliveonlyoneblockawayfrom theconstructionsiteofthemegahousingcomplexoftlatelolco(sections1 3).(Google Maps.)
23 revitalizationprojectsinmexicocityandtheircontestationarebeinggreatly analyzed(seecrossa2006,2009,and2011). LewisbecameoneofthepioneersofurbananthropologyinMexico.Hewas interestedintheeffectsofindustrializationandurbanization.hisperspectivethat thehierarchicalmexicansocietyimpededanycommunicationbetweendifferent classes,andthatmexicanwritersandanthropologistsweremoreinterestedinthe "indigenousproblem"madehimthinkthattheinterestforpoorpeopleinthecity wasgreatlyunderstudied(lewis1964[1961]).hewasdeeplyinterestedinanalyzing the"cultureofpoverty"createdbythemodernnarrative.the"cultureofpoverty" wasdefinednotonlyasalackofeconomiccapability,unorganizedlifeorabsenceof something,butassomethingthatcanbepositiveinthesensethatithasastructure, alogicdisposition,anddefensemechanismsthatwithoutthem,the"poor"would notbeabletocontinueliving,atypeoforganizationpassedongenerationby generation(lewis1964[1961],8 9).Lewisstatedthatthe"cultureofpoverty"has beenpresentinmexicosincethespanishconquestin1519,justwhenthe"detribalization"processstartedandthemigrationoffarmersincreaseditsmovement towardsthecity"(lewis1964[1961],10). Cities:WoundsandThresholds Todaythereisstillaneedtocreatedifferentwaystounderstandtheurban socio physicalprocessesandthespacesofacity.the"criticalanalysisofurbanspace privilegerepresentationofthecityasapropertyoraccordingonlytodevelopment trajectories"andthe"complexspatialitiesandtemporalitiesofthelivedcity"are
24 ignored(till2012,4).thenewcultural,politicalandurbangeographymust,justas Lewisstartedtodo,study"theindividualexperiencesinurbansettings,the developmentofnewformsofsociality,[and]thesymbolicdimensionofcitylife" (Claval2007,163).Thereisaneedofadeeperunderstandingofthelivedrealitiesof theinhabitantsofthecity,includingtheir"culturalidentities,dynamicsofthe everydayandsymbolicworlds"(till2012,4). Theurbanisusuallyanalyzedasaspacedividedinto"corridorsfor circulation,publicspacesforencountersandworking,shoppingandresidential areas"(aitken,staeheliandmitchell2003)withoutacknowledgingthattheselands arefullofmemoriesthatarousefeelingsandthattheyareterritories(claval2007, 160).Toavoidsolelyunderstandingurbanspaceasaproperty,theconceptof "woundedcities"canbeusefulwhentalkingaboutacitylikemexico.ifindividuals andneighborhoodsarewoundedbydisplacement,materialdevastation,particularly violentordifficultpasts,sotooisthecityanditsinhabitants(till2012,6 7).Cities mustbeunderstoodas"wounded"definedas"denselysettledlocalesthathave beenharmedandstructuredbyparticularhistoriesofphysicaldestruction, displacement,andindividualandsocialtraumaresultingfromstate perpetrated violence[...]andcontinuetostructurecurrentsocialandspatialrelations,andas suchalsostructureexpectationsofwhatisconsidered'normal'"(till2012,6).spaces wherememoryisvisiblyinscribedorinvisiblyexperienced.throughthischapter,i willtrytoshowthewoundsofmexicocitythroughthethresholdsofdisplacement, traumaticviolentevents,materialdestructions,andabandonment;aswellasthe
25 emergenceofheterotopiasfromthesethresholdsandanintentiontohealspacesof painandshockwithinthemegahousingcomplexoftlatelolco. MexicoCitymustbestudiedasaspacemadeoutofprocessofchanges, turningpoints,discontinuities,porousspacesandwoundswith"[m]emoriesthat seekouttraces"(stavrides2007,12)fromthepast.ratherthanacontinuouschain ofeventsculminatinginthepresent,thehistoryofsomeoftheneighborhoodsin MexicoCityismarkedbydiscontinuousandshiftingflowsinfluencedbycritical turningpoints.theseturningpointscanbeunderstoodasthresholdsthatconnect whileseparateandseparatewhileconnect,thatperforatespaceandcreate heterotopias,"placeswheredifferencesmeet"(stavrides2007,4).tounderstanda "cityofthresholds"(stavrides2007),wemustanalyzeitsmaterialandsocial constructionsandaffections.somethresholdsmaycreatewoundsinthecity. Woundsthatleavefragments,piecesofinformationthatseemtobedisconnected fromspace,andtracesthatexpose"thescarsofhistory,aswellasthecontemporary consequencesofdestructiontotheidealofthenation"(till2005,98 99).The woundsofthecitycanbetracedthroughfragmentsandmemoriesrepresented throughstoriesandthroughothermaterialconstructedphysicalspacesofthecity. Sincethefifteenthcentury,withthearrivaloftheSpanishconquistadores, MexicoCitystarteditscyclesofdemolitionandrebuilding.Sincethen,MexicoCity's urbanspacehasintendedto"clean"andbuildanewpathforthefuture:"entire areasofthecity[were]periodically'laundered'and'liberated'tomakeroomfora newgenerationofurbanplanersandtheirprojectformodernizingandimproving theurbanfabric"(gallo2010,54).inthe20thcentury,tlatelolcoembodiesmanyof
26 modernity'spathologicaldisease(growth,cleanlinessandfunctional)basedona "scientificneo positivistontologyofurbanismandarchitecturefoundedon functionalistprinciples"(zamoranovillarreal2007,77).modernityis"inseparable fromimageproductionandcirculation",thustherepresentationofthecitymustbe consideredasan"imaginedcity,fromurbanimaginationtourbanimaginaries" (Prakash2010,2).Modernismrelatestoametropolitanphenomenonrepresenting "thehigh cultureexpressionsofthecity"(prakash2010,3)wherearchitectureand urbanismbecomesafunction,theextensionofthestate,andatooltoimaginethe modernfuture. TheconstructionoftheurbanhousingcomplexofTlatelolcoemergesfrom thisideology'slimitationsandformsofimaginingtheworld.tlatelolcoisoneofthe greatestandmostimportantmodernurbanhousingcomplexesmadeinmexico City 1.UrbanisminthemiddleofthetwentiethcenturyinMexicoCitywasconsidered asawaytotraceanewpath,tohavethecapacitytobeoriginalwithoutcopying othercities,tocreateacitythatcouldlastthroughouthistoryandthatitcould becomeuniversal(aragónechegaray1974,40 41).Architecturewouldgivea utilitarianfunctiontoart,whichcontainsineachpiecea"vibrantunityofmemories andcults,anaestheticgreaterconstantvalue"(aragónechegaray1974,70).mexico Citywastryingtocreate,representandimaginethephysiognomiesofthecitywith 1 TlatelolcowasnotthefirstmodernhousingprojectinMexicoCity.TheColonia Michoacana(Neighborhood"Michoacana")wasoneofthefirsthousingprojectsin1936 withtheconstructionof800housesinspiredonbauhausarchitecture(zamoranovillarreal 2007).
27 "meanings,essences,structuresandexpressions"forthefuture(aragónechegaray 1974,1). Tlatelolco:FromUtopiatoDystopia TheutopistmonumentalprojectofthemegahousingcomplexofTlatelolcois aconcretizedturningpoint,athreshold,inthehousinghistoryandurbanplanningof MexicoCity.Theconstructionhadasaconsequenceadisplacementofmorethan onehundredthousandfamilieslivinginthatarea(sre1964).theutopistcharacter ofthehousingcomplexwasbasedonmodernideasofcleanliness,happiness, function,orderandcontrolthatwouldreplacethe"disordered"and"unorganized" growth;itwouldalso"ameliorate"thelivingconditionsofthehabitantsofmexico Cityanderasethe"poor"environmentofliving(SRE1964).Theutopiandream, inspiredonacorbusierianmodel,wasinauguratedin1964butendedshortlyafter whatbecameoneoftheworstwoundsandnightmaresofmexicanmodernhistory: thekillingsofpeacefulprotestorsandsympathizersonoctober2in1968onthe PlazadelasTresCulturas(PlazaoftheThreeCultures)inTlatelolco.Followedbythis heterotopicappropriationofspace,seventeenyearslateronseptember19,in1985 oneofthegreatestearthquakesinrecentmemoryhitmexicocity.the8.1richter scaleearthquakehighlydamagedandcollapsedpiecesoftlatelolco'sphysicaland socialconstruction.aftertheseeventsa2 decadeperiodofotherrevitalization projectsinthecity'sdowntown'scentrohistórico(historiccenter)followed,this leadtoagreatabandonmentanddisuseofsomeoftlatelolco'sbuildings. Nonetheless,thereisstilladynamicpublic,apparentlyunorganizeddirtyfuzzy
28 boderlike,physicalandsocialspaceintlatelolco.in2007,addingtothemosaicof thediverse"culturalexperiences"inthehousingcomplex,therecentlyinaugurated CentroCulturalUniversitarioTlatelolco(CCUT,University'sCulturalCenterin Tlatelolco)openeditsdoorswithaMemorialcommemoratingthetraumaticevent of1968andheterotopicappropriationofspace,simulatinganattempttoheal,clear outanderasesomeeerieshadowsofthepast.alongthischapteriwillexposehow thesethresholdschangedthephysicalandsocialspacesoftlatelolcoaswellashow theycreateddifferentheterotopiasinthepublicurbanspacesoftlatelolco. Government'sPerfectPlanningofDisplacement ThemodernConjuntoUrbanoNonoalco Tlatelolco(UrbanHousingComplex Nonoalco Tlatelolco)wasuseasanantidotebythestate'sgovernmenttocombat whatwasconsideredan"urbanproblem"andtoservethegrowingpopulationofthe city.thescientificprojecthadaseriesofplanningstepstowardsitsconstructionand resultedinthedisplacementofmorethanahundredthousandfamilies(sre1964). Nonetheless,officiallytheinaugurationwasseenasamodernsuccessoffromthe governmentbecauseitmarkedanewépoqueofurbanismandmanagementinthe urbanplanningofmexicocity. ModernityinMexicocanbetracedbacktotheConstitutionof1917within thecontextofthemexicanrevolutioninitiatedin1910.themexicanrevolution followedaneraor"optimismandutopiandreams[...]fromeducationto architecture,andfromfarmingtourbanplanning"(gallo2010,53).thehousing complexoftlatelolcowasa"monumentalprojectdesignedtointroducethemost
29 modern andutopian urbanplanningconceptintomexicocity"(gallo2010,53). Galloresumesthisépoque: Between the 1950 and 1968, Mexico City underwent the most radical transformation in its history: a postwar economic boom, combined with mass migration form the countryside to the city, resulted in a population explosion thattookthecity'spopulationfromaboutthreemillionin1950toalmostseven million in 1970. To cope with this exponential growth, architects and urban planners embarked on an ambitious project to redesign the capital, building ringroads,expressways,andevenasubwaysystem(gallo2010,53). Duringtheseyears,theMexicangovernmentwasengagedinamegaurbanprogram ofmodernization.suchprojectsofurbanism,architectureandsocialplanningwere basedonwhathenrilefebvrewoulddefineasa'scienceofspace':apoliticaluseof knowledgethatembodiesatechnologicalutopia(lefebvre2008[1974],8 9).This utopistcharacterandengineeringofthepossibilitiesofthefutureisembodiedinthe urbanmegahousingprojectoftheurbancomplexnonoalco Tlatelolco,andit becameoneofthemainemblemsofmodernityandurbanregenerationinmexico Cityinthe1960's.KnowngenerallyasTlatelolco,orforlocalneighborsasLaUnidad (TheComplex),thecomplexwasinauguratedin1964inlightoftheOlympicsof 1968. Mergedintheideasofprogressanddevelopment,theintentionofthe époquewastoeliminatethe"anachronicmarkets",garbagedumps,unusedoropen emptyspaces,hutsandslumsinto"modernbuildings",newdistrictsandlowcost housingcentersto"meetthedemandsofthepopulation"(sre1964,19 27). Tlatelolcowasanattempttocreateanurbansolutiontothechallengesofan emergentinternationalculturalmetropolis.theproblemofthegrowingpopulation
30 inthecity,andthe"decadentconstructionofhuts[...]occupiedbytherailwayyards, shopsandatrainstation"was"fixed"byspatiallyreplacingitwiththenewurban housingcomplex.tryingtoeraseanddestroywhatwasconsideredanddescribedas decayingneighborhoods,oldcentralrailroadstation,warehouses,storagehouses andslums,11,908apartmentswereconstructedin102buildingsinanareaofone millionsquaremetersin2.5kilometersinlength(sre1964andcisneros1993). Theprojectgreatlysupportedbythestate'sgovernment,wasinscribedinthe narrativeofadvancementandgrowth.thegovernmentstatedthat:"everythingwill beginonalargescale"(sre1964,34).atotaltransformation,asdescribedbythe officialbookofpresentation: The invaluable wealth of this grandiose civilization is exalted everywhere. Technique displaces improvisation and efficiency mediocrity. And, although withtheinevitabledefectsofeverycity'ssizeandantiquity,itadvanceswitha surepacetowarditsextraordinarytransfiguration(sre1964,34). Thisintentiontranslatesintoaclearpurposeofanengineered,plannedandcontrol growthwithinthecontextofmanagingthepopulationandusingits"open", "unused","irrelevant"and"natural"spacesbybeinghighlyscientificandutilitarian. Officiallythefirstideawastorelocatethepeoplelivinginthezone,whichaccounted tomorethanonehundredthousandfamilies,butsincetheyneededtoapplyand gainacredit,manyofthefamilieswereforcedtoleave. Thestudymadeprevioustotheconstructionofthehousingcomplex, althoughtheyauto classifyitashavingeconomic,socialandhumancharacteristicit washighlyfocusedonthematerialinformationoftheplacesuchasthephysical appearanceofthesitesinplace(hutsorothertypeofhousing),numberoffloors,
31 heights,landvalues,services,openyardsand"patchesforclotheslines"(sre1964: 35 65).The"socialandhuman"realmrefersonlytodemographicalandphysical characteristics,leavingoutlocalstories,facesandnarrativesoftheactualpeople wholivedandusedthatspace.aseriesofmapswerecreateddepictingtheareaof interest.tojustifythenewconstructionsite,thepreviousstudydesignatedand mappedtheareaof"slums".figure8showstheareaofinterestofthesite.thered areashowsthepartswheretheconstructionwasgoingtobemade,whiletheyellow areaswherethesitesthatwerealsogoingtobetransformedduetothenew construction(figure8).otherimagesusedtoanalyzethesitewerephotographs.for example,figures9and10arephotographsofwhatwascalledandcategorizedas "slums"inthatsamearea.figure9showstheslumsinandaroundtheareaof Tlatelolco,whileFigure10showspartsoftherailwaysthatwerealsoonsite(Figure 9and10). Mapswerealsousedasatooltoanalyzeandplanthesite.Forexample,the mapshowninfigure11,fromthesamestudyshowsthestructuresonplacethat couldbedemolished,thosethatcouldbereparable,thoseconservableandother emptyspacesinthezoneofinterestanditssurroundings(figure11).the surroundingareawasalsorelevantbecausetheprojectcontemplatedtherenewal ofadjacentstreetsmakingthemwiderandlongertoopenacommunication betweenthecenterandthenorthernpartofthecity.
32 Figure8.Areaofinterest.(SRE1964,50.) Figure9."Slums"aroundTlatelolco.(SRE1964,55.)
33 Figure10.RailwayintheareasofTlatelolco.(SRE1964,92.) Figure11.Officialmapshowingthestudy'sresultofwhatcouldbedemolished,conservable andreparable.(sre1964,60.)
34 Theareaalsohadanarchaeologicalsite,acolonialchurch,aconventanda park 2.Figure12showstheParkofSantiagoandFigure13isthedepictionofhowthe archaeologicalsitewasgoingtobeseenwithintheurbanhousingcomplex(figure 12and13).AlthoughthenameandmeaningofTlatelolco(placeofthesandmound innahuatl)comesfromthisancienttime(matosmoctezuma2008,30),thepre HispanicplaceofTlatelolcoanditshistoricalsurroundingareaswerebarely mentionedinthepreviousstudyoronthebookofthehousingcomplexofficial presentation. Thesurroundingneighborhoodshadalsopre Hispanicnames.Figure14 showsthepre HispanicnamedepictionofTlatelolcoandadjoiningneihborhoodsin thatsamearea(figure14).thegovernment'surbanplannersandthearchitect MarioPannitransformedtheseplaces,anAztecpyramid,aXVIIcenturychurchand thebuildingofthemodernhousingcomplex,intowhatistodaycalledtheplazaof thethreecultures.theyalsoservedassymbolsofmexico'sheritageand territoriazliation.figure15showswhatistodaycalledtheplazaofthethree Cultures(Figure15). Theconstructionofthemegahousingcomplexstartedasamaterialist functionalutopiawithaseriesofthresholdsandemergingheterotopicspaces.the characteristicutopistpartoftlatelolcoisseeninthearchitectureinspiredbyle Corbusierinthe60's.Attunedwiththemostcontemporaryarchitecturalandurban internationalprojects,thearchitectmariopanniwasgreatlyinfluencedandinspired 2 ThearchaeologicalsiteofTlaltelolcowasfoundedbyanAztecdissidentelitein1338and becametherichestandmostimportantmarketduringitstimeinmesoamerica.the Spaniardsthenconquereditin1521.TlatelolcoisofficiallythelaststandofAztecresistance.
35 Figure12.ParkinTlatelolco.(SRE1964,213.) Figure13.Depictionofhowthearchaeologicalsiteandcolonialchurchwouldbeinscribed withinthehousingcomplex.(sre1964,118 199.)
36 Figure14.SandMoundDepictionforTlatelolcoandotherpre Hispanicnamesandplaces around.(sre1964,221). Figure15.PlazaoftheThreeCultures:archaeologicalsite,colonialchurchandmodern buildingsinthehousingcomplex.
37 bythemodernistideasofthefamouswell knownfrencharchitectlecorbusier.le Corbusierhasbeenanalyzedas"workingtowardsatechnicist,scientificand intellectualizedrepresentationofspace"(lefebvre2008[1974],43).thelecorbusier modelmetthearchitecturalrequirementsofstatecapitalismanda"utopian"and "ideological"perfectwayofliving. Thepresidentofthattime,AdolfoLopezMateos,describedtheprojectasa "peacefulrevolution"(sre1964,2).thiswasseenasthefirststeptowardstheurban regenerationofthemetropolisthatwould"contributetowardstheresolutionofthe low costhousingprobleminthecity"(sre1964,35).theprojectbelievedthatthe disorderedgrowthwaswrongandunprogressiveandthatitconsequentlyproduced a"detrimentofcommunityliving"and"theminimumunityofurbanism,whichisthe barrio[neighborhood]"couldbelost(sre1964,45).utopiasareconsideredasa consequenceofmodernity.thearchitectureofthatperiodturnedouttobeinthe serviceofthestate,"andhenceaconformistandreformistforceonaworldscale [...]despitethefactthatitsadventwashailedastherevolution"(lefebvre 2008[1974],304). Theofficialnameofthehousingcomplexwas"PresidenteLópezMateos (Nonoalco Tlatelolco)"namedafterthepresidentinturn.Thehousingcomplex consistedofthreedifferenttypesofbuildings:the"economic",forpeoplewithless economicsources;the"second"withbiggerspacesandbetterqualityfinishes;and the"luxury"alsolargerandwithhighqualityfinishes.onfigure16thereisa photographofafamilyinsideoneoftheseapartmentsinthehousingcomplex (Figure16).
38 Figure16.PhotographofafamilyinoneoftheapartmentsofTlatelolco.(SRE1964,141).
39 Tlatelolcowasdividedinthreesectionsandcouldhouseaboutseventy thousandpeople.thedesignofthethreesectionsofthehousingcomplexisshown onfigure17andfigure18showsagoogleimageofhoweventodaythephysical spacesoftlatelolcocanbeidentified(figure17and18).theurbanconstructionof sectionsintendedtorecreatethelostbarrio(neighborhood)containingthebasic necessitieswithinawalkingdistancearea.thisdesignwasintendedtomakelife morepractical,comfortableandfast:lessexpensivebecausethereisnoneedtouse acarorabusandtimesavingbecausebasicnecessitiesarenearandclosetoeach other.thedesignmappingwalkingdistancesintlatelolcoareshowninfigure19 andonfigure20theimaginaryspaceofwhatwasgoingtobethehousingcomplex secureandcleanpublicurbanspacesisdepictedinfigure20(figure19and20). Schools,commerce,sports,entertainmentandgreenopenspacescouldall befoundwithin(sre1964,78 79).Therewere13nurseries,2elementaryschools,1 middleschool,1technicalschool,andonetechnicalhighschool;therewere3 differenttypesofclinics(general,specialist,anddental);andothersocialandsports clubswitholympicswimmingpools,gyms,auditoriums,theatres,movietheatres, bathrooms,gamerooms,livingrooms,readingroomsandcafeterias(sre1964,180 205).ThecomplexhadanemblematicbuildingshowninFigure21,thebuildingof BancodeObrasPúblicas,(BANOBRAS,NationalBankofCivilEngineering),whichwas theoneinchargeofbuildingthesite(figure21).also,anotherbuildingthatcanalso beconsideredemblematicduetoitsphysicalappearanceand"importance"atthat timewasthebuildingofthesecretaríaderelacionesexteriores(sre,ministryof ForeignAffairs)whichisalsoshowninFigure22(Figure22).
40 Figure17.Thedepictionofthehousingcomplex'sthreesections.(SRE1964,112 113). Figure18.Today'simageofthehousingcomplexthreesectionscanbestillclearlyseen. (GoogleEarth2011.)
41 Figure19.Mapshowingthewalkingdistanceplanning.(SRE1964,71.) Figure20.DepictionofaModernFamilyinwhatisgoingtobethepublicspacesof Tlatelolco.(SRE1964,97.)
42 Figure21.DepictionofwhatwasgoingtobetheshinyBANOBRASbuilding.(SRE1964,125.) Figure22.MinistryofForeignAffairs.(SRE1964,214.)
43 BoththebuildingofBANOBRASandSREwereemblematicduetotheir materialuniquenessandexpressivesignificancerepresentingthestate.theywere boththehighestbuildingsguardingeachextremityofthecomplex.themetallic triangularshape,showninfigure23,stilldistinguishesitfromanyotherbuildingin MexicoCity(Figure23).AsdescribedbyLefebvre:"Verticality,aheighterected anywhereonahorizontalplane,canbecomethedimensionofelsewhereness,a placecharacterizedbythepresence absence:ofthedivine,ofpower,ofthehalffictionalhalf real,ofsublimethought"(2003[1970],38).contrastingthesespaces wasthearchaeologicalsiteoftlatelolco.again,aslefebvreexplains:"similarly, subterraneandepthisareversedverticality"(2003[1970],38)symbolizingits opposition.animageofthearchaeologicalsitecanbeseeninfigure24(figure24). HeterotopiaandTraumaticKillingsofSpace Acoupleofyearsafteritsinauguration,Tlatelolcowaspartofoneofthemost violentcontemporaryeventsofmexico'smodernhistory,ahorriblenightmare.the terriblekillinganddisappearanceofstudentsinoctober2,1968bythearmyanda specialgroupofthegovernmentalforcesontheplazaofthethreeculturesinthe urbanmegabuildingcomplexoftlatelolcohasbeenoneofthemostshadowyand difficultepisodesinmexico.thisthresholdepisodewasatraumaticeventinthe socialandphysicalspacesoftlatelolco,thewoundscanstillbeseenandfelt.a photographofthemassiveprotestontheplazaofthethreeculturesisshownin Figure25andanotherphotographofsomeoftherepressionsonthenightof October2canbefoundinFigure26(Figure25and26).
44 Figure23.BanobrasoverlookingMexicoCity'svalley.(Skycrapercity2007.) Figure24.TlatelolcoArchaeologicalsiteintheunderground.(Skycrapercity2006.)
45 Figure25.ThestudentprotestonthePlazaoftheThreeCulturesinTlatelolcoin1968. (Batres2008.) Figure26.StudentrepressioninTlatelolcothenightofOctober2,1968.
46 Followingafour monthperiodofprotestsandmeetings,themexicostudent movementin1968unraveledintoadreadfulstatecrime.morethan40yearshave passedandthereisstillnoclearaccountofhowmanypeoplewerekilledand disappeared,anduptotodaytherehasstillnotbeenanyconvictionsyet.the movementhaditsrootsonthe"confrontationsbetweenuniversityadministrators, governmentsecurityforces,andstudentsatnumerouscampuses[that]had escalatedaroundthecountrysince[the]studentparticipationinthemassiveunion strikesof1958 1959"(Zolov1999,119).Thestudentmovementof1968demanded apublicpoliticaldialoguetoavoidgovernmentalcooptation.sixdemands, concerningbothlocalandnationalconcerns,framedthestudents'officialpetition (Zolov1999,121): 1)Freedomforpoliticalprisoners 2)EliminationofArticle145ofthePenalCode 3)Abolitionoftheriotpolice(granaderos) 4)DismissaloftheMexicoCitychiefsofpolice 5)Indemnificationforvictimsofrepression 6)Justiceagainstthoseresponsibleforrepression Someofthestrategiesusedbythestudentswastheirattemptto communicatetoallthemexicansocietybygivingoutflyersandinformationtoall thepopulationduringtheir4 monthlongmarchesandprotests.forexample,the SilentMarchonSeptember13,wheretensofthousandsofpeoplemarchedin silence,hadplacardsthatstated"'tothepeopleofmexico:youcanseethatwe're notvandalsorrebelswithoutacause thelabelthat'sconstantlybeenpinnedonus.
47 Oursilenceprovesit"(Zolov1999,126).Atfirst,asotherstudentsaroundtheworld, theyusedtheimagesofcheguevaraandmaozedong,butwhenthepresscriticized theirinternationalreferences,theyturnedtonationalrevolutionarysymbolssuchas EmilianoZapataandPanchoVillaandothernationalheroes(whointheimaginations ofmexicansrepresentedthestate).figure27showsaphotographofthestudent protestinmexicocityusingimagesofcheguevarawhileonfigure28the photographshowstheuseoflocalandrevolutionarymexicanheroes(figure27and 28).Thisactionwas "adirectchallengetothepri'smonopolyofthesymbolismofmexico's revolutionaryheritage.byparadingimagesofvilla,zapata,juárez,andothers thestudentsimplicitlyquestionedthegovernment'srighttospeakintheir name,whilesuggestingthattheyinsteadhadtherighttodoso.[thisreappropriationsuggestedthatnow]thenation'srevolutionaryheroeswere beingusedagainstthegovernmentitself"(zolov1999,127). Therepressionbytheriotpolice(granaderos)wasgrowing,aswellasthe government'sattempttocontinuouslypayotherpeopletoprovokethestudents, andcreateriotsandconfusionwithinfiltratedfederalsecurityagentsamongthe students.onoctober2in1968,amarchhadbeenplannedtoprotestthecontinued occupationofthepolytechnicinstitutebythearmyforces,atthelastmomentthe leadersdecidedtocancelthemarchbecauseofthehighlymilitarypresencealong theplannedrout,andinsteadholdameetingattheplazaofthethreeculturesin Tlatelolco.Between5,000and10,000peopleattended,manyweresimplyresidents oftheapartmentcomplex(zolov1999,129).ahelicoptercircledoverhead,andjust aftertwoflaresweredropped,armytroopsfilledtheplazafromthestreetblocking theonlyentrances(andexits)ofit."soldiersbegantofirepoint blankatthecrowd,
48 Figure27.Studentsprotestingduringthe4 monthperiodofthestudentmovementwiththe imagesofcheguevara.(henley2008.) Figure28.Studentsduringaprotestre appropriatingnationalheroimages.(laciudadenel Tiempo2012.)
49 killingandwoundingmen,women,andchildrenatrandom"(lajornadaycanalseis dejulio2005). Sincethekillingof1968,justacoupleofdaysbeforetheinaugurationofthe 1968OlympicsinMexico,therehasbeenalevelofdenial,confusionandsecrecy aroundtheevent.somepartsofthegovernmentsaidthatthestudentswerethe firsttofireagainstthearmyandthatthearmyhadtodefenditself,therearealso somestatements,videosandinterviewsthatcontradictthisversion.thenumberof deathshasalwaysbeenoneofthemajorsecretsleadingtoconfusion.atfirstthe governmentsaidtherewere20deathsbutalongtheyearsnewevidencehasshown more.althoughthegovernmentandmassmediatriedtohidethekillinginofficial history,manyartists,writersandjournalistscontinueinvestigatingandwritingabout it;andsincetheneveryoctober2therearedifferentsocialgroupsthatgatherand marchinremembranceofthedead.stilltoday,october2isrememberedas:2de OctubreNoseOlvida(October2WillNotbeForgotten).Onthenextchaptersthis thresholdwillbefurtherexplored. SocialandPhysicalDestructions The8.1Richterscaleearthquakeisoneofthemosttraumaticeventsinthecollective imaginationofthemexicancity'spopulation(suárezandjiménez1987),and speciallytheoneintlatelolco.theearthquakeleftmorethan6,500deathsand morethan30thousandinjured.themediagreatlycoveredthecaseoftlatelolco becauseofitsextensityandconglomerationofbuildings,andbecausemanyofthe buildings,especiallyfromsections2and3,wereseverelydamaged.oneofthe
50 tallestbuildings,thenuevoleónbuildinginfigure29(3towerswith16floors,a totalof280apartments),wasalmostcompletelydestroyed(figure29).butthe earthquakedidnotonlycausephysicaldamagesanddeaths.therewasasocial ruptureanditstracescanstillbeseeninthepublicspacesandmemoriesof Tlatelolco. The1985earthquakebroughttoTlatelolcomanychanges,andnotonly physicalones.manypeoplewhoispokewithsaidthatthe"realsocialdeterioration" oftlatelolcowasaftertheearthquake.peopleevenreferredtothe1985asagreater tragedythanthatof1968.aconsiderableamountofneighborsleftwhilemany peoplefromadjacentneighborhoodsarrived.peopleidentified"them",thenew people,ashavingadifferenttypeoflife:usually"vendors"(streetinformalvendors usually)greatlycontrastingtheideathatpeoplefromtlatelolco,the"real Tlatelolcans"werebureaucrats,professionalsorteachers."Notlikethemwecome fromhardworkingwelleducatedfamilies,weknowwhatitmeanstoearnourdaily life"(interviewwithoneoftheneighborsoftlatelolco,june2011),assumingthat "vendors"arefroma"lowerclass"anddonotknowwhatitmeanstohavea"real" job.peoplesaythatthosewhohadthemeanstoleavein1985left,andthatthose whodidnothaveenoughmoneyhadtostay.also,theneighborsintlatelolcopre 85 hadbeenorganizingthemselvestoselfadministratethecomplex;thesesame groupsweretheonesthatpost 85hadthepowertoorganizemoreneighborsand fightforinsurancepayments,relocationsandtheremodelingofsomeofthe buildings."evenotherneighborhoodscameandaskedusforhelp,askedustoshow themhowhadweorganized"(interviewwithoneoftheneighborsoftlatelolco,
51 Figure29.NuevoLeónbuildingalmostcompletelytorndowninTlatelolcoin1985.(Villesca 2010.)
52 June2011)."Afterallofthat,Icouldnotcontinueinpolitics,itwassointensethatI fellintodepressionafterit"(interviewwithoneoftheneighborsoftlatelolco,june 2011). 3 ThisdifficultmomentofpoliticsinTlatelolcoleftthesocialtissueverydivided andunbalanced.antoniofonsecadescribeshispointofviewofthattime(notehow hediminishesthephysicalbuildingcollapseandheightenstheruptureofthesocial tissue): Theearthquakedidnotonlycollapsedsome,orwell,onlyasmallpartofthebuildingof Nuevo Leon, but also a lot of people left, a lot of our leaders left, [before the earthquake] there was a kind of structure that converted into organizations. The neighbormovementdoescrystallizesitselfinsomebuildings;butjustasithappensin otherplaces,peoplethatlinkedtopoliticalgroups,whatlaterbecametheprd,finishall in decomposition, in corruption. They call themselves social leaders, buy they do not haveanycapacitytogovernbutonlytobecomecorrupt. DisuseandAbandonment Duringthe80'sand90'sTlatelolcobeguntohavemoreandmoresocialproblems. Afterthe'85earthquakemanypartsofMexicoCitywereseverelydamaged.In Tlatelolcoseveralbuildingsfromthesecondsectionhadtobedynamitedandinthe thirdsectionbuildingshighbuildingswerereconstructedwithlessheight.someof themostimportantbuildingsintlatelolcofellintodisuse;forexample,the emblematictriangulartowershowninfigure30,oncethesecondhighestbuildingin MexicoCitythathousedthemainofficesofBanobras(NationalBankofCivil Engineering)wasabandonedafterthe'85earthquake(Figure30).Thefamous carilloninsidetheemblematicbuildingshowinfigure31,wasmadewith47bells, 3 Foradetaileddocumentationontheneighborhoodorganizationafterthe'85earthquake seecantuchapa2001.
53 Figure30.Banobrasbuildingabandonment.(Photobytheauthor2012).
54 importedfrombelgiumliedonthepeakofthebuilding.thecarillonstopbeing frequentlyusedaftertheearthquakeanditwascompletelyoutoffunctionin1993. Figure31showstheinsideofthecarillon(Figure31).Thecarillon"handinhandwith theabandonmentanddeteriorationoftheurbancenter"(savage2000)was originallydestinedtopromoteabetterqualityof"social"lifefortheinhabitantsof Tlatelolco.Figure32showstheinsideandsizeofthecarillon(Figure32).In2000, whatwasleftofbanobrasdecidedtosellthebuildinganditscarillon.todaythe BANOBRASbuilding,afterbeingboughtin2008byaU.S.realstateagencyCushman &Wakefield,isbeingthoroughlyremodeledandwillsoonfunctionasanoffice building(edemx2011).thiswasalsogreatlyimpactedbytherecentregenerative projectsnearthetowersuchasthemetrobusnewline,thesuburbantrainstation andnewmall,andthelibraryjosévasconcelos.figures33,34and35showthe Metrobusnewlinestop,thesuburbantrainstationandmallandthenewJosé Vasconceloslibraryrespectively(Figure33,34,35). AnotherveryimportantbuildingthatalsoabandonedtheUrbanComplexwas theoneusedbytheministryofforeignaffairs(sre),sinceitsconstructionin1966. Afterthe1985earthquakethebuildingwasgreatlydamagedandconstantly repaireduntilthelate1990's.in2005thebuildingshowedacertaindegreeof abandonmentandin2006theministryofforeignaffairsmovedoutandoccupied anotherbuildinginthefreshlyrenewedmexicocitydowntownhistoriccenter.the GobiernodelDistritoFederal(GDF,MexicoCity'sGovernment)grantedtheSRE buildingtotheuniversidadnacionalautónomademéxico(unam,national AutonomousUniversityofMexico)togetherwith60millionpesosinordertocreate
55 Figure31.CarilloninthepeakontheBanobrasbuilding.(STRE1964,130.) Figure32.CarillonoriginallydestinedtopromoteabetterqualityoflifetoTlatelolco.(SRE 1964,133.)
56 Figure33.Metrobusnewline,theBanobrasbuildingcanbeseenbehindthebus.(Photoby author2012.) Figure34.SuburbanTrainstationandmallproject,theBanobrasbuildingcanbeseeninthe leftuppercorneroftheimage.
57 Figure35.ThenewJoséVasconcelosLibraryandthebanobrasbuildingattheback. (Brewster2010.)
58 thecentroculturaluniversitariotlatelolco(ccut,university'sculturalcenter Tlatelolco).ThefrontentranceoftheCulturalCentercanbeseeninFigure36 (Figure36). SimulationofHeal:AnewCulturalCenter TheUniversity'sCulturalCenterTlatelolco(CCUT)wasopenedin2007withthe inaugurationofthememorial 68 thiswillbefurtheranalyzedinthenextchapter. TheCulturalCenter,whichhousedtheMinistryofForeignAffairsoffice,purportsto promote'culture'throughanon siteschoolofartandartshows,international exhibitions,andfilmfestivals.someofthepasttemporalexhibitionsmadebythe CulturalCenterhadtodowiththeearthquakeof1985.Themainvisitorsofthe Memorial68aretourists.ItspermanentexhibitionistheColecciónBlaisten(the BlaisteinColection)thatcontainsacollectionofMexicanartfromtheSpanish ViceroyaltyuptothelastdecadesofXXcentury.In2008theCulturalCenteropened theunidaddevinculaciónartística(uva,schoolofart),describedasanopenschool wherepeople"nomatterwhatlevelofartknowledgetheyhavecantakeclasses" (interviewwithignaciopládirectoroftheuva,june2011).theclassesvaryfrom Dance,Photography,StoryTelling,Yoga,Painting,Singing...Alltheworkshopshave acostpersemester,andtheygiveadiscounttothehabitantsoftlatelolco. Theculturalcenterwascreated"withtheobjectivetodevelopacultural spacethatwouldenrichthecommunitylifeofthenorthernpartofthecapitalofthe country,whichisasocialspacewithlargegapsofculturalinfrastructure[and]it
59 Figure36.NewUniversityCulturalCenterinTlatelolco(CCUT)inwhatusedtobethe MinistryofForeignAffairs(SRE)Building.(Wawis2009.)
60 retakestheimageoftlatelolcoasaformativeanddiffusionaxisofartandhistory" (Arroyo2008,72;directoroftheCCUT).Theculturalcenteraswellasitsschoolof artuvahasappropriatedtheimagesoftlatelolcourbanhousingcomplexto promotethenewculturalspace.forexampletheuvamadeaflyercontainingthe famousstonebridgethatcrossesandconnectsfromsection1tosection2ofthe housingcomplexwithsomeoftlatelolco'sbuildingstopromoteitsimageand connectwiththeneighborhood.figure37showsthefamousstonebridgeinoneof theflyersoftheuvaschoolofart(figure37).anotherappropriationofmeanings andanattempttoconnectwiththepeopleintlatelolcoistheinstallationoflightin theformofcrystalstitled"xipetotéc"bythomasglassfordonwhatusedtobethe SREbuilding,todaypropertyoftheCulturalCenter.XipeTotéc("OurSkinnedLord" or"nightdrinker",innahuatl)isthenameofanaztecgodwhoexcoriatedhimselfto feedhumanitysymbolizingthepeelingofcornandanewseason.theinstallation,in a"cyclicprofaneanddefinedurbanspace"where"piecesofhistoryconverge", symbolizes"theconvergenceofcultures[and]there birthofhealthandlife"(ccut advertisementpamphlet)."tlatelolcoisdressingupwithanewskinwhichshinesto commemorateanewlifeasaculturalcenter,asymbolicvisiblelighthousethatcan beseenfromanystrategicpointofthevalleyofmexicocity"(ccutadvertisement pamphlet).figure38showsxipetótecinstalationontheccutbuilding(figure38). ThedirectoroftheUVAexplainedtomethatoneoftheobjectivesoftheart schoolistocreateadynamiccommunitywhereneighborsandotherpeoplearound MexicoCitycangetclosertotheCulturalCenterexhibitionsandspecialevents throughtheuva'songoingworkshopsandclasses.heshowedmehowthedesigns
61 Figure37.OneoftheflyersoftheUVAusingimagesoftheurbancomplex.(Source:Author's collection.) Figure38.Theartinstallationoflightontheex SREbuilding,todaytheCulturalCenter (Source:Author'scollection.)
62 oftheflyersfortheuva'ssemestersworkshophadtodowiththeideaofmovement a:"wewanttosymbolicallyshowthatthereissomethingnew,somethingmovingin Tlatelolco"(interviewwithI.Plá,directoroftheUVA,June2011).Thesymbolic imagesarealittlecarusedin1960bythevendorsofthehousingcomplextoshow clientstheareasandnewapartmentsaroundtlatelolco,acircusbicycleontheplaza oftlatelolco,andakiteflyingamongthebuildingsoftlatelolcofigures39,40and41 showtheflyersforthefirstthreesemestersofworkshopsintheuvaschoolofart, thethreehavesymbolicrepresentationsofmovement:acar,abikeandakite respectively(figures39,40,and41.) FromMaterialityintoDifferentRepresentations Thresholds,woundsandstoriesmakeuptheurbanspaceinacityinconstant change.theidentificationofthresholdsisanopportunitytostartdeepeningonthe woundsthatcreatethecity.tlatelolcoisthecreationofanurbanplacethat embodiesvaluesandpracticesofthestateanditscontradictions.byrecognizingthe thresholdsofitshistoryandgeographywemayunderstandthesocialandphysical spacesandnotonlyrelyintheofficialnarrativesorclichéremembrancesofprogress anddevelopment.itisawaytounderstandthecreationofsocialandphysical spaces,thewaysthattheyarelegitimized,achieved,justifiedaswellastheir consequences.tlatelolcomaybeanalyzedasthecreationofaplacewith contradictionsanddominationsthatembodymodernityidealsandneoliberal practices.therecuperationoffragmentsbecomesthepiecesofthethresholdsand traumaticeventsthatproduceheterotopias.
63 Figure39.FlyeroftheUVAforthefirstsemesterofworkshopsandclasses:Littlecarusedin 1960bythevendorsofthehousingcomplextoshowclientstheareasandnewapartments aroundtlatelolco.(source:author'scollection.) Figure40.FlyeroftheUVAforthesecondsemesterofworkshopsandclasses:Acircus bicycleontheplazaoftlatelolco.(source:author'scollection.)
64 Figure41.FlyeroftheUVAforthethirdsemesterofworkshopsandclasses:Akiteflying amongthebuildingsoftlatelolco.(source:author'scollection.)
65 Thestatetechniquesareawaytounderstandtheheterotopiasand contradictionssuchasinthepublicspacesoftlatelolco.thestatecanchooseto displacepopulationorkillthemiftheyaredefinedas"unorganizedpoor"orasa "threat":asintheinaugurationof1964,andinthekillingof1968.also,atthesame timethestatecanattempttogivegoodhousingor"security"toitspeople. Everythingisdoneinorderandjustifyingamodernandprogressivestate.Different entitiescanexplaintheirpresenceinspacethroughdifferentmeansinorderto appropriatethehistory,spacesandmemoriesoftlatelolco. AccordingtoKarenE.Till,"politicalandurbangeographersneedtodomore workintheorizingandteachingaboutthecityinwaysthatarerecognizabletothe inhabitantofthecity"(2012,5).notonlythegovernment'smaterialityand discoursesmakeupthemeaningsofspace,alsootherinstitutionssuchasthe culturalcenterandthememoriesofneighborsparticipateinthisimagination.this makestlatelolco'sspaceaproductofsocialrelations,becausejustaslefebvre (2008[1974])said,spaceisalwaysintheprocessofbecoming,itisnegotiated, performed,appropriated,dominatedandcontested.space,likeidentity,"isnever fixed,monolithic,andbound,butisopentointerventions"(natterandjones1997, 142).Spaceisopen,itisaquotidiannegotiationandwemustengagewithitto betterunderstandtheworld(massey2008[2005]).howcanweengageinthe differentspacesandidentitiesoftlatelolco?wemustidentifytheproductionof spaceoftlatelolcoandthedifferentwaysithasbeenappropriatedandnegotiated throughmemoriesandimagination.
66 Thefabricofacityisnotonlyinvisibleconstantchangebutalsoitissubtle andinvisibleattimes.itbecomespartofacollectivememorythatcanbefoundon "bothinformallyandinthewrittenandrewrittenofficialandunofficialhistoriesof cities"(wilson1997,126).thischange,ratherthanerasingthepast,mayintensify thememoryofwhatisnolongerthere(wilson1997,127).todaydiverseagentsare representingtheexistingpresenceofthevisibleandinvisiblepastintlatelolco's publicurbanspacethroughdifferentways.therecuperationoffragmentsofthe officialandunofficialmemoriesisawaytostudytheurbanspaceofwoundedcities.
CHAPTER3 EngravingFixedMemory:TheKillingof1968 "Inthedawn,Iwascurious,Ipeakedoutinbetweenthecurtainstoseewhat wasgoingon.itwasadante'sspectacle.thereinfrontofuswherewehavethe ceremonialspaceofthearchaeologicalsite,preciselytherewherethatmanis now standing next to the fence, there, there was body. I was impressed, I startedtolookaroundandinotonlysawonebutmanyotherbodieslying.the plazawasfullofshoes.curiously,eventhoughitwasrainingthatnight,there werepeople,firemenwashingtheesplanade.thereinfront,whatistodaythe ForeignAffairsLibrary,there,thereagainstthewallwasalineofyoungwomen andmenallnaked Completelynaked.Then,Isawtanksandbusesofthearmy and soldiers lifting up bodies, just as if they were sacks of potatoes throwing themintothecars.itwasnotonlyoneortwo,thereweremanybodies..." NeighborofTlatelolco2005 4 Sincethekillingof1968,justacoupleofdaysbeforetheinaugurationofthe1968 OlympicsinMexico,therehasbeenalevelofdenial,secrecy,confusionand deliberatepostponementofactionsbythegovernmenttofullyrecognizeand explainwhatreallyhappened.meanwhile,abundantinvestigation,representation, strugglesanddocumentationhasbeencreatedbyothersectorsofsocietysuchas poets,novelists,journalists,artists,activistsandintellectualstocommunicateand denouncetheunjustandtragicepisode.theyhaveproducedessays,novels,poems, documentarytexts,movies,andvideo documentariesbeingfaithfultooneofthe mostfamoussayingsrelatedtotheevent:2deoctubrenoseolvida(october2will 4 CitedinLaJornadayCanalSeisdeJulio(2005). 67
68 NotbeForgotten) 5.October2goesbeyondthePlazaoftheThreeCultures,further thanmexicocity'sfuzzybordersandacrosscountries,ideologiesandhistorical times.consequently,thestories,photographs,videorecordings,accountsand diversedocumentationofwhathappened,thesefragmentsandghostscanbefound throughoutsociety,crossdisciplinarily,andindifferenthistoricaltimesanddiverse places.thecontinuationofhidingandunveilingstoriesanddocumentationhasbeen alongstruggle;therefore,somesocialandphysicalspaceshavebeenachieved. Officialmemorializationsiteshavebeenplannedandinaugurated,caseshavebeen takentocourt,andanationaldateforcommemorationhasrecentlybeen institutionalized. PoliticsofMemory Spaceplaysanimportantroleintheprocessandpoliticsofcollectivememory (DwyerandAlderman2008).Ingeography,thereisalargeliteratureengagedin identifyingtheinterests,struggles,conflicts,discourses,symbolsandmetaphors relatedtothecreationofsitestorememberandforgetbothtriumphantandtragic eventsinurbanspaces(lowenthal1985;alderman2003;foote2003;bosco2004; Dwyer2004;HoelscherandAlderman2004;Till2005;Bosco2006;Dwyerand Alderman2008;Savage2009;Alderman2010).Thetextures,processesand meaningsofaplace,aswellastheirmaterialityandsymbolicqualitieshavebeen 5 Posdata(Postcript)(Paz1970),TiempoMexicano(MexicanTime)(Funetes1971),LaNochede Tlatelolco:testimoniosdehistoriaoral(ThenightofTlatelolco:testimoniesoforalhistory) (Poniatowska1998[1971]),MemorialdeTlatelolco(Tlatelolco'sMemorial)(Castellanos1972),andthe moviesrojoamanecer(reddawn)(1989)andrecentlyborrardelamemoria(erasingitfrom Memory)(2010).FormoreinformationonTlatelolco'sliteratureseeYoung(1985).
69 greatlystudiedintheformationofplace,selfandidentity(young1993;adams, HoelscherandTill2001;HoelscherandAlderman2004,Post2009).Also,the significanceanduseofartifactsthatlinkexperiencewithawarenessandcontinuity havebeenexplored(tuan1980;aldermanandcampbell2008).itisbelievedthat thecreationofthesespacesofmemoryviewsthepastinfluencingthecreationofa possiblefuture(lowen2000),thesesitesareusetore interpretandappropriate space(dwyer2004;alderman2010),andbecomeatooltodiscussthebenefits, advantagesandthreatsofthepast(lowenthall1985)orofthepresent. Theliteratureonthepoliticsofmemorygoesbeyondgeography: anthropologists,philosophers,artists,historians,andarchitectsamongother disciplineshavestudiedandcreateddifferentstrategiestowardsitsanalysis, production,recuperationandreach.themostcommonandtraditionalwayof analyzingwoundedplacesisbasedonahistoricalapproachtoexaminepolitical situations,adissectingofpoliticalactors,andalectureonsymbolsandmetaphors thatrepresenttheneeds,desiresandfearsofthepresent.suchanapproachis definedbykarene.tillasa"biographyofasite"(2006,2012),whichanalyzesissues ofidentitypoliticsandpoliticaltransition(forest,johnsonandtill2004;seealso Bosco2004,2006).Itprovidesdetaileddescriptionsofhownationalhistoriesare shared,producedandremembered.thispoliticsofpublicmemoryfocusesonhow andbywhothepastiscreatedinthepresent.itusesnotionssuchas'lieuxde memoire'(placesofmemory)(nora1989),'countermemory'(alderman2010), 'inventedtraditions'orplacesofmemorythatanalyzewhy,whereandwhen
70 memoryemergesandinwhatforms:memorials,"museums,postcards,annual parades,ortemporaryartisticspaces"(till2006,327;alsoseesavage2009). Pasttragiceventsmaybeadifficultdisputedmissiontomemorialize, especiallyifituncoversdarkhistoricalactionsrelatedtothestateanditspopulation. Memorializinglandscapesinurbangeographymustbeanalyzedbecauseoneofthe mainfocusesofmonumentsandmemorialsistheideatocreatepublicspaceswitha collectivememoryandhistoryrelatingittolocalevents.somescholarshaveargued thatthecreationof"public"isimpossibleduetorapidurbanrestructuration(aitken, StaeheliandMitchell2003,249).Someothersevenrecognizethatpublicspaceisno longerademocraticspace(inthecasethatiteverwas)wherediversityofpeople andactivitiesaretolerated,butthat"publicspace"isapoliticalandcultural economythatexpresssocialpowerandshapesocialrelations(lowandsmith2006). Therefore,thecreationofmemorialsinurbanpublicspacemustbeinvestigatedin relationtothecreationofthese. Memoryisembodiedwithinthematerialandsymboliccity.Itswoundsand ghostsaretrappedintheconcrete,inthe"lieuxdemémoire"(placesofmemory) thatrefertomemoryasfixedonmaterialphysicalplaces(nora1992).memoryis notonlyfoundinthematerialityofacity;socialmemoryisencounteredinsitesand in"archives,memorials,objects,narratives,orculturalpractices"(till2006,330). Thesedifferentrepresentationscreateageographicalimagination(Gregory1994), whichreferstothewaystheworldis"madepresent,re presented,[and]discursively constructed"(gregory1994,104).thisrepresentationisalsodirectlyrelatedtoa
71 "politicalmeaningthathastodowithgivingvoicetotheconcernsandsituationsof others"(gregory1994,104 105). HowhavewoundsandghostsofTlatelolco'stragiceventssuchasthekilling of1968beenofficiallyrepresentedandimagined?theplazaofthethreeculturesis achargedpoliticalspaceinthegeographicalandhistoricalaccountofmexicocity. TheephemeralappropriationofspaceduringtheprotestsofOctober2,1968in Tlatelolcocreatedaheterotopiaofdemocracyandfraternityhighlycontrastedby theeventsofviolenceandrepressionthatsucceededitjustafewhoursafterits initialization.also,theephemeralappropriationsandnegotiationsofphysicaland socialspacesofmemorializationofthe'68traceshavebecomeinasense heterotopicmomentsofpromise(stavrides2007),andabreathofdemocraticand revolutionaryhope(lefebvre2008[1974],54).theofficialsitesofmemorialization erectedintlatelolcocanbetracedbacktoinitiativesmadebycitizens,intellectuals andacademicstobuildphysicalsymbolicspacesthathelptonotforgettheevent. ThroughthischapterIwillbepresentinghowhastheofficialmemorializationofthe 68killinghasbeenrepresented,negotiatedandappropriatedbythegovernment anddifferentgroupsinthesocialandphysicalspacesoftlatelolcoandbeyondits porousfontiers. ThefirstofficialsitewasaccomplishedbyaprojectmadebytheComisiónde laverdad(truthcommission)in1993.otherattemptshavebeenmadetoreclaim memory,specificallyin2007bytheuniversidadnacionalautónomademéxico (UNAM,NationalAutonomousUniversityofMexico)throughitsCentroCultural UniversitarioTlatelolco(CCUT,UniversityCulturalCenterofTlatelolco),inaugurated
72 thememorial'68.throughtheseeventsandcontinuedstruggletotaketocourtthe perpetratorsofthekilling,thestatehasyieldedandhasofficiallyinstitutionalized thetragedybycreatinganationalmourningdayin2011.thesememorialization strategiesshowthatalthoughspaceisincontinuouschangeandmustbeanalyzed alwaysasaprocess;thereisaneedanddesiretofixmeaningtosomeofthespaces oftlatelolcoregardingthisdreadfulpast.italsoshowsthatspaceisaproductof interrelation,asphereofthepossibilityoftheexistenceofmultiplicityinthesense ofcontemporaneouspluralityandaspherewheredifferenttrajectoriescancoexist inheterogeneity.itisalwaysunderconstructionitisneverfinished;neverclosed (Massey2008[2005]).TheongoingconstructionofTlatelolcothroughspaceandtime showthecomplexityofitsmeaningsandrepresentations.but,atthesametime,the materialityofthesememorializationsitesshowsanattempttofixmeaningsinspace andcreateatruehistoricalaccountgivingaspacefortheghostsofthepast. ThroughoutthischapterIwillshowthecontestationofsocialgroups,intellectuals, journalistsandtheuniversitythroughitsnewlyopenedculturalcenterhavedonein ordertoincorporatewhatreallyhappenedintheofficialdiscourseand memorializationofthekillingofoctober2;aswellashowthegovernmenthasalso co optedthismemoryandrepresenteditpartiallyalongtheyears. InSearchofHistoryandContestedMemory:TheOfficialPlacardin1993 Theefforttomakesomesenseofthetragiceventandtrytoconvicttheguilty governmentalofficialshascontinuedthroughouttime.thenumberofdeathshas greatlyfluctuated,whileasportswriterfromtheguardianreported325,thelocal
73 newsonthenextdayjustreportedfrom20to30deaths(doyle2006);officially44 havebeenacceptedbuttheunofficialnumberoscillatesaround200(zolov1999, 130).In1993thecreationofanindependentComisióndelaVerdad(TheTruth Commission)wasformed,butitdidnotlastlongprimarilyduetolackofresources (Aguayo1998).Alsoin1993the"Committee68"createdastoneplacardandplaced itintheplazaofthethreecultureswithprivatefunding(huffschmid2008).the stoneplacardlookslikeapieceofwallcoveredwithcanterastone.ontheupper part,theyearsof1968 1993(yearitwasinaugurated)aredepicted,andunder themthereisanimageof3doveswiththeinscriptionof:adelante(goforward). Beneaththatimage,thereisaninscriptionthatreads:"Aloscompañeroscaídosel2 deoctubrede1968enestaplaza"(forallthecomradesthatfellonoctober2in 1968inthisPlaza),thenalistof20completenamesofthepeoplethathaveproof werekilledintheplaza.nexttoeachnamethereisanumberreferringtotheage whentheyweremurdered.thenonthebottom,afterapoemexcerptfromrosario Castellanos,itreads:"...ymuchosotroscompañeroscuyosnombresyedadesaúnno conocemos"(...andtomanyothercomradeswhichnamesandagesstillwedon t knowof).figure42showsthecommemorativeplacardontheplaza(figure42). Thegovernmentalarchiveswerediscloseduntilthelate1990's(Aguayo1998; Gallo2010,63).In1994,throughtherecordsobtainedundertheFreedomof InformationActandarchivalresearch(TheNationalSecurityArchive)more investigationshavebeendonetotrytouncoverthetruth.therearealso photographsandvideosthatshowtheatrocitiesbutthecrimecontinues unpunished.therearealsodocumentedstoriesthateventheciawasimplicated
74 Figure42.CommemorativePlacard'68inauguratedin1993.(Photobytheauthor2012.)
75 withtheeventsoccurredinoctober2.althoughthegovernmentandmassmedia triedtohidethekillinginofficialhistory,manyartists,writersandjournalists continuedinvestigatingandwritingaboutit.forexample,rosariocastellanos,awell knownmexicanpoetandauthor,wroteapoemandoneofitsexcerptwasengraved inthecommemorativeplaqueof1993.thepoemisshownonfigure43(figure43): Quién? Quiénes?Nadie.Aldíasiguente,nadie. Laplazaamanecióbarrida;losperiódicos dieroncomonoticiaprincipal elestadodeltiempo. Yenlatelevisión,enlaradio,enelcine nohuboningúncambiodeprograma, ningúnanunciointercaladoniun minutodesilencioenelbanquete. (Puesprosiguióelbanquete.) Who?Whom?Nobody.Onthenextday,nobody. Theplazawokeupswept;thenewspapers presentedasprincipalheadline theweather. Andonthetelevision,ontheradio,andonthecinema therewasnochangetotheprogram nocommercialornewsheadlineinbetweenprograms,andnoteven aminuteofsilenceduringthefeast (Because,thefeastcontinued.) Flowerscanbefoundsomedaysbroughtbypeopletohonorthedeadand sometimessomeofftheroadtouristsadventurewithinthehousingcomplextofind theplacard.inmyexperiencesihavealwaysfoundpeoplesittingandtalkingabout theevent,forexampledoncarlosandrobertothemusician.ihavealso encounterednationalandinternationaltouriststakingpicturesoftheplacardwhile theneighborsplaysoccerontheplaza.ifthetouristsarelucky,theygettotalkto
76 Figure43.PoemonthebottompartoftheCommemorativePlacard'68.(Photobythe author2012.)
77 someonerelatedtotheeventsittingonthesteps,ormaybelistentodoncarlos storiesorlistenandbuysomeofroberto'smusicandmemorabilia.formanyyears everyoctober2peoplewouldcongregateintheplazaandthenprotesttowardsthe downtownzocalo.recentlytheprotestersnowstarttheirmanifestationsfrom differentpartsofthecityandendupinthezocalo.theneighborshavealso organizedsomeyearstopaytributetothedead.differentsocialgroups,many youngpeoplethatwerenotevenalive,havecontinuouslyappropriatedtheplazato manifestandprotesttheunjustkillingofstudents,professorsandsympathizerson October2inthePlazaoftheThreeCultures. ReclaimingMemory In2007anewpagewaswrittenrevolvingtheTlatelolcokillingof1968.The Memorial'68,inFigure44,wasinauguratedinsideanewlyopenedCulturalCenter fromthenationaluniversity(ccut,centroculturaluniversitariotlatelolco),inwhat usedtobetheofficeofforeignaffairs(sre,secretaríaderelacionesexteriores) building,oneoftheemblematicstructuresoftheurbanmegabuildingcomplexof Tlatelolco(Figure44)."TheobjectiveoftheMemorialdel68istomakememory accessibletothenewgenerations[...]contrarytothecommemorativeplacard,this institutionalizednon privateinitiativemakestheunam(nationalautonomous UniversityofMexico)assumeitscompromisewithitsownuniversity'shistory" (Huffschmid2008,1).Thememorialpretendsto"nameandvisualizelife" (Huffschmid2008,3).Itisa"representationthatisalive"(Arroyo2008,73,General DirectoroftheCCUT).
78 Figure44.Memorial'68entranceintheUniversityCulturalCenterinTlatelolco.(Photoby theauthor2012.)
79 Thisspaceisorganizedasamultimediamuseumtourthatguidesthevisitor throughthe4monthofstudentprotestsinmexicocitycomparingandcontrastingit withotherinternationalstudentprotests,showninfigure45,therevolutionsand politicalchangesaroundtheworld(fieldwork,summer2011)(figure45).edited recordedtestimonies,seefigure46,from57individuals,multiplefragmentsof materialfromthecinema,radio,videos,photography,newspapers,magazines,and graphicdesignsrelatedtothehistoricalperiodcomposesthememorialtour(figure 46).InternationalandnationalrevolutionaryimagesaredepictedsuchasChe Guevara,JanisJoplin,Mao,MaríaSabina,RosaLuxembugandCarlosMonsivaisis showninfigure47(figure47)."apsychedelicinstallationstagesthesixtiesin Mexicoasacrossingandaestheticglobalpoint:Vietnam,thebarricadesinParis,the anti colonialfightsinafricamixwithwarhol,themexicanhippies,thesaying'itis forbiddentoforbid',andthesoundtrackof'lucyintheskyofdiamonds' (Huffschmid2008,6).Figure48showsthisinstallation(Figure48).Ithasnoclear interpretationsofwhathappenedonoctober2orwhy,anditlacksanylinkto today'scontemporaryworld. Unfortunatelythe"memorial",thatseemsmoresoasanexhibition,doesnot engageinthedebateofhowmanydeathsandprisonersweretakenbythestate's organizedsecretpoliceandmilitary."theprincipalaimofthememorial'68isto tracethestudentmovementinmexicofromjulytooctober1968,anditsrelationto otherstudentmovementsaroundtheworld;butitisnotaboutthekillingof Tlatelolconorforits'victimsitself"(interviewwithCyntiaVelazques,directorof EducationalServicesintheCCUT,June2011).Theonlystrongevidenceofthekilling
80 Figure45.Memorialexhibitionswithotherinternationalstudentprotests,revolutionsand politicalchangesaroundtheworld.(photobytheauthor2012.) Figure46.Testimoniesfromwell knownmexicanacademics,politiciansandwritersrelated tothe'68studentmovement.(photobytheauthor2012.)
81 Figure47.InternationalandnationalrevolutionaryimagesaredepictedsuchasChe Guevara,JanisJoplin,Mao,MaríaSabina,RosaLuxembugandCarlosMonsivais.(Photoby theauthor2012.) Figure48.PsycheldelicinstalationintheMemorial'68.(Photobytheauthor2012.)
82 isaverylongvideowithfragmentsofinterviews,pictures,andvideodocumentation showinghowthemilitaryenteredtheplazaandstartedshootingfollowedbyimages ofseminakedarrestedyoungwomenandmenandsomedeadbodies(includingthe famouspictureofayoungboyofabout12yearsold).acompilationofthese picturesisshowninfigure49(figure49).thepictureshavebeenwidelypublished onlocalandinternationalnewspapersaswellasonlinearchivesanddigitaljournals. Sincethevideolastssolong(about5hours),hardlyanybodystopstowatchitall,so visitorswillonlyappreciatesomeofitsfragmentswhilewalkingthroughthetour. Thevideoisshownindifferenttelevisionsandsometimesshownnexttoother videosthatcomplementtheinformationgiveninthemainvideoduringthe exposition.figure50showsaphotographofthisvideowherethese2imagesare shownatthesametime(figure50).thevideocontains"amultiplicityofnarratives, editedfragmentsoftalkswith57characters,allofthemactivistsoratleast privilegedtestimonies.todayallofthemarebureaucratsoracademics,journalistsor writers,withsomerelationtothepublicpoliticsorpoliticalparties,somealsoare membersofthecomitédel68"(huffschmid2008,6) 6. 6 Itisinterestingtonotethatnotmuchhasbeenwrittenaboutthewomen'sroleinthe1968 studentmovement.writersusuallyidentifytheleadersasmen,privilegetheirnarratives andmemories,andassociatereasonandplanningwiththeiractions.althoughsomeofthe tracesoffeminisminmexicostartedtosproutinthe1960'sandmorespecificallyduringthe studentmovement(withsmokingandminifalda(shortskirt)beingsymbolsofrevolution); stilltodaywomen'snarrativesareusuallyassociatedwiththeemotionalandtheirpractical serviceduties(makingcoffee)duringthestudentmovement.annehuffschmid(2008) mentionsitinpage6,butforanoutstandingaccountseefrazierandcohen(2003)"defining thespaceofmexico'68:heroicmasculinityintheprisonand'women'inthestreets" HispanicAmericanHistoricalReview(83)4:617 660.
83 Figure49.Famous1968photographsshowninthevideo. Figure50.VideowithtestimoniesandphotographsintheMemorial'68.(Photobythe author2012.)
84 InstitutionalizationofMemory "They [the CCUT's Memorial '68] never talk about the features of the real aggression,thatofthegenocide,theproblemisnotthequantitybutthetarget. Therefore, here, it does not matter if they were hundreds or only thirty, but that of who was it aimed at, and that is what it gives it the character of genocide. Clearly, the significant characteristic of genocide is that the addressees were the students, that it was directly targeted to el pueblo (the popular people) and concretely to the popular organizations. Yes, because we wereallmembersofpopularorganizations,itwasanorganizedpueblo.there wererailwayworkerorganizationshereandmanysyndicates.manyneighbors also supported the students [...] they were all sympathizers. This sympathy mobilizedpeopleevenfromoutsidetlatelolco,eveninanationallevel,because thereweremanydelegationsthatcamefromdistantdifferentplacestosupport thestudents." RobertoTello(interview,July2011). "PoorMexico,sofarawayfromGodandsoclosetotheUnitedStates" PopularMexicanSaying ThefightofsocialorganizationssuchastheCommitteeof68andothersocialgroups andindividualsthathavebeeninvestigatingwhatreallyhappenedonoctober2has beenalongprocess.thememoriesandinvestigationshaveslowlybeing incorporatedintotheofficialdiscourseandofficialmemorializations."formany years,thirty,fortyyearswedidn'tknowexactlywhathadhappened.whattheydid tous.therewasamovement,therewasamassacreandtherewasaforty year searchforthetruth.andaftersomeyears,well,thetruthstartedtoappear"(d. HuertacitedinRichmanandDiaz Cortes2008,Huertawasahighschoolstudentin 1968,todayheisarenownwriterandpoetinMexico). Oneofthemostdocumentedpiecesofworkistheoutstandingbookfrom Aguayo(1998).Since1968thenumbersofdeaths,disappearancesandprisoners havewidelychanged,thenumberofdeathshasvariedfromtwenty,totwohundred,
85 anduptotwothousandpeople(doyecitedinrichmananddiaz Cortes2008)."In additiontothedeadandwounded,almostthreethousandleadersandactivistswere roundedupandtakentoamilitarycampforinterrogation.theywereexpeditiously tried,andthreehundredwereimprisonedatlecumberriprison,someremaining untilmid 1971"(informationfromtheNationalArchivescitedinFrazierandCohen 2003,625). WhatistodayknownastheGuerraSucia(DirtyWar)startedafterthe1968 massacreofstudentsandlastedupuntilthe'80s.it'sprincipalaimwastoeliminate anysocialmovementofpoliticalandarmedoppositionagainstthemexicanstate. ManyacademicscomparethisDirtyWarwithothermilitaryandpoliticalsocial repressionsinlatinamerica,manyoftheseorchestratedfromandgreatly influencedbythewhitehouseintheusa(funariandzarankin2006;mychalejko 2009;andmanyothers) 7.SomeacademicsarguethattheDirtyWarendedin2000 withthepresidentialelectionofvicentefox,endingthe70yearsofgovernmentby thepartidorevoulcionarioinstitucional(pri,revolutionaryinstitutionalpolitical Party).SomeothersarguethattodaythereisanewkindofDirtyWaremergingfrom thedrugwarthatstartedindecember11,2006whenthepresidentfelipecalderon declaredwaragainstthedrugcartels:"thedifferenceisthat40yearsagothevictims werethosewhoopposedthepoliticalregimethatsawthemasenemies,buttoday theenemyisanybody[everybodyeverywhere]"(lópezvillanueva2012).today 7 Forexample,theUSArmySchooloftheAmericashasbeengreatlycriticizedinandoutside theusafortraininglatinamericanarmiesanddiffusingandperpetuatingoppressive discoursesandviolentactions.
86 about60millionhavediedasaresultofthedrugwar(camil2011) 8.In2011aftera2 yearanalysisofonly5statesoutof32entitiesinmexico,humanrightswatch documented170casesoftorture,39forceddisappearances,and24extrajudicial executionscommittedbythepoliceandmilitaryofficersthatlayinimpunity,and whichvictimswerenotlinkedtoanyorganizedcrime(otero2011) 9. Followingthepromisesmadeinhispresidentialcampaign,thePresident VicenteFoxopenedlongclosedandhiddenarchivesrelatedtotheDirtyWarpost68 arena.hecreatedthefiscalíaespecialparalosmovimientossocialesypolíticosdel Pasado(FEMOSPP,SpecialProsecutorOfficeforSocialandPoliticalMovementsof thepast).also,thefirstgovernmentthatofficialpaidhomagetothedeadofthe68 wasthepartidoacciónnacional(pan,nationalactionparty)throughthepresident VicenteFoxonOctober2in2000.In2002,Foxreleased"millionsofmilitary,police andintelligencefiles[...]therealityoftryingtoobtainthosefiles,however,anduse theminaninvestigationisatremendouslydifficulttask.thecollectionsincludeno index.thearchivistsrelyoninternal,unpublishedrules thatseemtochange frequentlyandwithoutwarning todecidewhattoreleaseandwhattodeny.the processcanfrustrateeventhemostpersistentresearchertothepointofdefeat" (Doyle2006).InJuly2002,thePRI'sex PresidentLuisEcheverríaAlvarezresponded totheaccusationsof"genocide,homicide,injuries,[and]forceddisappearances" 8 Today(May11,2012at10am)MilenioTVjustannouncedthatthenumberofdeaths relatedtothewartodayisof51,082people.anotherwell knownmagazineaccounts60,420 deathsclassifiedbythegovernmentaseither:"executions","confrontations"or"homicidesassaults"(mendozahernandezzeta2011). 9 ItisimportanttonotethatthiswarisnotonlybeingfoughtmyMexicanmilitaryand "inteligence"offices;theusahasgreatly"aid"andcontributedprincipallythroughtheplan Merida(MeridaInitiative)launchedin2007.
87 madebytheex leadersofthestudentmovementof1968inthefemosppcourt (ArandaandPetrich2002).Also,thewellknownProcesoMexicanMagazinetogether withtheu.s.nationalsecurityarchive,foundedin1985,launchedinmarch2,2003 aproject"topublishanddisseminatetoawideaudiencenewly declassified documentsabouttheunitedstatesandmexico"(nationalsecurityarchive2006). Throughthisfragmentedpuzzlejournalistsandacademicshavedelvedinto thedutyofinvestigation.thefirstsemi officiallistcanbeidentifiedonthe CommemorativePlacardinauguratedin1993onthePlazaoftheThreeCultures.In 2003alistofnameswaspublishedwiththeagesandprofessionsofeachdead, madeavailablebyoneoftheintelligenceagenciesofmexicangovernment(el Universal2003).In2006,anotherlistwaspublished,itconfirmed44menand womenfromthearchivesofthedirtywar,34victimshavebeenidentifiedbyname and10moreremainunknown(doyel2006;seethethreelistofnamesinthe AppendixA Cofthisthesis).Althoughmostnamesoverlap,thethreelistsdonot includethesamenumberandnamesofpeople. InOctober2006,theFEMOSPPagainaccusedtheex PresidentLuis EcheverríaAlvarezofGenocide(Mendez2006)andonNovemberofthatsameyear, thecourtorderedawarranttoapprehendecheverría.hewasnotsenttojaildueto hisage(86yearold)anddelicatehealthissues(mendezortiz2006).hestarted servinghiscondemnedinhishome.in2007,asexposedintheprevioussection,the Memorial'68wasinauguratedbytheUNAMintheCCUT.Figure51showsthe inaugurationwithsomeofthemembersofthecommittee68andelenaponiatovska givingaspeech(figure51).in2008moreinformationwasdiffusedduetothe40
88 Figure51.Memorial'68Inauguration,PoniatowskaisreadingaspeechwhiletheexmembersoftheCommittee68standbesidesthepodium.(Poniatowska2007).
89 yearanniversary(seeforexamplearvizu2008).incredibly,in2009theex president LuisEcheverríaAlvarezwasexoneratedfromallhischargesrelatedtothekillingof Tlatelolco,academicsandjournalistscondemnthisactasa"confirmationthat40 yearsafter,thesamepoliticalsystemthatpermittedthekillingoftlatelolcoisstill currentinmexico[...]therewasgenocide,yes,butnotchargesorguiltypeople... [Thelawyeris]mockingtheliving,becausehekillsforanother40years(ormaybe forever)thepossibilitythatbyconfrontingthepast,wecanatlastfindawayto establishademocraticsystem"(camil2009a).itseemsasifthesayingof"october2, WeWillNotForget"haschangedinto"October2,WeWillNotForgetbutWeWill NotCondemn"(Camil2009b). In2011theSenateapprovedanewlawthatdictatesOctober2aNational Anniversaryofthosewho"foughtfordemocracy"onthePlazaoftheThreeCultures intlatelolcoin1968,commandingthattheflagmustremainhalf mastduringthat daytoshownationalmourning.theparliamentarygroupsstatedthatthey"will rememberthevictimswithoutenteringintothephenomenonofhistorical culpabilities"(garduñoandméndez2011).thisactisconsideredtobethefirst nationalofficialacknowledgmentbythemexicanstatecondemningthekillingof studentin1968(cnn2011).thelawstates,"thisdateshouldbesolemnly institutionalizedtoserveasa`permanentreminder'ofwhatshouldnotoccurina democraticsystem"(cnn2011). Today,nomatterhowmanyofficialcommemorationsoracknowledgments thegovernmentdoes,thelivingghostsarestartingtodie.thepresidentatthetime ofthekillingof'68gustavodiazordazdiedin1979;alsoluisdelabarreda judged
90 butneverinprison (Méndez2008)FernandoGutiérrezBarrios,andMoyaPalencia whoalsowereaccusedforcommittingcrimesagainsthumanityduringthedirtywar alreadydied(becerril2012a).recentlytheexdirectoroftheofficeoffederal SecurityandwhowasunderthecommandsofGutiérrezBarrios,MiguelNazarHaro alsoknownas"eltigre"(thetiger)diedinjanuary2012.nazarharowasaccusedof disappearingyoungmenandofpersonallytorturingstudents,socialfighters, guerrillerosandallthosewhoopposedtheregimein1968andduringtheyearsof thedirtywar(becerril2012b;cruzmartínez2012).nazarharoalsoservedasan undercoverfortheamericancia(periódicolajornada2012).justasecheverría,in February2004theFEMOSPPaccusedNazarHaroandwascondemnedfortorturing, murderingandviolatinghumanrightswasalsoabsolved(periódicolajornada2012; Becerril2012a) 10."Mexicansociety,PabloGómezinsisted[SenatorfromthePartido RevolucionarioDemocrático(PRD,RevolutionaryDemocraticParty],hasnot forgottenaboutneitherthe68noraboutthedirtywarandnotevenaboutother atrocities,because'therecenteventskeepsusrememberingthem'[wemust investigateeachcase]'notbecauseofvengeance.ithastodowitharightof memory,arighttoknowtherealityofourcountry'"(gómezcitedinbecerril2012a, myitalics).inmexicoitisnotaboutrememberingbutaboutnotforgetting.itis presentineverynewsheadlineandineverypoliticalcampaign,butabsentinlegal mattersandjustactionsandtalks. 10 NazarHaroinaninterviewinhishomearrestoncerecounted:"'Onetime,whenIalready wasdirectorofthedfs(officeoffederalsecurity),ihadacoupleofdrinks.itwaslateinto thenightandiwasdrivingthroughtheavenueinsurgentes.iwasdrivinginthewrong sense,andisawthenightlampsandstartedtofireatthembecausetheywereorange, reddish(communists!)'henarratedhisstorywhilelaughing"(castillogarcía2012).
91 Notonlytheperpetratorshavediedbutalsomanyofthevictimsofthe familiesofthevictims.icanbrieflymentionthemysteriousdeathofwhowasoneof theleadersofthestudentmovementin1968,florenciolópezosuna"elflaco"(the Skinny)whoonDecember2001wasfounddeadjustacoupleofdaysafterthe publicationofineditedphotographsfrom1968(castillo,bolañosandherrerax 2001).Anotherexampleistherecentdeath(May3,2012)ofthewell knownfighter andactivisteduardovalle"elbúho"(theowl).amongotheraccomplishments,heis widelyrememberedforhistouchingspeechduringthemarchadelsilencio(march ofsilence)inseptember13of1968:"weareawarethatthegovernmentalpower candestroyususingitstanksanditssoldiers.theycanmassacrethestudentsand thepueblo(thepeople),butnever,theywillneverbeabletomakeusbow,theywill neverconvinceustoliveourlifegaggedandkneelingdown..." 11 ("ElBúho"citedinEl Universal2012).ElBúhowasarrestedonOctober2,1968,takentotheCampo Militarno.1andthentotheLecumberriprison.Hewasimprisoneduntil1971 (Redacción2012).Sonofaprofessor(mom)andatrailerdriver(dad),duringhislife heserveddifferentpoliticalofficejobs,heco foundedthepartidomexicanodelos Trabajadores(MexicanWorkersPoliticalParties),hewasacongressman,a journalist,andheevenpassedsometimeintheusaasapoliticalrefugee. 11 OriginalexcerptinSpanish:"...Somoconscientesdequeelpodergubernamentalpuede destruirnosusandosustanquesysussoldados,puedenmasacraralosestudiantesyal pueblo,peronunca,nuncapodrandoblegarnos,nuncapodranconvencernosdequevivir amordazadosyderodillaseselcaminodnuestropueblo..."
92 FixedMemory Thelongstrugglebymanysocialgroupstorecuperatethefragmentsfromthepast andcondemnwhathashappenedtodemandjusticehasbeenaheavyloadedduty. Theghostsfromthepastcontinuetohauntthepresenthistoryofnotonlyof Tlatelolcobutoftheentirenation.Nomatterhowhardothergroupshavetriedto alleviatethedemands,boththeperpetratorsaswellasthevictimscontinuetobein constantstruggletorewritewhathashappened.theconstantinterpretationsand symbolicaccretionofthepastandthroughthephysicalspacesoftlatelolcoisstill todayinconstantbattle.spacecontinuestobeimportantintheprocessandthe politicstorememberandcreatethecollectivememory.thetextures,processes,and meaningsoftheplazaareconstantlyusedbydifferentactorstorepresentandform themeaningsandhistoriesoftheplaceanditsidentity.itreifiessomeidentities(like thedutyoftheuniversitytoappropriatetlatelolco'sspacesorthestateto commemorateanationalmourningday)whiledenyingfurtherinvestigations, courts,orothermemorializationspacesforthevictimsofthedreadfulkillingin TlatelolcoorfortheyearsoftheDirtyWar.ThedebatewhethertheKilling contributedornottothegrowthofa"democratic"space,orifitisstilljustamirror oftoday'sinjusticescontinues.thesegroupsinsisttonaildownintoaspace (whetheronaplacard,insideamemorial,oronthenationalflagonedayperyear) memoryanditsconsequences. Throughthistypeofhistoricalanalysis(biographyofasite)thedifferent politicalactorsandstrugglescanbeidentifiedintothecreationofmemorialization meaningsandspaces.theusesofthepasthistoricalaccountsintoday'spresent
93 societychangedependingonwhoisornotclaimingmemory.thisinterpretation, althoughitaidstowardsthereadingoflandscapesbeyondappearancesand understanditsdifferentpoliticalrepresentationsandpowerstrugglesfallsshortin explainingthedailyliferelationshipofthepeoplethatliveandusethatspace.italso lacksanunderstandingofhowpersonalorindividualmemoryisproducedand representedandhowisspaceandmemoryexperimentedinadailybase.itfocuses ondifferentofficialrepresentationstryingtoshowthe"truth".thishistorical analysisinformswho,howandbywhommemoryinsocialandphysicalspacesis represented,buthowarethosehauntedspaceslivelyexperimentedbyghostsofthe past?whatdothoseghostswanttocommunicate?howcantheyorwerest?should theyorwerest?howdoweencounterornotandfeedornottheghostsofthe presentandofthepast?whatshouldwedowiththosewhoarestillalive?whatcan wedoornotwithdoncarlosorrobertothemusician,orthememorialorwiththe 51,082bodies(andcounting)leftbehindbytoday'swar? TodaythesimplewalkingthroughthespacesofTlatelolcowillbringupthe ghostsofthe'68;ephemeralgraffitionitshallsandwallsofmilitaryand'68related images,togetherwithtaggingsandchalksayingsontheflooroftheplazaofthe ThreeCulturesreading:Niperdón.NiOlvido(NeithertoForgetnorForgive)nexttoa drawingofdeadbodiesmakesthememoryemerge,divagateandwonderoff...
CHAPTER4 UnofficialMemory IrememberedtheBANOBRASbuildingasaruinfullofgraffitiprintsandbroken glasseshauntingthedramaticspacesoftlatelolcowithitssomberpyramidalguise lookingdown.asihoppedoffthemetrobuslineonthestopofmanuelgonzález, beforeenteringtlatelolco,istoodrightinfrontoftheeeriestructureonthe footbridgethatcrossesovertheavenueofinsurgentestakingsomephotographsfor mythesisfieldwork.asistartedwalkingfromthefirstsectiontowardsthesecond andthethirdicontinuouslystoppedtotakemorepictures,recordrandomsoundsor liveambulantmusicians,andchatwithseveralpeoplearound.ifrequentlysatdown onthebencheswhenevertherewasanopenspace,boughtdifferentkindsofspicy peanutsorchipsfromthestreetvendorsorinthetienditas(smallshops)anddrank acokewhilelisteningtootherpeoples'conversations.onthecorridors,insideand ontheentranceofeachbuilding,shop,orcommercialspace,smallgroupsofwomen andmentalkedandgossipedaboutpolitics,stories,andotherrumors,whileother lonelypeoplelikemejuststaredandwatchedwhatwasgoingaroundus. Youngboysandgirlsplayedsoccerorbasketballinthecourtsofthefirst section,peoplerushedinandoutofthemetrointhesecondsection,andsome wonderingtouristsglancedinsidethearcheologicalsiteorreadthe'68placardon 94
95 theplazaofthethreeculturesinthethirdsection.ineachnewspaperkiosk,people gatheredaroundbuyingthelastminutenewsortheirtraditionalnewspaperor magazine.menandwomenwalkedtheirdogsandgardenerssweptandcleanedthe greensspaceswhilecouplescuddledinthebenchesandlawnsscatteredaroundall thesectionsoftheunidad(housingcomplex).manydifferentpeoplewalked throughandusedthecorridorsoftlatelolco,streetvendorshadslowlyappropriated manyoftheopenspacessellingthingslikeusedclothesandshoes,foodsuchas tamalesandchips,andcopiesofmusicanddvdsfromtheblackmarket 12.Everynow andthenhomelessindividualssatandroamedthespacesoftlatelolco,ioverheard andlatersomeonetoldmethatitwasnormaltoseethem;theyresembled"dirty" ghostlylikephantomscirculatingaroundthecomplexwithoutcausinganytroubleor raisinganysurprise. AsIstartedtomoveoutsidetheorangeydecayingmazelikecorridors, enteringthecomidascorridas(economickitchens)andotherlittlebeautysalons, papelerias(officestores)orfoodstandsstillinsidetheunidadicontinuedtoobserve moreplaces:alackoflightningonalmostallthecorridors,oldmapsand announcementsofbuildingsthatwerenoteventhereanymore(suchasthe BanobrasbuildingortheMinistryofCulturalAffairs)werecoveredwithother advertisementsorgraffititagging.someofthesegraffititaggingscanbeseenin Figure52whereapastannouncementcontainingamapofthecomplexandsome informationhasbeencoveredwithgraffitiandotherannouncements(figure52). 12 SomethingverycommoninallthepopularstreetsandmarketsofMexico.
96 Figure52.Oldmapsinthehousingcomplex.(Photobytheauthor2011.)
97 Alsopastannouncements,showninFigure53,ofotherbuildingssuchasthe SREandtheBanobrasthatarenotthereanymorehavebeenpaintedandfarfrom beingremoved(figure53).someotherplaceswerefullofgarbage,taggingand graffitiremindingthe'68repression,andrandomwastesuchasacouch,aneedleor evenshoesonsomehallwaysandparkinglots fragmentedfoundobjectsfor example,figure54hasimagesofgraffitirelatedtothe68killing(figure54). Meanwhilepeoplegoingtoworkorkidsrushingtoeatandgettingtheirlastminute materialsordroppingoutclothesorshoestogetfixedmovedaroundthehousing complex.familiescirculatedinandoutofthehospitalclinicswhilechildrenplayed andpassedtheirdayinsideandoutsidetheschoolsandrecreationalspaces.as eternallystaringthedailymovement,enormouscolorfulmurals,showninfigure55, depictedsomeofthewallsoftlatelolco(figure55).someofthesedynamicplaces, whicharound5pmmanywhereclosingandcleaningup,weresidebysidetoother gloomierabandonedhauntedspaces,nexttoothercorridorsthattookmetosome outofsightareaswhereyoucouldencounterothertypesofmaterialhistorical artifactsbreathingtracesofthepast. BywalkingaroundandexploringthesocialandphysicalspacesofTlatelolcoI encountereddifferentfragmentsthattookmetotrespassdifferentspatio temporal thresholdsofthepresentandofthepastthatforcedmeintoexperiencingdifferent kindsofheterotopias.icurrentlyfoundmyselftrappedinbetweentwilightzones. Walkingthroughtheurbanporosities(Stavrides2010)ofTlatelolcobecomesa subjectiveexplorationoftheunidad'sdiversityandcommunality,andofitspublic andprivatespaces;"whichshowsthecomplexityofhowonegetstoknowthiscity,
98 Figure53.Oldannouncementsofofficesthatarenoteventhereanymore.(Photobythe author2011.)
99 Figure54.Graffitirelatedtothe'68repression.(Photobytheauthor2011.)
100 Figure55.MuralsinTlatelolco.(Photobytheauthor2011.)
101 itsinhabitants,itsbuildings,anditseverydaylife"(studiobeirut2006).certain unwritten"rulesofnavigation"ariseinfluencedbyeveryparticularmomentsoftime (StudioBeirut2006). OnoneofmyurbanexplorationsImetafoodvendorthattoldmethatifI wantedtoknoweverythingabouttlatelolcoishouldreadthelocalnewspapertitled VivirenTlatelolco(LivinginTlatelolco),thisrecommendationemergedseveraltimes withdifferentpeople.later,asigottomeetandknowmoreneighbors,iwasinvited toattendaworkshopofmemorythatwasgoingonintheuniversityculturalcenter oftlatelolco(ccut)organizedbyacoupleofartistswhomtitledthemselves MemoriaMigrante(MigrantMemory).Thislocalmonthlypublicationandthe workshopofmemoryinfluencedhowiperceivedandexperiencethedifferent heterotopiasoftlatelolco:theirindividualandhistoricalmemory(halbwachs1997) andtheirpersonalandsocialrecollectionofmemories(till2006),throughtheir fragmentedexperiencesandstories,influencedmyindividual(halbwachs1997)and personal(till2006)memoryandmyimaginaryofthepastandpresentofthe Unidad. AsIreadtheofficialhistoryofTlatelolcoandheardtheunofficialstoriesand memoriesrelatedtoitsspacesistartedtobehauntedincertainplacesasi trespassedtlatelolco'sporousspatio temporalheterotopias.withinthesetwilight zonesofphysicalandinvisiblepresences,iwasnotnecessarilyhuntingfor somethingspecifically,butistartedtosearchoutwhyorfromwheretheseghosts camefromandslowlyembodiedtheirneedsanddesires.
102 Thesematerialhauntedspacesbecameaterrainthatretainedotherunofficial memories,unexploredunmarkedsites(tyneret.al2012)andaccidentalmonuments (StudioBeirut2006)intheurbanpublicandprivatespacesofTlatelolco,hidingand showingtracesofthepast. PersonalIndividualMemory Itiswidelywrittenandtoldthatmemoryisfoundinspecificsitesand commemorativespaces,inthe"lieuxdememoire"(nora1989,1992),placesof memorythattellyouthehistoricalaccountofwhathappenedinthatplace (discussedinchapter3).buttheseotherspacesthatiencounteredduringsome ephemeralvisitstotlatelolcowerefragmentsofsomeothernon officialmemories thatrecountedotherstories.whileindividualmemoryisrelatedtoemotions, impressionsandaffectionslinkedtoasingularexperience;ahistoricalmemoryis thatofreconstructionofinformationgiveninthepresentsociallifeandprojectedto thatofthepast(halbwachs1997).individualmemoryhasbecomeanewobjectof researchsinceanykindofmemory,evenaverypersonalone,hasarelationwith othernotionsofspace,people,groups,places,dates,ideologiesandthematerial andmorallifeofasociety(halbwachs1994,38).tilldeepensontheideaofthe individualmemoryasapersonalmemory,"describedintermsofscreensofimages orfleetingsensationstriggeredunexpectedlybyexperienceinthepresentor throughdreams"(2006,330).personalmemoryisconsidered"lesscoherentin temporalstructureandcontentthanissocialmemory,whichisstructuredby narrative(throughmyths,historiesandstories)"(till2006,330).allkindsof
103 memoriescanbestudiedlikefragments:concrete,individual,historical,personal, andsocialmemorybecausetheycreatedifferentrepresentationsandthroughthem, andwithotherpiecesofourimagination,wemakeupthemeaningsornonmeaningsofourlife. ThefragmentedpastandstorytellingconceptsofHannahArendtcanrelate tothoseconceptionsofhistoryandnarrativefromwalterbejanmin(herzog2000). Theybelievedthatthepastisfragmentedandthatonlythroughthefragmented writingintheformofstoriescanhelpintherepresentationoftheruinsoftoday's present.storytellingaccordingtothemdoesnotcommemoratethedead,butonly showtheirabsenceandinvisibility(herzog2000,1).thestoriesoflivingintlatelolco andofthememoryworkshoparemadeupoffragmentedmemoriesofthepastand areathreshold(awindow)intotheunderstandingandrepresentationsoftoday's present. Tillidentifiestwowaysoflookinguponmemory,onethatanalyzeshow individualsmakemeaningthroughremembering,andanotheronethatarguesthat "therelationshipsbetweenanevent,itsrepresentationandparticipants'experience ofitarefarfromstraightforward"(till2006,331).thescholarsinterestedinthis secondwayareconcernedintheroledreams,fantasy,repressionandunconscious processesthatcreateknowledgeaboutthepastandthepresent,andidentifythe failureorgapsinhowmemoryistransmittedandthroughwhattechnologies,and howtheseworksocially(till2006,331).thesearerelatedtothepsycheandbecome centraltounderstandhowmemoryismediatedandtransmittedinbothapersonal andasocialtypeofrepresentation.so,byusingfragmentsofthelocalmonthly
104 publicationlivingintlatelolcoandthestoriesoftheworkshopofmemoryfrom MigrantMemoryIwillexposedifferentkindsofmemoriestryingnotonlytomake meaningoftoday'ssituations,butalsotowriteaboutandshowthedifferentspatiotemporalheterotopiasexperiencedtodayinhabitedbyghosts,thesepresentabsent invisibilities. VivirenTlatelolco "Whydidwecomeupwiththeidea?Ithastodowithseveralthings.Istarted noticingthatthingshereintheunidadstartedtochangetheystartedtodecay. I'm talking about things such as the green spaces for example and other situations. Tlatelolco only existed in the mass media whenever there was alarming news, whenever there was negative things going on, and us, the tlatelolcans did not have any means to communicate between us or to the outside [...] There was a lot of misinformation and confusion in Tlatelolco" (interviewwithantoniofonseca,directoroflivingintlatelolco,june2011). Counteringtheexaltedlinearnarrativethatthresholdsandmassmediahastriedto imposetotlatelolcoandfightingagainstthesilencingofotherhistoricalaccountsof theurbancomplex,acounterprojectappearedinthepublicspaceoftlatelolco. Since2007,butwithanon officialsmallerversionsince2004,alocalpublication emergedtitledvivirentlatelolco(livingintlatelolco),witharecentlyaddedsubtitle ofperiodismocomunitario(communityjournalism).themonthlypublication consistsof980copiesandcomesoutonceamonth.itisonlydistributedamongthe newspaperskiosksandsomepapelerias(officestores)insidethehousingcomplex, andithasacostof$3pesos(lessthanaquarter).thenewspaperormagazine describesitselfas,thiscanbeseeninfigure56(figure56):
105 Figure56.ObjectivesofthepublicationVivirenTlatelolco(LivinginTlatelolco).(Photobythe author2011.)
106 VIVIRENTLATELOLCObuscacontribuiralmejoramientodelacalidadde la vida de la zona, frenar su deterioro y promover una ciudadanía con pensamientocrítico,queejerzaplenamentesusderechosyobligaciones. LIVING IN TLATELOLCO seeks to contribute to the improvement of the quality of life in the area, stop its deterioration and promote critical thinkingcitizenry,tofullyexercisetheirrightsandobligations. InspiredontheideasoftheBrazilianFelipePenadeOliveira(1999)Viviren Tlatelolcodefinescommunityjournalismasawaytoopposejournalismdestinedto massmediacommunicationandatoolforsocialmobilizationthatservesthe demandsofthecitizens.theanthropologistmigueangelmáreztapiawhoispartof thecommitteeofcollaboratorsofthepublicationstates: althoughcommunityjournalismcentersitsattentiontoalocalspace,thesocial mobilizationvariableuncoveredbypenadeoliveraempowersandtranscends printanddigitalcommunityjournalism,notonlybecauseitcreatesabridgeof dialogueaboutdailylifeandimmediatenecessities,butbecauseitalsomakes communitariancollectiveactionpossibleinotherbroaderdimensionsofsociety all the way up to a global scale. It mobilizes ideas and it shares ideas. Communityjournalismbecomesastagetofilltheemptyholesthatmassmedia communication leave out, and it is a way to democratize information access. (MárezTapia2011). Thepublication'sfirstconcernwasthephysicalprintedcopy;ablogwithanonline copyandatwitteraccountappearanceisrecent.itissoldinsidethehousing complexandoneoftheirfirstobjectiveswastomakeitanopeninclusiveproject, openforanyonewhowantedtoparticipateinit.toavoidwritingandreadingthe publicationonlybythemselves(bythecommittee)theyaddedaspaceforpeopleto publishlettersorarticlesaboutalmostanythemerelatedtotlatelolco.mostofthe themeshavebeenrelatedtotlatelolco'sdailylife,itshistory,myths,events,or aboutthelifeofspecificpeoplerelatedtothehousingcomplexsuchaspoliticiansor activists.itisverycommontofindstoriesrelatedtothe'68killingandthe'85
107 earthquake.someofthesecollaborationsdemandedachangeinthehousing complex,whileothersjustnarratedanevent;forexample,someofthemhavebeen aboutsuicidesintlatelolco,illegaldogfights,mexicocity'surbanhistory,urban renovationsinsidethecomplex,thepresenceoftrashandnoise,socialevents,orof economicsituationofthehousinginhabitants.figure57showssomeexamplesof thefrontpagesoflivingintlatelolco(figure57)."thispartofcommunityjournalism hasbeenveryimportant.inthispartweonlypublishletterssenttousbythe neighbors,sometimeshalfofthemagazineisonlyletter,sometimesislessthanthat, itvariesalot"(interviewwitha.fonseca,oneofthemaindirectorsofthe publication,june2011). SomeofthethemesofthelocalpublicationIcouldidentifyare: PhotoReports(wherepeoplesendtheirownphotographsdenouncingirregularities ordisruptionsofpublicspace);origins,history,andmemoriesoftlatelolco'spast/ HistoricalEvents(thesearemoreseriouswithsomeresearcharticlesromanticizing thepast,almostallcomewithimagesthatcannotbeacquiredeasilyandtheycango asfarastheaztecépoqueanduptothespanishcolonialtimes);communityideals anddebates(referringtowhatshouldthepopulationdoornot);environmental issues(manyrelatedtothedailyhazardssuchasdogpooonthestreetsortrash separationintheformofrecycling);violenceandinsecurity/policepresence (dealingfromnewsecuritycamerasintheneighborhood,illegaldogfightingor policecapturesofbanditsintheneighborhood);buildinginfrastructure(urban renovationandothermythsandlegendssuchasstoriesthatthegovernmentwants todisplacepeopleordemolishbuildings);gossiping,neighborlettersandportraits
108 Figure57.SomeofthefrontpagesofthepublicationVivirenTlatelolco(LivinginTlatelolco). (Photobytheauthor2011.)
109 (tocreatethatsenseofcommunity);relationshipswith"theoutside"(usually referringtotheculturalcenter,urbanprojectssuchasthemetrobus,the government,orpeoplethatdonotliveintlatelolco);andotherspaces.todaythe newspapernowalsohasablogandatwitter,andotherseveralfacebookpages haveopenedinthelastfewyearsallrememberingandreconnectingidealizedand romanticizedthespacesoftlatelolco. TheCommitteeofCollaboratorsalsomadeaspaceatthebackofthe publicationtitledgentedelaunidad(peoplefromthecomplex)anditcontains pictureportraitsof6or8randompeoplewiththeirnamesandsometimesa sentenceofwhateverthatpersonsaidorwasdoinginthemomentofbeing photographedinthecomplex.seefigure58for2examples(figure58).thistactic, accordingtoantoniofonsecathedirectorofthepublication,wasanattemptto makepeoplebuythepublicationbecausetherewasapublishedpictureofsomeone theymightknow.eventhoughtheysaytheydonotprintanyanonymousarticlesor letters,theydohaveasectionofanonymousgossipandrumors;maybethisisto makeitmoreattractiveortomakepeoplesendsomeinformationorinvestigate aboutthosethemes.manyofthearticlesalsohavetodowithgrillapolítica,which meansdisqualificationsandidealizationofdifferentpoliticalparties."whatweare lookingforisthatadialogueexists,whatkindofadialogue?onethatitisnot monolithicbutplural,andthatithastodowiththeproblemsofthisarea.wehave beenpolishingalltheseideasthroughouttime,ifyouseethefirstnumbers,there aresomethingsthatshouldnotbethere,thatareoutsideofoureditorialline.
110 Figure58.GentedelaUnidad(PeoplefromtheComplex)atthebackofthepublicationVivir entlatelolco(livingintlatelolco).(photobytheauthor2011.)
111 [Whatwedo]isanexercisetopracticedemocracy"(interviewwithA.Fonseca,June 2011). Throughthepracticeofthecreationofthesubtitleof"Community Journalism",thelocalmonthlypublicationattemptedtoimagineacommunity mayberelatedtoanutopistcharacter,inmanywaysitresemblesthediscoursethat theurbanhousingprojectoftheearly1960'striedtoproduce.thediscoursealso focusesontheideasofcohabitationandonthecreationofanurbanspacebasedon thesharedmemoriesandhistoriesthroughthefragmentsofpicturesandstories thattheneighborsproduce: The publication should be an instrument to mobilize its habitants, and consolidateitselfasaninformationportalthattakesplaceinthespacewelive in;itisadialogueabouttheclaimsanddemandsinaplace.finally,itregisters thememoryofthehabitantsofthecommunity,therewhereasharedhistoryis expressed and that it has been constructed in its own interior. Vivir en Tlatelolco will be consolidating itself towards this direction, it is a collective work, a creation and recreation of all the tlatelolcans, a work that is part of a longer trajectory of a diverse ray of resistance, civic and communitarian publicationsofthepastinourhousingcomplex,adutythatwecanallbelongto (MárezTapia2011). SomeofthearticlesandreportagesofVivirenTlatelolcoarefocusedonindividual experiencesandcanbeanalyzedasstoriesthathave"notbeenexplicitly experiencedascollectiveexperience[theyare]aconsciousevocationofthepast,so itisasdifferentfromtheprocessofinvoluntarymemoryasfromthatofvoluntary memory,whichpresentsanincompleteimageofthepast"(herzog2000,16).the residentialpracticeofparticipating,readingandbeinginvolvedwiththenewspaper createstheimaginarysocialandphysicalbordersoftlatelolco,aheterotopia,andin manyofitsstoriesitconvokestheabsentpresencesofthepast.this,togetherwith thepracticeofthepublicationandauto descriptiveexpressionssuchas"community
112 journalism"createsanimaginarycommunitycongregatingaswellassegregatingthe peopleintlatelolcoandthosenotpartoftlatelolco.thesebordersaresometimes createdthroughstorytelling,theyarealsoafragmentationofwhathashappenedor ofwhatishappeninginthepublicspaceoftlatelolco."thestoryteller'sattemptto seizetime,referringtoentirehistoryperceivedfromitsend[...]storiesaretheonly waytorepresentthefragmentarynatureofindividuallife,whichfightsandcollapses betweenpastandfuture,andlaterreappearscrystallized"(herzog2000,8 9). ThelocalpublicationsVivirenTlatelolcoisalwaysopenforlocalstowrite theirpointsofviewinrelationstothehistory,identity,dailylife,andprojectsof Tlatelolco.Therearticlesaremostofthetimeromanticizingthepastandexpress strongcriticalpointsofviewtocertainprojectsthatproducechangeorthatare consideredas"exterior"suchastheculturalcenterorthemetrobusnewlinebus. Throughtheuseofhistoryandimmediatedenunciationreports,thelocal publicationvivirentlatelolcohasre appropriatedtimeandspaceandtriestocreate awarenessofthepublicspacesandnon officialandalternativehiddenhistoriesof Tlatelolco.Thesenewculturalpractices,aredirectlyconcernedwithremembering themoderngoldentimeoftlatelolcoandcreatingamore"civic""community"life. Thelocalpublication,andthosewhocallthemselvestlatelolcansbecomecultural producersthathavethrownthemselvesintoreinventing(becausenotallareoriginal habitantsoftlatelolco)/orrediscoveringboththeir"origins",andtheirurbanpublic spaces,tryingtorecreatethegoldentimesandtheoriginaltlatelolcansthroughtheir memories,storiesandmythsrelatedtothepast.throughfragmentsofthesestories ghostsarerememberedandrecreated.
113 MemoriaMigrante "Iamnotamelancholic,Iamnotmotivatedbyaromanticvisionofthepast,Idonot thinkthatthepastwasbetterorworst,nonono...[...]istartedtoworkwithoral historiesofpeopleinthesouth,inmexicocity,andistartedtorecognizethemaps' ghostlyterritorythatirepeatedlyencountered"(interviewwithgenaro,oneofthe organizersofmemoriamigrante,july2011).genaroaffirms:"theactofgoingtothe pastfromnon officialsourcesisformeanideologicalproposalinwhichibelieve, supportandpracticethatthehumanbeingvisionisextremelyimportantanditisa defensetowardsthecontemporarytotalitarianregimes"(interview,july2011). Motivatedbyhiscuriositytoworkwithmemory,findcommoninterests,identify biasesandchallenges,questionbelieves,andfindcommonclichéplacesinorderto findwherearewe"wastinglife"andwherearewe"contributingtolife";genaro togetherwithmelinacreatedtheprojectofmemoriamigrante(migrantmemory). MemoriaMigranteisdefinedas"aprojectoforalhistory,artandambulant culturalencounter;itconstructs,articulatesandmovesitselfthroughoutlatin America.Itstartsundertheconvictionthattheconstructionofourindividualand socialidentitiesisnotpossiblewithouttheexerciseofmemory.itopensaspacetoa utilizablepast,constructedbyandforthecommunityinordertorelatepersonal experiencewithacollectiveone"(finalpresentationm.m.andccut2011).genaro explainstheirnameofmigrantmemorybecausememorymigrates,itgoesfromone placetoanotherplace,"werecognizethatweallcomefromaplaceandthatweall aregoingtoanotherplace,andthatweshouldifwewantto,wehavetherightto,
114 arriveandtakeaspace[...]wesharetheideathatthesespacesarenotonlyforthe citizensbuttheyareofthecitizensandtheycanbeusednotonlybytheinhabitants oftheareabutbyinhabitantsofallthecity.tlatelolco[initspre Hispanictimes]was aplacewherepeoplecamefromallover,itwasaveryimportanttradeandcultural center,todaythisculturalcenter[theuniveristyculturalcenter(ccut)]is attemptingtostrengththispartinrelationshipwithsociety,andthatiswhatreally interestedus"(interviewwithgenaro,july2011). Inthisway,spaceistherefortheuseofall,forthecity,forittobereappropriatedthroughmemoryandbyidentifyingtheghostlyterritoriesthatmap ourexistence."wearenotinterestedinworkingwiththetruthbutthevoicesand presencesofallthepersonsisnecessary.you[gabriela]haveheardhowevery personintheworkshophasitsownexperience,andwehaveheardmanydifferent versionsofthesameevent;therefore,weareinterestedinthemyths,inthe legends,everythinghasareasonandwebelievethatallthatshouldbepartofthe peopleandnotoftheofficialhistory".memoriamigranteworkswiththedailylife spaces,withthepeoplethatdefinethemselvesastlatelolcan: theyidentify'theother'thatwhohas'recently'arrived[...]everybodyhasbeen greatly traversed and marked by the '68 and the earthquake [in '85]. You [Gabriela]sawitwhenwestartedtalkingabouttheir'origins'ofhowtheyhad arrived.weareinterestedinknowingwhotheyarebutalsowhotheywanted tobe,andwhatiswhattheyhaveattemptedtodo.webelievethatthefights of the defeated are as important as the fight of the victorious. The phantom fights that have been lost but there is a continual attempt to recuperate, [a fight to have] the right to recuperate those spaces. When people talk about themselves they cannot avoid talking about those events (interview with Genaro,July2011). Theworkshop'smainattemptwastocreateamaterialarchiveofmemory throughtranscribedaudiosofinterviews,soundsandthematictalksandimages
115 fromphotographs,letters,idsorwhateverotherartifactthatcouldberelatedtoa memoryoftlatelolco.theparticipantsoftheworkshopweretherebecausethey answeredtoapublicannouncementfromtheculturalcenter(ccut)tobepartof thegroupfreeofchargeandparticipateintheworkshoptitledwas:historiasdela vidacotidiana:memoriayfotografía(storiesofdailylife:memoryand Photography).Onceinsidethegroupeverybodyhadtosignalettergivingcopyright toallthematerialtotheculturalcenter.itwasorganizedalonganaudiovisual component,eachmemberhadtodoseveralinterviewsandbringanykindofvisuals thatcouldberelatedtoamemoryoftlatelolco.manypeopleinterviewedtheir neighbors,orhabitantsthathadbeentherefromalongtimeagoandtookold photographsthatrelatedtotheirprivateandpubliclivesintlatelolco.someofthe photographsincludedtheirchildrenplayinginthepublicspacesoftlatelolco,their fiststepsinthehallsofthehousingcomplex,orotherimportanteventsintheirlife. Thepicturesandotherartifactswerescannedandgivenbacktoeachdonator. Figure59showssomeexamplesofsomeofthesephotographs(Figure59).The workshopwasalsoorganizedthroughaseriesofthematictalks,whichwereall recorded.thesetalkswereabout:theiroriginintlatelolco,theirexperienceinthe '85earthquake,theneighbororganizationbeforeandafterthe'85earthquake, publicspaces,gamesandfreetimeintlatelolco.thethemeswerechosenasa group,buttheartistsslightlyinfluencedthedecisionbecausetheyproposemostof thethemes.
116 Figure59.SomeofthephotosdonatedbytheparticipantsofMemoriaMigrante(Migrant Memory).(Source:Author'scollection.) Attheendoftheworkshoptheyproducedapamphletreproducingsomeof therecuperatedpicturesandexcerptsoftheinterviewsandrecordings.the pamphlethadasanintroductorynote: Thanks to the fact that we have a language and that our word recuperates a specific or proper culture that must not be lost, and that it permits us to integrally comprehend the world in which we live, during 3 months, the University Cultural Center Tlatelolco (CCUT) in coordination with Memoria Migrante(Migrant Memory), made the Taller Memoria y Fotografía: Historias delavidacotidianaentlatelolco(memoryandphotographicworkshop:daily life stories in Tlatelolco), in which it was constructed, together with the neighbors, a space of reflection around memory and with the intention to affirmthetlatelolcancharacterandidentity(finalpresentationm.m.andccut 2011).
117 Thisworkshopcanbeanalyzedasanefforttorecuperatenon officialmemoriesand createanetworkwerebyidentifyingoneselfwiththeinhabitedspaceandsharing withtheirneighborseventsandimportantanddailylifestories,anattempttocreate aawarenessofacommunityisbeingforged.memoriamigranteinvitationto participateinanexerciseofmemoryinwhicheachmemberoftheworkshophasto literallyandphysically"movearoundthearchitectureoftheirhomesandlookinside theirdrawersorclosets,insidetheoldshoeboxwheretheoldphotographsofthe pasthavebeenstored,commentittoherhusbandorasktheirgrandparentsfor information...itisarecuperationoftheirlife,arecreationoflife,aquestioning,a reflectionthatissharedinagroup"(interviewwithgenaro,july2011).thisworking ofmemoryandmovementofmemoryisinfluencedbythisgroupofartistsgenaro andmelinawhoratherthantreattheirparticipantsasspectators,theymakethem gooutintothehousingcomplex'publicandprivatespacesandcontemplatetheir spacesasaninhabitedplaceandconsider"howtheunfoldingandopen ended pathwaysofmemorymightofferpossibilitiesofsharedbelongings"(till2012,5). ThispathwayofbelongingscreatesmultiplepastsinwhichGenaroandMelinahope toconstructpossiblefutures. UnmarkedSitesandAccidentalMemorials AsIreadmoreandmorethingsonthepagesofVivirenTlatelolco,assistedthe meetingsofmemoriamigranteandtalkedwithlocalpeopleistartedexperiencing thespacesoftlatelolcoinadifferentway.istartedtoidentifyaseriesofunmark sites(tyneret.al2012)andaccidentalmonuments(studiobeirut2006)containing
118 tracesofthepast.theunmarksitesofpastviolencewentfromthedisplacementof morethanonehundredfamiliestocreatethehousingcomplex,thearmyandsecret policehuntingdownthestudentsin1968beyondtheplaza,andtheenormous physicalandsocialchangessufferedafterthe'85earthquakeamongothers.onthe otherhandtheaccidentalmonumentsstartedtobecomeevenmorevisiblethanjust graffitiandtaggingrelatedtothe'68,buttoabandonmentanddisuseofimportant spacesofwhatoncewasthemostmodernhousingcomplexinmexicocity.someof theseaccidentalmonumentsinclusivelyhadadecayingmarkofinformationhinting theobserverofwhatoncemonumentallylaidthere. Unmarkedsitesofmemorylaideverywhere.AsIwalkedthroughthehousing complex,icouldimaginetheaztecsfightingfortheirlandagainstthespanish armadajustasnarratedinthepagesofvivirentlatelolco.thesmellofdeadbodies underthebridgethatcrossesfromsection2tosection3fromthe'85earthquake recountedbyanitaduringoneofthethematictalksofmemoriamigrante penetratedthenostrilsofmyimagination.thesoundofstudentsjumpingintothe garbagedumpstersofthebuildingtryingtoescapethearmycommittingsuicide fromthestoriesheardinsomeofmytalksinundatedmyears.inmymind,thegreen spacesoftlatelolcowerefullofpeoplefromtheunidadandfromadjacent neighborhoodscampingaftertheearthquakeof'85negatedtogobackinside becauseoffearorbecausetheirhomesweredestroyed. Theotherfragmentedspacesseemedhauntedandhadtracesofother stories;forgottenmemoriesleftfordays,yearsordecadesunderthemoon,the shinysunandrainydays.theseslowlyvanishingspaceswhereloosingtheircolor
119 andtheirmaterialsthathadstartedtoteardownandpealoff.theskeletonsofwhat usedtobeanenormousbakery,showninfigure60,laidcoveredwithbrokenglass stillhidingsomeofitsoriginalannouncementsandutensils,seefigure61and62, suchasacahierandothermaterialsinside(figure60,61and62).anolddirtysmelly cinema,shownonfigure63,wasrottingandbarelystoodupwasthehomeofsome guysthatpassedtheirdayaskingformoneyontheentranceofthemetro(figure 63).Figure64showssomeabandonedpartsoftheoldcinema(Figure64).Whatin thepastusedtobecommercialspaceswerenowbeingforgotten,figure65pictures whathasbeenleftbacklockinguparuinedemptinessbehindthebars(figure65).a wallpaperofposters,announcementsandadvertisementscoveredthewallsin betweentheserottingspaces:offeringservices,searchingforlostdogs,promoting musicconcerts,claimingsocialdemandsnexttooldpoliticalpropagandaamong otherthemesfloodedthewall,manywithorthographicerrors.thegraffitiand taggingcondemningthe'68killingaswellasthementhatstoodonthe commemorativeplacardwerealreadyintegratedwithinthefamiliarityofthe neighbors.theun usefulmapsandnamesofwhatusedtobetheemblematic buildingsintlatelolcocouldstillbespottedonthecorridorsoftlatelolco, announcingandmappingwhatwasnotthereanymore. ThresholdsandHeterotopias Pastandpresentshareandintertwinethesamewalls,theycreatenewmazesmade offragmentsofotherstories.thefragmentedindividual,collective,historicaland concretememoriesoftlatelolcocanbeseenasaprocessofdecayandruinwhere
120 Figure60.Bakeryskeleton.(Photobytheauthor2011). Figure61.Originalutensilsandoldcahierinsidetheabandonedbakery.(Photobythe author2011).
121 Figure62.Bakeryoldsmaterialsseenthroughthebrokenglasses.(Photobytheauthor 2011). Figure63.Cinemaskeleton.(Photobytheauthor2011.)
122 Figure64.Cinemaoldspaces.(Photobytheauthor2011.) Figure65.Oldcommercialspaces.(Photobytheauthor2011.)
123 "theoldismadenewinthisfragmentaryrecoveryofthepast...apresentpast" (Herzog2000,7).Throughtheidentificationandencountersoffragments,Itryto reconstructthesocialandphysicalconstructionoftlatelolco;tryingtoidentifyand analyzethecompetingrepresentationsofmemoryandthe"other"unofficialor hiddenhistoriesandsocialrelationshipsoftlatelolco.byfindingtheselocalprojects, fragmentedstoriesandothernarrativesintlatelolcoibeganimaginingtheurban publicspaceoftlatelolcodifferently.therecognitionofotherprojects,storiesand historyshowthesimultaneouscoexistenceofotherstories,memoriesandhistories imprintedandhidinginspace. VivirenTlatelolcoandMemoriaMigrantebothprivilegethelocaldaily narrativesofthepeopleintheneighborhoodandsometimestheyarealso romanticizingthehistoricalpastoftlatelolcoandcontinuingtheideaof"us"vs. "them"theoutside.unconformity,injusticesandtraumas,however,never disappeared,andstilluptothisdatethereseemstobeanecessityfordiscussion andunderstanding.thiscanbeseenintheamountofarticlesandlettersaboutthat timeinthepublicationandonthecontinuousrecountingandreturningtothatpast totrytounderstandoruncoveritbytheworkshop.bothprojectsareinthesearch ofwhatbenjamincalls"remembrance(eingedenken)","avoluntaryfocusonthe tracesofhistory[...]remembrancedoesnottransformtherepressedintononrepressed,or'commemorate'therepressedasthevictoriouspartofhistory[...] Remembranceshowstherepressed thedefeatedandthedead asabsencein collectivememory.itdeciphersthetracesofhistoryasiftheyweresymbols,
124 symptomsoftheholesofhistory holesofmemory;itshowstheseholesasholes" (Herzog2000,16).Theseprojectsbelievethatbycreatingmemoryandasharedpast theycancontributetotheameliorationofthepresent;thus,storiesareseeasatool of"illumination"of"darktimes"creatingapoliticalcondition,believingthatstories can"savetheworld"creatinga"politicaleffect"(herzog2000,17,referringtothe ideasofhannaharendtonstories). Walkingthroughthecorridors,roamingaroundabandonspaces,and exploringtheurbanspacesthroughtheeyesofthenewspaperandtheworkshopof memorymademeawareofaseriesofheterotopiasandhauntedspacesthat connectedwhiledisconnectedthroughphysicalandhistoricalthresholdsin Tlatelolco'swoundedspace.TheghostsIencounteredinthesehauntedspacesdrew meintolookingatafailedprojectofthemodernurbanhousingcomplex,farfrom beingtheclean,organized,functionalandutopistspacepannioncedreamedof,the complexwasadynamicspacehidingmanyofthemostterrifyingeventsofmexico's modernhistory.thesehauntedspacesmademenotonlythinkofthepastand presentghostsoftlatelolco,ghoststhathavenotleftourpubliccollectiveimaginary, butonthedailydozensofdeathsmexicoistodayexperiencinginthiswaragainst drugcartels.aretheneighborsandmexicancitizensbecominglivingdeadtrappedin aveiloffamiliarityorindifference?orarepeoplestillfightingthesamefightsof yesterday?atthesametime,thecontinuousidentificationof"theother"andthe desiretoproducecommunityvaluesisverypresentbothinlivingintlatelolcoas wellasinmigrantmemory,whyisthereanecessityordesiretounderlineand createthis?isn'tthatwhatmanypeoplearealsofightingagainstfrom?
CHAPTER5 Discussion There is a single emotion floating here in the air, an emotion that heats all of oursouls.it'sthephantoms,comrades,thephantomsofthe'68generation;it's thephantomsthatfoughttoopenthedoorstoacombativeandnewmexico. Andheretheyare,today,withus. PacoIgnacioTaiboII,Mexicanwriterandnovelist,inthePlazaofthe ThreeCulturesduringthemeetingofAndresManuelLopezObrador(left wing presidentialcandidate)withthousandsofuniversitystudentsinmay21,2012. Facing the pain that the nation is living, facing the daily laceration that is becoming day by day more profound, we do not know how many deaths we have, almost 60 thousand, 20 thousand disappearances, 150 thousand displaced,anddeathsanddecapitationseveryday.infrontofthepainthatitis thefaceofthenation,iwouldlikeustostandupandtodedicateoneminuteof silencetoourpain,tothepainofsomanydeathsandofsomanyfamilies... Thenationisfractured,itisnotpolarized;anditisbrokenupintopiecesineach ofitsfractures... Javier Sicilia, Mexican poet and creator of the Movement for Peace with Justice and Dignity, in the 1st Summit of Citizens for a Peaceful and Just Mexico where leaders from 300 social organizations met to work out several citizenproposalsthatweregiventothefourpresidentialcandidates,inmay21, 2012. EverydaydozensofdeadbodiesinundateMexicancitizens'imaginations.Inthe publicandsocialspacesofmexico,peoplearedying.thefracturedspacesofmexico arewounded.peopleandcommunitiestrytokeepupwiththemanydeathsand injusticestheyhavesufferedandcarriedalonggenerations.justastheplazaofthe ThreeCultureswasoncebloodstained,Mexico'spublicspacesareeverydayalso experiencingthesamepainofdeathsanddisappearances.everywhere,fragmented 125
126 storiesslidethroughthefissuresofourimagination.storiesthatbecomebridgesto connecttootherstoriesofpainandthunder,otherwoundedspacescreated throughmentalandmaterialconstructions.thesethresholdsandtraumaticevents perforateboundariesandtransportustodifferentspaces.porosityiscreated throughdiscontinuitiesthatpermitustomovetowardsotherspatio temporal heterotopicspaces.withintheseotherspaces,thesetwilightzonesproduced throughmaterialandmentalthresholds,therearetrappedrepresentations,ghosts thatinhabitthesespacesandbecomethepresencesofthosewhoareabsent. Thesewoundedspacesshouldbeanalyzedbydescribing"thecomplex interfacebetweenbodies,memory,socialgroupsandthelivedcity,andaffect"(till 2012,9).Thesefragmentedsocialandphysicalspaces,theseincompletestoriesand landscapes,whichsomemightdefineandcategorizeas"decadentspaces"or unworthyorunaccountablepersonsarepiecesofheterotopiasthatcanbeidentified byanalyzingthethresholdsofthepastandofthepresent.thewaythestateand individualsrecallsitspast;howandwhytheydoit;"howindividualsrelateto collectivitiesinconstitutingmemory,historyandidentity;howtimeworks individuallyandsocially;andwhatrolethepsycheplacesintheprocess"(till2006, 331)isbeingtodayrevisitedtotrytounderstand:therelationshipbetween individualandsocialmemory;therelationshipbetweenthepast,thepresentand thefuture;andthecreationofnewformsandwaystohealthosewoundedspaces. AlongthisthesisIhavetriedtoshowtheserelationshipsthroughtheanalysisofthe socialandphysicalspacesofthehousingcomplexoftlatelolcoanditsofficialand unofficialmemories.
127 ThroughthischapterIwilltrytodiscusshowtheaffectivewayofhowwe rememberingorforgetcommonlycreatesanimaginarynostalgiaforthepast,as wellasthewaydeathsarerepresented(eitherbynamingorcountingthem)creates differentsentimentstowardshowwemightthinkorrememberthem.theni proposethatthefightsarenotonlyfocusedonadutytorememberbutonarightto beremembered.thesedifferentprocessesofrememberingandforgettingcreate thresholdsthatbringuponandconnectwithghostsofthepresentandofthepast. Throughtheideasofnostalgia,countingandnaming,arighttoberemembered,and thresholdsitrytoshowhowallthefragmentsexposedthroughoutthepastchapters connectintoday'ssocio politicalarenaandhowtheyareallpartofthecomplex processesbetweenbodies,memory,socialgroups,urbanspaceandemotionsand thecreationof,andsometimesanattempttoheal,woundedspaces. Nostalgia Therememberingandforgettingcanbepairedtolifeanddeath,asstatedby MarcAugé,notonlyas"oblivionasatypeofdeath,thelifeofmemories"butalso "deathasanotherlife,ordeathinseparableoflife[...]theserolesreignmemoryand oblivion:inonecasedeathisinfrontofmeandimustinthepresentrememberthat onedayiwilldie,andontheotherdeathisbehindme,andishouldlivethepresent momentwithoutforgettingthepastthatitinhabits"(augé1998,10).inthesecond case"thereisahope,amemory,thatgivesaformtodailyexistence"(auge1998, 10).Augéinvestigatesmemoryintheformofoblivion:werememberbecausewe forgetsomethingsandweforgetinordertolivethepresent,through"thewaysthat
128 oblivionstructuressociallifethroughthefiguresofreturn,suspenseandstarting over"(augéexplainedbytill2006,332).althoughaugéexplores"africanritesof possession,rolereversalsandinitiationsassocialeventsthatorganizeapassage fromabeforetoanafter"(till2006,332);thecontinuouslyreturning,re living, embodyingandgoingbacktobeinthe"here"and"now"relatestohowthe differentthresholdsoftlatelolcoarerememberedinthepublicandsocialspacesnot onlywithinthehousingcomplexbutbeyond.itdefinesaprocessofremembrance throughthetracesandfragmentsofnarrationsandrepresentations.individualand socialtemporalitiesintersectandliveincomplexways. ThepersonalandsocialstoriesrelatedtoTlatelolco,evenwhenfabricated, imaginedorexaggeratedcanbeseen,accordingtotheideasofaugé,producedby theactofmemoryandoblivion.itisinterestingtonotethattheobsessionwith archives,commemorations,andtheparanoiaoffollowingeverythingandrecording all"presumesthattheessenceofmemoryrestsintheactofrecordingandstorage, ratherthanthatofoblivion"(stepnisky2005).thememorytracesanabsenceinthe present,foreveroutofreach,thatthroughindividualandsocialprocesspointsout theabsenceandittakesformthroughdifferenttypesofrepresentations.the memoriesandstoriesarebothatthesametimeindividualandcollective,they correlateeachotherthroughthe"discordancesofsingulartimesandtheexpected concordanceoftheirreconciliationinnarrativeswithseveralvoices"(augé1998, 23).Inthefirstfigureofoblivion,atypeofpossessionexemplifiestheactofreturn, "sotheoldhabitsandformsoflifecanberelived"(stepinsky2005).itisclosely relatedtothefeelingofnostalgia.augéisdeterminedtoexplainthe"central
129 mechanismsofoblivion"whichincludethe"nostalgiaforalostpast,theritual suspensionofcontactwithpastandfuture,andthepursuitofwhathedubs 'rebeginnings'"(gardiner2006,2). ThenostalgiaforalostpastispresentinthestoriesrelatedtoTlatelolco. Nostalgiaisnot"apuresenseofloss,norisittheemotionalself indulgenceofmere sentimentality"italsocontainsa"senseofbelongingandfamiliarity,ofidentityand roots";itisalsoa"senseofpleasure[...]thepossibilityofhavinganinherently contradictoryexperience"whereone"canenjoythepresentthroughthelensofthe pastashe(sic)simultaneouslyenjoysthepastthroughthelensofthepresent" (Wilson1997,134 135).Throughthefragmentsandstoriesencounteredinthe housingcomplex,invivirentlatelolcoandinmemoriamigrantethenarrationsand placescontainedanostalgia,anabsenceandlostrelationshipspresentinthesocial andphysicalspacesoftheunidad(housingcomplex).inmanycasesthisnostalgia keepsbeingalostpast,towhichitiscontinuouslyreturnedto,justtoenjoyit, acknowledgeitsfailuresandthenre appropriateitinthepresentbyremembering andsometimesbyre enactingit. CountingandNaming Thethresholdofthestudentmovementcreateddifferentheterotopias.Thestudent movementshowsadiscontinuityofsocialorder,anephemeralappropriationof publicspace,andare identificationwithanationalpatrimony."ninetysixty eightis thesuddenrebeginningofanunorthodoxpublicspace,althoughonlypolitically,and withtheexcessivecostofthekillingofoctober2"(monsivais2008).many
130 academics,journalistsandwritersconsider1968asa"turningpointandamoral compromisebecausethankstothekidsofyesterday,todaywearestronger,more resistant,andwetookawaysomeofitsimpunitytothepower.welearnedto denounceandresist.agrarianandworkermovementsalongthemexicanrepublic recognizetheirdebttothe68"(poniatowska2012).buttodaythefightseemsto continue;thereareotherinjustices,otherprotestsandotherdeaths. October2wasnottheendofthestruggle,thosewhostayedfoughtforthe officialrecognitionofthetragedy,forajustmemoryandforlongyearsthey combatednotonlytotrialthoseresponsibleoftheatrocitybutalsotogivea dignifiedspaceinmemorytothosewhowherekilled,disappearedandunjustly imprisoned.animportantpartofthefightstillcontinuesithastodowiththe namingofthedead,tocleantheirdeathanddignifytheiridentities.afterthekilling therehasbeenmanyattemptstocreatealistofthedead,whowherethey? Poniatowska(1998[1971])hasbeenanimportantbastionthroughherrecompilation oforalnarrativesandfragmentedrecollectionofeventsthattriedtoreconstruct whatreallyhappenedthenightofoctober2,andalsomanyothershavecontributed touncoverthetruth. Thehumanizationofthedeadisnotonlyabattleofthe1968movement. Today,manyindividualsandsocialgroupsbecometheinvestigatorsandexpertsin Mexican"law"duetotheinefficaciesofthelegalsysteminMexico.Familiesand socialgroupsinvestigatethekillersortheirlovedonesandclearanddignifytheir
131 deathsbystatingandshowinghowtheywerenotrelatedtoanytypeoforganized crimeordrugcartel 13.Meanwhile,thegovernmenthas: systematically ignored national and international reports [...] that warn the systematic and generalized violation to human rights in the country with thousand of cases of extrajudicial executions, forced disappearances, torture, and other human crimes [...] In 2011 more than 12 thousand people died around 40 soldiers and 500 policemen, and the majority of the cases are not investigated[...]accordingtothenationalcommissionofhumanrights,today thereare8thousand898cadaversinthemorguesofthecountrythathavenot beenidentified,andtherehasbeen5thousand397peoplereportedasmissing since the start of the six year period [of the president Felipe Calderon] (CamachoServín2012). InternationalAmnestyreportedthatithasincreasinglyreceivednotificationsthat thepeoplethatsuffersuchabuseshavenorelationtoanyorganizedcrimeordrug cartels,togetherwiththis,therearemanycentralamericaimmigrantsthathave disappearedinmexico,9journalistsbrutallymurderedonlyduring2011andmany othersthreatened,and20humanrightsdefendershavebeenalsothreatenedand attacked(camachoservín2012). Tocombatthenumbers,militantsocialgroupshaveorganizedtoinvestigate theirindividualdeathsandtakethemtosometimesnationalandinternational courts.onesocialgroupthathasfocusedtodignifytheirdeathsandcreate awarenessforajustandpeacefulmexicoistheamazingeffortjaviersiciliahas organizedwiththecaravanforpeacewithjusticeanddignitythatstartedabouta yearagoin2011.injune2011,siciliaaccomplishedtomeetwiththepresident Calderonandsomeofthefamiliesofthevictimsofthedrugwar(HerreraBeltrán andurrutia2011).thisgroupalsorecentlyaccomplishedanewleygeneralde 13 Someexamplesofhowfamiliesbecometheinvestigatorsofcrimes:NepomucenoMoreno Núñezwhowaslatermurderedforfindingoutthekillersofhisson(RedacciónSinEmbargo 2011),JavierSicilia,AlejandroMarti,IsabelMirandadeWallaceandmanymore.
132 Víctimas(GeneralLawofVictims)that,amongotherthemes,grantstherighttoan integraldamagecompensationandlegal,medicalandeconomicassistanceforthose havebeenaffectedbymilitaryorpolicecrimesorabuses.thislawwillalsoprovidea nationalregistryofvictimsandapermanentfundforanintegralsupportand reparationandallthisadministrationwillbeunderthesupervisionofanational SystemofVictimsinwhichsocialorganizationsofthecivilsocietywillbe represented(editorial2012).thecaravanforpeacewithjusticeanddignityisgoing tobetravelingthroughtheusainaugustalsotocreateawarenessofashared problemwiththepeopleoftheusa(huffpost2012). Anothergoodexampletohumanizethesetragediesandtocreatenovelways oftalkingandrememberingthedeathshaveemergedsuchasthetwitteraccount @TienenNombre(Theyhavenames)thathasasaprincipalobjectivetonamethe victimsoftheviolenceinmexico.theyusuallywritethecompletename,whenand wheretheywerefoundormurderedandwhowerethey.itisanaccountfromthe groupcontingentemxwhichisagroupthathasasanobjectivetobeapacific manifestationforthehumanrightsandorganizeandadministeraseriesofactions andactivities.someofthetwitsfrom@tienennombreare: EstebanFranciscoCasavo,30años,hondureñoapuñaladoenMediasAguas #Veracruzmientrasesperabaelferrocarril. EstebanFranciscoCasavo,30years,HonduranstabbedinMediasAguas #Veracruzwhilewaitingforthetrain. TeóduloSantosGirón,promotordelarecuperacióndetierrasenOstula, Michoacán.Asesinado16/05/12bit.ly/JI92uy#LeyProteccion
133 TeóduloSantosGirón,promoterfortherecuperationoffieldsinOstula, Michoacán.Muredered16/05/12bit.ly/JI92uy#ProtectionLaw DondeestaGeorgina,porquevivaselallevaron,vivalaqueremos #CaravanaxlaDignidad#MarchaDignidadhttp://bit.ly/Jkr9VLvía@JPNH01 WhereisGeorgina,becausetheytookheralive,wewantherbackalive #CaravanaForTheDignity#DignityProtesthttp://bit.ly/Jkr9VLvía@JPNH01 (SeemoreintheAppendixD) Thegovernment(andmanymassmedia)referstothedeathsgenerallyasbajas colaterales(collateraldamages)orthattheywerenarcos(drugdealers)orbelonged totheorganizedcrime,andkindofjustifytheirdeathsbythat.theproblemtalking aboutdeathsasnumbersandnarcosisthatthereisarobberyandaunlegitimizationoftheiridentity.bycallingthemnarcos,thereisade state tizationof theperson(seemelissawright'sworkonjustifyingfeminicidesbycallingthem prostitutesormujeresdelacalle publicwomen ).Thisde humanizationofbodies andunjustkillingandnon investigationoftheircauseofdeath(whoandwhythey weremurdered)isalsoathresholdinthesenseofagambensitesofexceptions, whichreferstotheideathat"thepowertosuspendthelawscanbelongonlytothe samepowerthatproducesthem"andrelatestothe"unprecedentedgeneralization oftheparadigmofsecurityasthenormaltechniqueofgovernment"(agamben 2005,11 22).Thisde legitimizationofidentityalsooccurduringthe1968student movementwhenthestudentswereaccusedofbeingporros 14,provocateurs, agitatorsorcommunists(nottomentionthe"threat"theyweretotheolympic 14 Aporroisakindofirresponsibleold timerstillintheuniversitythatlikestocreatechaos.
134 Games)andinpost 68throughthenon investigationandillegalproceduresduring thedirtywar. ARightToBeRemembered "2deOctubre,NoseOlvida"(October2,WillnobeForgotten)hasbeenformore thanfortyyearstheclaimpassedfromgenerationtogenerationrelatedtothekilling of1968.morethanadutytorememberthereisaclaimforitnottobeforgotten. Thosewhostillareinvolvedinthememoryof1968firmlystatethatthestudents andallthosewhowereaffiliatedtothem(syndicates,professors,andother sympathizers)openedanewspaceofprotestagainstauthoritarianism.thosewho continuedthefight,iwouldsaythatmorethanarighttorememberfoughtfora righttoberemembered,tobenamed,andnottobeanumberornoteventhat.the state,byjustifyingdeath,deniesthedeadeventoexistasadead,orofbeing someonetobenamedorcounted. SuspenseandRoleReversalthroughtheCreationofThresholds "It is remarkable that the week that Fuentes dies and Poniatowska turns 80, thereisaresurgenceofyoungstudentsfightingagainstinjustices." SergioAguayo,academicandhumanrightactivist,inthe1stSummit ofcitizensforapeacefulandjustmexico,inmay21,2012. Today,thedefamationofsocialmovementsfromthestateauthoritiescontinues. Duringmanyyearsthe'68studentmovementwasimpingedwithmyths,legends anddefamatorystories.formanyyears,thestorythatthestudentswerearmed triedtostayinthenarrationsrecountingtheofficialmemorybutthefightfrom socialgroups,specificallythecommitteeof68andthepoliticalraceforpowerfrom
135 theexpresidentvicentefox 15,continuouslyfoughtforuncoveringwhatreally happened.academicsandwritersseeboththe'68movementaswellasthe uncoveringofarchivesbyfox,anopeningfornewdemocraticvenuesinmexico. Formorethan40yearsthefighthascontinued,sometimeswinningsome battleswhileloosingsometimesothers.stilltodaythephantomsof1968arestill trappedinourimagination,theyaresummonedduringsomeoftheprotests,they arepresentinthedemandsandclaimsinthepublicspacesandtheyare rememberedbeyondthenightofoctober2intlatelolco.itisenoughtolookaround andseethethresholdscreatedtodaywiththepoliticalelectionarenaandthewar againstdrugcartelsinmexicotoseeandfeeltheirpresence.theseeventsare creatingaseriesofheterotopiasandephemeralappropriationsinspacewhere differencesmeetandemergenotonlyasathreatbutalsomaybeasapromise. Todaysomestudentsthemselvesandsomemediaarecallingthepolitical powers(specificallytoday'srulingrightwingpoliticalpartythepanandtheold rulingpartythepri)thenewrepresentativesofauthoritarianismbehindanewtype ofdirtywar,andtheyounggenerationthenewsixty eightersprotesters whichido notknowificompletelyagreewithcallingthenewgenerationasixty eighterone.in 2006thegovernoratthattimeoftheEstadodeMexico(Edomex,StateofMexico) EnriquePeñaNieto(todaycandidateforthepresidencyforthepoliticalpartyPRI) usedpoliceextremebrutalitytocombat"civilunrest"forpeoplewhodefendedtheir 15 FoxwasthefirstpresidentfromtherightwingpoliticalpartythePartidodeAcción Nacional(PAN,PoliticalPartyofNationalAction)afterthepoliticalpartyPRI(Partido RevolucionarioInstitucional)hadgovernedMexicoformorethan70yearswithout interrumptions;oneofhispromisesduringhiscampaignwastouncoverthesecretarchives ofthedirtywar,afterbeingelectedhediduncoverthem.seedoyle2006amongothers.
136 fieldsagainsttheimpositionofbuildinganairportintheirlandandtheiropen supporttothezapatistas.someofthepolicebrutalityisshowninfigure66(figure 66).Also,since2006policeandmilitaryabusesandmurdersfromthepresident FelipeCalderonwaragainstnarcoshasbeennationalandinternationallygreatly criticizedandcontestedbymanygroups.inmexicotherearemanyprotests, occupationsanddifferentfightsfrommanysocialgroups 16.Somedemandsare heardornegotiated,manyareephemeralandsporadic,buttherearestillsomethat arerepressed 17.Recentlytherehasbeentwohighlyrepressedstudentprotests,and asporadicnew"medium highclass"studentorganizationactivity:thestudentsfrom AyotzinapanandMorelia,andthegroup#YoSoy132: InDecember2011studentsfromtheEscuelaNormalRuraldeAyotzinapan (RuralNormalSchoolofAyotzinapan)blockedthehighwaythatgoesfrom ChilpancigotoAcapulcointhestateofGuerrerodemandingananswerfromthe Guerrerostategovernmenttotheirdemands.Theywantedaraiseofthe$35pesos (lessthan$3dollars)thattheydailyreceivedfortheirmeals.thewerealsoasking theauthoritiestofixthebathrooms,dormitoriesandschoolinstallationsthathave hadnomaintenanceforthelasteightyears,andtoincreasetheannual matriculationfrom140newcomerstudentsupto170.lastly,theyrequestedtohave 16 OrganizationsinCiudadJuarezfightingagainstfeminicidios(Wright2006),theTribunal PermanentedelosPueblosdeMexico(PermanentTribunalofthePeopleofMexico)(TTP Mexico),SalvemosWirikuta(LetsSaveWirikuta)(2012),theSindicatoMexicanode Electricistas(SME,SyndicateofMexicanElectrics),theprofessorsinOaxaca,theZapatistas, thechildcarehouseabcparents,themovimientodelos400pueblos(movementofthe400 Villages)ofVeracruz... 17 TheAsambleaPopulardelosPueblosdeOaxaca(APPO,thePopularAssemblyofthe VillagesofOaxaca)in2006,Atenco,theparentsoftheABCChildcare...
137 Figure66.RepressioninAtenco.(Miguel2012.)
138 asaminimumpassingaverage7/10andmorescholarshipsfornewstudents.aftera coupleofdaysoftenseprotestandhavingasareferencethatthatschoolisoneof theoldesthighlycharged"revolutionary"schoolsinthecountry(thefamous revolutionaryluciocabañasstudiedandtaughtthere);policeofficersandan undercoverpolicefiredagainstthestudentsprotestersandkilled2kidsof20and21 yearsold,severallywoundedanddisappearedstudents,anddetainedalmost50 others(hernándeznavarro2012).figure67showsoneofthetwobodiesofthe deadstudentslyingontheroad(figure67).policeexcusedthemselvesbysayingthe studentswerearmed(whichwasnottrue)andthattheyputonfireagasstation (oneworkerinthegasstationdiedtryingtoputoutthefire). InApril2012studentsinMorelia,Michoacánwereviolentlyevacuatedby200 federalandstatepolicemenfromthreestudenthousingsoftheuniversidad MichoacanadeSanNicolásdeHidalgo(UMSNH,MichoacanUniversityfromSan NicolasofHidalgo).Studentsfoughtwithsticks,stonesandotherobjects;7students werebeat,194detainedand15policemensufferedburns,afteracoupleofdaysof negotiationsthestudentswereletfree.someofthepicturesofthatnightwere spreadthroughinternet,figures68and69aresomeoftheseexamples(figure68 and69).thiswastheresponsefromtheauthoritiesafterseveralweeksof negotiationsandastudentrevoltfromthecoodinadoradeuniversitariosenlucha (FightUniversityCoordination)thatstole12officialpolicecarsandputseveralon fire,indemandofasking30busesandeconomichelptotransportstudentstoother municipalitiestopromoteentrancetotheuniversity.(martínezelorriaga2012).
139 Figure67.DeadstudentfromAyotzinapalyingonthehighway.(LaJornada2012.) Figure68.StudentsinMoreliaareevictedfromtheirstudenthousing.(Elorriaga2012.)
140 Figure69.Studentsarearrestedaftereviction.(Elorriaga2012.)
141 InMay2012studentsfromtheUniversidadIberoamericana(Iberoamerican University,oneofthemostexpensiveandfamousprivateuniversitiesin Mexico,knownforbeingfortheelites(preppy)althoughthereisagreatvarietyof studentsfromalloverthecountry)receivedthepri'spresidentialcandidateenrique PeñaNietowithclaimsanddemandsofprincipallytheAtencocase(previously explained)(elviravargas2012).callinghim"corrupt"and"killer"studentsshouted tohim"fuera!laiberonotequiere!(getout!theiberodoesn'tlikeyou!)"(online videosandtvreportagenewsatnight).thepeopleinhiscampaignsaidthatthat wasjustacoupleofpeoplewantingtopassbyasstudents,maybeporros,andvery likelyimplantedbytheleftwingparty.inresponse,131studentsmadeavideoand diffuseditontheonlinesocialnetworksshowingtheirstudentidssayingtheirid numberandcompletenamestatingthattheywereneitherporrosnorthatthey belongedtoanypoliticalparty.afterthismanyotherstudentsaroundother universitiesinmexicocityandotherprincipalcitiesalongmexicoshowedtheir allianceandatwittergrouptitled#yosoy132(#iam132)startedonlineandsince thenhasbeenprotesting(onlineandonthestreets)notonlyagainstenriquepeña NietobutprincipallyagainstthetwomostpowerfulTVnetworksTvAztecaand TelevisaaccusingthemofhavingafavoritismtowardsthePRIcandidateand portrayinghimalmostasthevirtualwinner.thebiggestmarch,showninfigure70, thatemergedfromthiseventwasof25thousandpeopleinmexicocity(peñaloza 2012).Someoftheirpostersstated:"Wearenotatelenovela,thisisreality"(Figure 70).
142 Figure70.Studentsadherentstothecallof#YoSoy132protestagainsttheTVcompanies andthepricandidate.(hernández2012.)
143 Tothisaseriesofcomparisonshaveemergedtothe1968student movement.forexample,asihavetriedtoshowinthepreviouschapters,thedeaths anddisappearancesofthewaragainstorganizedcrimehasbeencomparedtothat ofthedirtywarpost1968ontheprintedpressandonimagesthataresharedon Internet.Figure71showsoneoftheimagescomparingthetwowars(Figure71). Also,therepressionsufferedbythestudentsinAyotzinapan,andtheimagesthat showpoliceabuseinatencoandthetreatmenttowardsthestudentsinmoreliahas beingalsocomparedtothatofthenightoctober2intlatelolco.figure72showsthe comparisonsofpolicebrutalityfrom1968,2006and2012(figure72). PeñaNieto'sanswerinMay2012intheIberotowardsthedemandsabout theatencocasewascomparedtothatofgustavodíazordazstatementreferringto the1968studentkilling.thecomparisonwasmadeindifferentwaysandwas portraidasacartoonmixingbothgustavodiazordazface,seefigure73,mixedwith PeñaNieto'sfaceonFigure74(Figure73and74).Thecartoonwasmadebyavery wellknowncartoonartisthernandez,figure75isareproductionoftheimage (Figure75). Iwanttoaddthatthedemandsandleveloforganizationthatthestudent movementhadin1968cannotbecomparabletothosethatexistuptothistoday (althoughitseemsitisexponentiallygrowing).uptothisday,westillneedtosee howfaristhe#yosoy132organizationwillgo,ifitwillornotbecomeamovement, orifitisjustapoliticaltacticdonetodemeritthecandidateenriquepeñanietoand anaimfromthemedium highclassstudentsthatreflectsits"cosmopolitanism"and wishtoconnectwithotherinternationalstudent/youthmovementsaroundthe
144 Figure71.WarAgainstDrugscomparedtothe'68Massacre.(WiththePRI:1968 MilitarizationintheStreetsandtheKillingofInnocents...WiththePAN:2010Militarization inthestreetsandthekillingofinnocents.)(facebookauthor'scollection2012.) Figure72.ComparisonoftheRepressioninTlatelolco,AtencoandMorelia.(83yearsof Terror:Tlatelolco1968Atenco2006Morelia2012).(Source:author'scollection2012.)
145 Figure73.GustavoDiazOrdazwasthepresidentduringthekillingof1968. Figure74.EnriquePeñaNietowasthegovernorduringtheAtencorepressionin2006.
146 Figure75.CartoonsimulatingDiazOrdazandPeñarepresentingthePRI.(PRI Vote President2012).(Hernández2012.)
147 worldsuchaslosindignadosinspain;occupywallstreetinnewyork;andtothe ArabSpring 18.Theyareevencallingthemselves"TheMexicanSpring"andintheir protestsandspeechestheyremembertheghostsof1968:"wehavetheechoesof 68burninginourhands,thethoughtsofallthosewhogavetheirlifeforabetter world,wehavethesocialfights,thescarsandthehistory,scapingfromthebooks andvibratinginourskin"(sandinobuciostudentopeningspeechinthe1stgeneral Assemblyofthemovement#YoSoy132wheremorethan7thousandstudentsfrom around35schoolsanduniversitiesgathertoorganizethematicroundtablesfor defining#yosoy132citedinmontes2012;martínezandgranados2012).figure76 showsstudentsshowingaplacardsaying"1968 2012:Studentsareback!"(Figure 76).Also,Figure77showsaplacardsaying:"ThisisourMexicanSpring#132"(Figure 77).Also,ononlineandprintedmediathereareseveralarticlescomparingthe #YoSoy132tothe'68studentprotestandtotheArabSpring,someagreeandfew disagree 19.Oneofthe1968studentmovementwastofightforthepoorand unshelteredbythestate,todaythe#yosoy132seemstobeafightagainsttheclock beforeelectionday(july1st)statingtheyareonlyfightingforademocratizationof media(withoutotherclearpropositionsandnotdefiningwhatdemocratization means).theystatetheyareagainsttelevisaandtvaztecabutatthesametimethey saytheyarenotvotingforpeñanieto,theirshoutsandclaimsintheirprotests revolveagainstthepricandidateandthetwotvcompanies.meanwhilethereare 18 TheOccupyWallStreetmovementhasalreadyexpresseditssupportandsolidarity (Saldivar2012). 19 Someexamplesare:Cacho(2012),Esteva(2012),oneoftheleadersofthe'68movement GonzalezdeAlba(2012)Poniatowska(2012),TaiboIIandmore.
148 Figure76.Studentsrememberingthe1968duringthe1stGeneralAssemblyof#YoSoy132in theunaminmay2012(guadarramaphotoinmontes2012.) Figure77.StudentsduringtheMarch#YoSoy132callingthemselvestheMexicanSpring.
149 othertvchannelstheydonotmakeanyreferenceto,theyareonlyfocusingon "democratizing"tv withoutdefiningwhatthatis andsaythatthiswill "democratize"massmediacommunication,althoughcommunicationisnotexclusive atvaffair). Thememoriesandeventsofthepastarecontinuouslyrevisited, rememberedandforgotten.sometimesthelookatthepastisthroughnostalgia whileothertimesthepastisusedtojustifypresentactions.therighttoremember aswellastherighttoberemembered(howandthroughwhatmeans)isaprocessin constantconstruction.socialgroupsemergeinthepublicspacesofmexicoto expresstheirdemandsandrepressionisstilltodayanormalresponsebythe authorities.meanwhile,socialgroupscontinuetoemerge,reclaimingandreappropriatingapast.itseemsthereisaformulaofprotestthatstilltodayisdifficult tooutlineandclearlyseeitsaccomplishmentsandresults.
CHAPTER6 Conclusions TheanalysisofthehousingcomplexofTlatelolcoisanopportunitytodelveintoa seriesofthresholdsofthepastandthepresentthatcreatespatio temporal heterotopiaswhereghostsmightinhabit.theutopistprojectofthearchitectpanni andthestategovernmenttoconstructanurbanplacethatwould"fix"thesocial problemsthroughtheconstructionofnewphysicalspacesandcreatewonderful newenvironmentsfailed.thewoundscreatedbythresholdsandheterotopiasin TlatelolcosometimesgobeyondthephysicalandsocialspacesofTlatelolco. TlatelolcorepresentsimportantturningpointsanddiscontinuitiesinMexicoasacity andasastate.theseriesofthresholdsoccurredintlatelolcoreifiestheideathat thereisnoperfectunfinishedplan,thaturbanspaceisaprocessandthatplacesare relationalandareexperienced,representedandrememberedindifferentwaysby variouspeople,indifferenttimesandspaces.tlatelolco'scontradictoryand woundedspaceshelpuscomprehendthecomplexquestofunderstandingtoday's contemporaryphysicalandsocialspacesintlatelolcoandbeyonditsporous boundaries. Thepolitico socio economicsituationmexicoisgoingthroughmightbe betterunderstoodthroughtheanalysisofindividualandcollectivememoriesand experiencesofthesocialandphysicalspacesoftlatelolco.thecontinuouspresence 150
151 oftheheterotopiascreatedinthethresholdofthe1968studentmovementshowa lackofexplanationorunderstanding,anappropriationofsocialandphysicalspace,a justificationofbeingthereandbelonging,andaforcedreferencesfromdifferent socialgroupstodaywithinandbeyondtlatelolco.october2isbeingtodayrelivedin eachmomentwherethereisrepression,injustices,deathsanddisappearances. October2cannotbeforgottenbecauseitisstilllivedtoday,itsheterotopicspaces arerevivedineachprotestandmanifestation.andevenfurther,tlatelolco continuouslyemergesineachdebate,incartoons,invideodocumentaries,movies, essays,opinionarticlesandinmydailylife. Therearedifferentgroupsofpeopleinandconnectedtotheurbanpublic spaceoftlatelolco.thisthesisfocusedontheanalysisoftlatelolocomaterialand discursivepublicspaces.ishowedhowtheofficialdiscoursesofthegovernment;the institutionalpracticesofaculturalcenter;alocalmonthlypublication;aworkshopof memory;andthepersonalmotivationandinterestofpeopleintlatelolcorepresent Tlateloloco'sdifferentspatialitiesandtemporalities,andhowtheycreateand transmitmemory.andalthoughiacknowledgethatstoriesarealwaysfabrications, evensometimesproductsoftheimagination,iexplorehowthesedifferent representationsandpersonalsocialstoriesshowcontradictionsandtensionsofthe pastandthefuture,thatdisruptthelinearnarrativeofhistoryandprogressandtry toidentifyhowpeoplemightfeelhauntedbythepresenceorabsenceofdiverse narratives.thesemomentsorimagesmayalsobelinkedtotraumaticeventsof
152 societyandhowandwhywecometotermsornot,mustbeanalyzed.individual, collective,historicaloranyothermemoryraisedifferentanddifficultquestions includingwhoistheagentthathastherighttothememoryandtherighttobe rememberedandnamed.theuseofthesestoriesmustbeanalyzedtoletusfree fromthepastinawoundedcitywithrottendecadentfailureofmodernityinmexico asanationandasacity.itmightbeadangerousarenabecausebyourwitnessingof absencesandpresenceswemightbecomebothperpetuatorandvictims.no memoryexistsoutsidetherealmofrepresentation.memoryisalwaysmediated.the politicsofmemoryishistorical,itdefiesindividuals,andweembodyandrepresent thespacesandmemoriesofthecity. ThroughthisthesisIproposeastudyofurbanspaceofwoundedcities throughmemoryandimaginationofhowthethresholdsofthecitiesare representedandrememberedandwhattypeofheterotopiastheyproduce.theuse ofspaceandhistoryto[re]createsociety's"truths"andimaginariescanbeidentified withintheurbanprocess.fragmentedtruthscreateahistoricalaccountwithinspace creatingdifferentidentities.capturedaroundadensehistoricalbackground, TlatelolcohasbeenintheimaginationsofMexicansforavarietyofreasons.I intendedthatbytheanalysisofthedifferentrepresentationsoftlatelolcowecan engageinaconversationofthe"multiplepastsandpossiblefutures"(till2012,5)in thecreationofjustcities.
153 Tlatelolco Ihavetriedtodescribethemultipleagenciesthatcomprisethisoverall,yet, fragmentedprojectoutofwhichbeingfromtlatelolcoorwantingtobefrom Tlatelolcoisbeingforged.Afterdescribingsomeotherwaysinwhichtlatelolcansor peopleparticipatinginsomeprojectsareconsumingtlatelolco'simages,historyand identities,itrytoshowhowtlatelolco's"unity"priortoabandonment,lackofcare andfallintodisuseisrelatedtotheongoingsocialandphysicalconstructionofspace bytheneighbors,thechangesintheneighborhoodandtheprojectsandpracticesof all.ihavetriedtoshowtheimportancetoseethewoundsofurbanspacethatcan betracedthroughitsfragmentsandmemoriesrepresentedthroughstoriesand othermaterialconstructedphysicalspacesinthecityinordertoidentifythresholds thatwilltakeustoexperiencedifferentheterotopias. InordertoengageinthedifferentspacesandidentitiesofTlatelolcowemust identifytheproductionofspaceoftlatelolcoandthedifferentwaysithasbeen appropriatedandnegotiatedthroughmemoriesandimagination.wecanengage throughgoingtowardstheotherness,bytrespassingtheporousspacesthat transportustootherspacesandtimeandthatcancreateheterotopiasofhope, care,andaffect.throughurbanexplorationswecanmakeourselvesvulnerableand placeusinoddsituationswherethereisnocontrolledspaceorasecureareacanbe awaytoengagewithdifferentspaces,totrytosituateourselveswherethe othernessemerges.thiswaytheexperienceswillnotbeprefabricated,nota
154 consumerexperience,itisacreativeoneinwhichwecanexperiencethedifferent spacesoftlatelolcoandofmexico.onceoutsidethespacesthatweknow,within differentheterotopias,wemightbeabletoappropriateandnegotiatethemthrough memoriesandimagination. 1968 Thefightforanofficialmemorializationof1968hasbeencomplexandnotalways just,fairandcompleted.theongoingprocessshowsthecomplexityofitsmeanings andrepresentations.atthesametimethepeopleandplacesthatassisttheothers torememberornotforgetandtheimportanceofcreatingsitesforpeopleto rememberanofficialpublicmemoryisanimportantpoliticaltool.also,thereseems tobeanattempttofixmeaningsinspaceandcreateatruehistoricalaccountandby tryingtototalizespace,whateverisleftoutisaninvitationforthoseghostsofthe past."ghostshaunttheregulatedcityandtheimpossibledreamoftotalisation" (Edensor2005,835).Yet,manycontemporarysocialgroups,peoplethatwerenot evenaliveatthattime,continuetouseandappropriatethefightofthe'68student movement.today,the'68movementisunimaginablybeingappropriatedand unitingdifferentgroupsinincredibleways,andunfortunatelyrepression, disappearancesanddeathsarestillpresent.thefightsaroundtheserepressions, forceddisappearancesandunjustdeathsaretodaynotafighttoberemembered
155 butadailystruggleofalivepeopleclaimingforastoptoviolenceandcreatespaces fordignity,justiceandpeace. Thecharacteristicimagesofphotographsandvideosthatcontinuetobe diffusedthroughtheinternetandwhichsomeofthemarepresentinthe'68 Memorial'sCulturalCenter,continuetohauntandhuntourimaginationsand influencehowwerememberandrelatetothe'68movement:awomenrunning grabbingtwogirlsoneineachhandhidingbehindacar;a12yearkiddeadfullof blood;youngpeoplestandingagainstthewallsemi naked;men(undercoverpolice) withawhiteglovestodifferthemselvesfromthestudents;lightflaresrunningdown theskiesoftheplazaofthreecultures;soldiersrunningalongtheplazaandlyingon thefloorpointingupwiththeirguns;studentsknockingonthedoorofthechurchin theplazatohideandbeprotected,thechurch'scloseddoors;piecesofpaperand shoesonthefloorofdeadplaza;militarytankspatrolling;andthesilenceandthe emptiness;theimpugnguiltyandthecountlessandnamelessdead...figure78 capturesthesilencesandtheabscencesoftlatelolco'skilling,theimageshowsthe plazaonedayafterthekillingofoctober2(figure78). Theseghostscontinuetobesummon,theystillwanttocommunicateor maybenot,maybepeoplewantthemtocommunicate,toknowexactlywhat happened,ortocommunicateusthatthereisstillhope,that"wegohandbyhand" (TaiboIIduringtheAMLOmeetingMay2012).Iwonder,didtheyopennewspaces fordemocracy?dotheyrestifwenamethemineveryprotest?dowefeedthemby
156 givingthemanswerstotheirprotest?dowenotfeedthemifwearelookingfor somethingelsethanwhattheyfoughtfor?weencounterthemeverytimewestart fightingforwhattheyfought,forwhattheirfightstarted.isitaninconclusivefight thatsocialgroupsstillfight?shouldwedo51,082memorialsforthedeadofthe drugwar? VivirenTlatelolcoandMemoriaMigrante Dailypeoplerelate,liveandusethespacesofTlatelolco.Theirindividualandsocial memoriesrelateindifferentandcomplexwaysandinfluencehowtheyexperience thespace.throughthelocalprojectofthelocalmonthlypublicationofviviren
157 Figure78.Theemptiness...andpresencesofthoseabsentinthePlazaoftheThreeCultures oftlatelolco.thisphotoisafteroctober2,1968.(laciudaddeméxicoeneltiempo2011.)