Subject Paper No and Title Module No and Title Module Tag Paper No. 10; Forensic Toxicology Module No 35; Doping in sports FSC_P10_M34 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Learning Outcomes 2. Introduction - Doping in Sports 3. List of Prohibited Drugs as per WADA 4. Typology of Drugs Misused in human Sports 5. Prohibited Methods 5.1 Manipulation of Blood and Blood Components 5.2 Chemical and Physical Manipulation 5.3 Gene Doping 6. Substances prohibited in Particular Sports 6.1 Alcohol 6.2 Beta Blockers 7. Sampling 7.1 Human Sampling 7.2 Sample Collection Authority 7.3 Sample Collection Equipment 7.3.1 For Urine Sample Collection 7.3.2 For Blood Sample Collection 8. Detection of Drugs 8.1 Solvent system 8.2 Visualizing Agents 8.3 Techniques used for Conformation Tests 8.4 Threshold Analysis 9. Summary
1. Learning Outcomes After studying this module, you will be able to Know what is doping. Learn the rule related to doping. Identify the drugs, which are abused in sports. 2. Introduction Doping in Sports Drug abuse in sports is often called as doping. In other words the use of banned, performance-enhancing drugs in sports is generally denoted to as doping particularly by the organizations regulating sporting competitions. The use of drugs to augment the performance of the athlete is considered immoral by most of the international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The International Olympic Committee (IOC) is a Swiss non-profit, non-governmental organization based in Lausanne, Switzerland. Pierre, Baron de Coubertin, created this Committee on 23 June 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first president. The International Olympic Committee is the highest authority of the modern Olympic movement. The reasons underlying the prohibition of these drugs are mainly the health risks of these performance-enhancing drugs, the fairness of opportunity for athletes, and an exemplary effect of drug-free game for the public. Anti-doping authorities opines that using performance-boosting drugs goes up against the "spirit of sport". The abuse of drug is an attempt to enhance the performance in human sporting competitions and as well as in animals, for example, horse racing etc. The toxic effects of drug are less difficult to ascertain, but the conclusions drawn from the available data are often circumstantial. Nevertheless, there is enough indication of the harmful effects when certain drugs are misused to justify their prohibition from sports competition. The chief controlling body in human sports is the International Olympic Committee (IOC). However, since 1999, doping issues have been taken over by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) is an autonomous foundation shaped through a collective initiative led by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). WADA was set up on November 10, 1999 in Lausanne, Switzerland. According to WADA the legal definition of doping is as follows: Violation under the World Anti-Doping Code cover aspects such as the presence of a prohibited substance or metabolites or marker in an athlete s specimen, refusing to
provide a sample or evading sample collection, tampering or attempting to tamper with any aspect of doping control: possession or trafficking of prohibited substance. WADA, annually issues a list of prohibited drugs as an International Standard. This list covers substance and methods prohibited from use by athletes. 3. List of Prohibited Drugs as per WADA Give below is the list of drugs, which are prohibited in sports as per WADA regulations. Category Substance Stimulants Adrenaline, Ampetamine, Mephentermine, Pentetrazol, Phendimetrazine, Phenmetrazine Etc. Narcotics Endogenous Anabolic Agents Buprenorphine, Dextromoramide, Diamorphine (Heroin), Fentanyl And Its Derivatives, Hydromorphone, Methadone, Morphine, Oxycodone, Oxymorphone, Pentazocine, Pethidine Androstenediol, Androstenedione, Dihydrotestosterone, Prasterone, Testosterone AndMetabolites And Isomers Other Anabolic Agents Clenbuterol, Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators (Sarms), Tibolone, Zeranol,Zilpaterol Masking Agents Diuretics (See Above), Epitestosterone, Probenecid, Alpha- Reductase Inhibitors, Plasma Expanders And Other Substances With Similar Biological Effect Beta-Blockers Acebutolol, Alprenolol, Atenolol, Betaxolol, Bisoprolol, Bunolol, Carteolol, Carvedilol, Celiprolol, Esmolol, Labetalol, Levobunolol, Metipranolol, Metoprolol, Nadolol, Oxprenolol, Pindolol, Propranolol, Sotalol, Timolol And Related Compounds Prohibited Methods Enhancement Of Oxygen Transfer (Includes Blood Doping And Artificially Enhancing The Uptake, Transport Or Delivery Of Oxygen), Chemical And Physical Manipulation (Includes Intravenous Infusion And Sample Tampering), Gene Doping.
For most substances, mere presence of the substance or a diagnostic metabolite in the biological fluid sampled constitutes an offence, but for some substances there is a reporting threshold. If drug is detected but it is below the reporting threshold, no offence is deemed to have occurred. The WADA list also recognizes that some anabolic agents and hormones are produced endogenously. The underlying rationale is that an offence is considered to have occurred if one of the prohibited drugs has been used in-competition sport such as shooting, billiards gymnastics etc. Alcohol is prohibited in competition for sports such as motorcycling, powder boating, archery etc. 4. Typology of Drugs Misused in Human Sport Here are some of the categories of drugs, which are generally misused in games: Anabolic Androgenic Steroids - 1-Androstenediol, 1-Androstenedione, Bolandiol, Calusterone, Clostebol, Danazol, Furazabol, Mestanolone, Mesterolone etc Peptide Hormones such as Chorionic Gonadotrophin (CG) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and their releasing factors, Corticotrophins, Growth Hormones etc. Diuretics and Other Masking Agents Masking agents includes plasma expanders e.g. glycerol; intravenous administration of albumin, dextran etc. Diuretics includes: Acetazolamide, canrenone, chlortalidone, furosemide, indapamide, metolazone etc. Metabolic modulators: Insulins, Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor δ agonists etc. 5. Prohibited Methods There are certain methods, which are banned in sports. Few of them are discussed here: 5.1 Manipulation of Blood And Blood Components The following procedures are prohibited in sports : 1. The administration or reintroduction of any quantity of autologous, homologous or heterologous blood or red blood cell products of any origin into the circulatory system. 2. Artificially enhancing the uptake, transport or delivery of oxygen, including, but not limited to efaproxiral (RSR13), perfluorochemicals, and modified haemoglobin products (e.g. haemoglobin-based blood substitutes, microencapsulated haemoglobin products), excluding supplemental oxygen. 3. Any form of intravascular manipulation of the blood or blood components by physical or chemical means.
5.2 Chemical And Physical Manipulation The following are prohibited: 1. Tampering, or attempting to tamper, in order to alter the integrity and validity of Samples collected during Doping Control. These include but are not limited to urine substitution and/or adulteration (e.g. proteases). 2. Intravenous infusions and/or injections of more than 50 ml per 6 hour period except for those legitimately received in the course of hospital admissions or clinical investigations. 5.3 Gene Doping The following, with the potential to enhance sport performance, are prohibited: 1. The transfer of polymers of nucleic acids or nucleic acid analogues; 2. The use of normal or genetically modified cells. 6. Substances Prohibited in Particular Sports There are few substances, use of which is prohibited in some particular sports. Some of them are elucidated below: 6.1 Alcohol The use of alcohol especially ethanol s prohibited in-competition, in the following sports only: a. Karate b. Air Sports c. Archery d. Automobile e. Motor Cycling f. Power Boating Breath analyzer method or blood test can help identify their concentration in the blood. The doping violation threshold for the concentration of alcohol in the blood is o.10g/l. 6.2 Beta Blockers Beta blockers are prohibited in-competition only in the below mentioned sports: a. Archery b. Automobile c. Billiards d. Darts e. Golf f. Shooting g. Snow boarding
Beta blockers includes, but are not limited to Acebutolol, Carteolol, Atenolol, Esmolol, Betaxolol, Timolol, Nadolol etc. 7. Sampling Sample collecting procedure must take into consideration both scientific and legal aspect which are discussed below: The health of the individual being sampled must be safeguarded. Incorrect labeling, contamination of the collected sample or sample switching must be avoided. The rights of interested parties, generally the owner and trainer of an animal or the individual or team in human sport, must be safeguarded against any error by the analyst. 7.1 Human Sampling The World Anti-Doping Code International Standard for testing describes the process for sample collection. Two matrices specified for testing are: Urine Blood Urine is the primary matrix used for testing because it is considerably less invasive in terms of sampling compared to blood, offers relatively low health risk and safety compared to blood in term of sampling and analysis. Blood may be sampled and used instead of urine. Blood is used as a test matrix when detecting blood transfusion. The principle advantage of a blood sample is that its integrity is easier to safeguard because usually it is collected by a doctor or veterinary surgeon experienced in the procedure. Drug concentration in blood are interpreted more easily than those in urine and certain drugs that are not excreted in urine in detectable quantities (example ; reserpine or human growth hormone)can be detected in blood. 7. 2 Sample Collection Authority The organization that is responsible for the collection of Samples in compliance with the requirements of the International Standard for Testing and Investigations, whether the Testing Authority itself; or another organization (for example, a third party contractor) to whom the Testing Authority has delegated or sub- contracted such responsibility. 7.3 Sample Collection Equipment The sample collection equipment shall, as a minimum, consist of:
7.3.1 For Urine Sample Collection Collection vessels for collecting the Sample as it leaves the Athlete s body Suitable kit for storing partial Samples securely until the Athlete is able to provide more urine; and Sealable and tamper-evident bottles and lids for storing and transporting the complete Sample securely. 7.3.2 For Blood Sample Collection Needles for collecting the Sample; Blood tubes with sealable and tamper-evident devices for storing and transporting the Sample securely. 8. Detection of Drugs There are numerous techniques which can be deployed for the detection of drugs in the blood / urine. Two of the commonly used techniques are: 1. Solvent extraction and 2. TLC Drugs are extracted with dichloromethane and 2-propanol mixed in the ration of 3:1 and aliquots of the extracts are applied to the TLC plates. The developed plates are examined under UV light and are then subjected to a range of visualizing reagents. Steroids are extracted from urine using ethyl acetate, after adding saturated sodium borate solution and washing the extract in 15% sodium sulphate in Na0H solution. Then the extract is allowed to run on TLC plate. 8.1 Solvent System The solvent system comprises of Chloroform::ethyl acetate::methanol in the ratio of 80::45::5 respectively. The plate is dried and then re run in Davidon reagent. 8.2 Visualizing Reagents H 2 So 4 ::Ethanol (50:50) is used as a visualizing agent. It also requires heating with hot air blower to develop dark spot. 8.3 Techniques used for Conformation Tests Following are few of the techniques, which are employed for performing the confirmatory tests: GC-MS LC-MS Immunoassay (HCG).
8.4 Threshold Analysis Threshold may be set either in the rules for laboratory reporting or as a penalty threshold. Each laboratory need a protocol to determine whatever the specimen threshold has been exceeded or not. 9. Summary Drug abuse in sports is generally referred to as doping. The abuse of drug is an attempt to enhance performance in human sporting competition and as well as in animals for example, horse racing etc. According to WADA the legal definition of doping is A violation under the code cover aspects such as the presence of a prohibited substance or metabolites or marker in an athlete s specimen, refusing to provide a sample or evading sample collection, tampering or attempting to tamper with any aspect of doping control: possession or trafficking of prohibited substance. For some substance there is a reporting threshold. If drug is detected but it is below the reporting threshold, no offence is deemed to have occurred. Sample collecting procedure must take into consideration both scientific and legal aspects. In human, urine and blood are the most recommended samples for collections. For detection of drug in sample, several techniques can be used eg. TLC, LC- MS,GC-MS etc.