Revised Edition: 2016 ISBN All rights reserved.

Transcription

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2 Revised Edition: 2016 ISBN All rights reserved. Published by: Academic Pages 48 West 48 Street, Suite 1116, New York, NY 10036, United States

3 Table of Contents Chapter 1 - World Rally Championship Chapter 2 - How to Race Your Car Chapter 3 - How to Shift in a Drag Race Chapter 4 - How to Setup a Race Car in the Shop before Racing Chapter 5 - How to Win Any Racing Game Chapter 6 - How to Drive Chapter 7 - How to Change the Oil in Your Car Chapter 8 - World Rally Cars Chapter 9 - Rally Car Formulas and Championships Chapter 10 - Group A: Set of Regulations Providing Production-derived Vehicles for Competition Chapter 11 - Group B: Set of Regulations Chapter 12 - Formula One Chapter 13 - Formula One Racing Chapter 14 - Formula One Car Chapter 15 - Formula One Engines

4 Chapter 1 World Rally Championship World Rally Championship Category The World Rally Championship (WRC) logo. Country or region Inaugural season 1973 Drivers Teams World Rally Car International 9 (manufacturer teams) 5 (manufacturer teams) Tyre suppliers Drivers' champion Makes' champion P Pirelli Sébastien Loeb Citroën The World Rally Championship (WRC) is a rallying series organised by the FIA, culminating with a champion driver and manufacturer. The driver's world championship and manufacturer's world championship are separate championships, but based on the same point system. The series currently consists of 13 three-day events driven on surfaces ranging from gravel and tarmac to snow and ice. Each rally is split into special stages which are run against the clock on closed roads. The sport's commercial rights are administered by International Sportsworld Communicators, who also produce the daily event highlights shown in 186 countries.

5 The WRC was formed from well-known and popular international rallies, most of which had previously been part of the European Rally Championship and/or the International Championship for Manufacturers, and the series was first contested in The World Rally Car is the current car specification in the series. It evolved from Group A cars which replaced the banned Group B supercars for example the Audi Quattro. World Rally Cars are built on production two-litre four-cylinder cars, but feature turbochargers, antilag systems, four-wheel-drive, sequential gearboxes (paddle shift), aerodynamic parts and other enhancements bringing the price of a WRC car to around US$1 million ( 700,000 / 500,000). The WRC features three support championships, the Junior World Rally Championship (JWRC), the Production World Rally Championship (PWRC), and the Super 2000 World Rally Championship (SWRC) which are contested on the same events and stages as the WRC, but with different regulations. The production car, super 2000 and junior entrants race through the stages after the WRC drivers. History Early Group 4 Lancia Stratos HF The World Rally Championship was formed from well-known international rallies, nine of which were previously part of the International Championship for Manufacturers (IMC), which was contested from 1970 to The 1973 World Rally Championship

6 season was the inaugural season of the WRC and began with the 42ème Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo on January 19. Alpine-Renault won the first manufacturer's world championship with its Alpine A110, after which Lancia took the title three years in a row with the Ferrari V6-powered Lancia Stratos, the first car designed and manufactured specifically for rallying. The first drivers' world championship was not awarded until 1979, although 1977 and 1978 seasons included an FIA Cup for Drivers, won by Italy's Sandro Munari and Finland's Markku Alén respectively. Sweden's Björn Waldegård became the first official world champion, edging out Finland's Hannu Mikkola by one point. Fiat took the manufacters' title with the Fiat 131 Abarth in 1977, 1978 and 1980, Ford with its Escort RS1800 in 1979 and Talbot with its Sunbeam Lotus in Waldegård was followed by German Walter Röhrl and Finn Ari Vatanen as drivers' world champions. Group B era Group B Audi Quattro S1 The 1980s saw the rear-wheel-drive Group 2 and the more popular Group 4 cars be replaced by more powerful four-wheel-drive Group B cars. FISA legalized all-wheeldrive in 1979, but most manufacturers believed it was too complex to be successful. However, after Audi started entering Mikkola and the new four-wheel-drive Quattro in rallies for testing purposes with immediate success, other manufacturers started their all-

7 wheel-drive projects. Group B regulations were introduced in the 1982 season, and with only a few restrictions allowed almost unlimited power. Audi took the constructors' title in 1982 and 1984 and drivers' title in 1983 (Mikkola) and 1984 (Stig Blomqvist). Audi's French female driver Michèle Mouton came close to winning the title in 1982, but had to settle for second place after Opel rival Röhrl title seemed set to go to Vatanen and his Peugeot 205 T16 but a bad accident at the Rally Argentina left him to watch compatriot and team-mate Timo Salonen take the title instead. Italian Attilio Bettega had even a more severe crash with his Lancia 037 at the Tour de Corse and died instantly. Group B Peugeot 205 Turbo 16 The 1986 season started with impressive performances by Finns Henri Toivonen and Alén in Lancia's new turbo- and supercharged Delta S4, which could reportedly accelerate from 0-60 mph (96 km/h) in 2.3 seconds, on a gravel road. However, the season soon took a dramatic turn. At the Rally Portugal, three spectators were killed and over 30 injured after Joaquim Santos lost control of his Ford RS200. At the Tour de Corse, championship favourite Toivonen and his co-driver Sergio Cresto died in a fireball accident after plunging down a cliff. Only hours after the crash, Jean-Marie Balestre and the FISA decided to freeze the development of the Group B cars and ban them from competing in More controversy followed when Peugeot's Juha Kankkunen won the title after FIA annulled the results of the San Remo Rally, taking the title from fellow Finn Alén.

8 Group A era Group A Toyota Celica GT-Four As the planned Group S was also cancelled, Group A regulations became the standard in the WRC until A separate Group A championship had been organized as part of the WRC already in 1986, with Sweden's Kenneth Eriksson taking the title with a Volkswagen Golf GTI 16V. Lancia was quickest in adapting to the new regulations and controlled the world rally scene with Lancia Delta Integrale, winning the constructors' title six years in a row from 1987 to Kankkunen and Miki Biasion both took two drivers' titles with the Integrale. The 1990s then saw the Japanese manufacturers, Toyota, Subaru and Mitsubishi, become title favourites. Spain's Carlos Sainz driving for Toyota Team Europe took the 1990 and 1992 titles with a Toyota Celica GT-Four. Kankkunen moved to Toyota for the 1993 season and won his record fourth title, with Toyota taking its first manufacturers' crown. Frenchman Didier Auriol brought the team further success in 1994, and soon Subaru and Mitsubishi continued the success of the Japanese constructors. Subaru's Scotsman Colin McRae won the drivers' world championship in 1995 and Subaru took the manufacturers' title three years in a row. Finland's Tommi Mäkinen driving a Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution won the drivers' championship four times in a row, from 1996 to Mitsubishi also won the manufacturers' title in 1998.

9 World Rally Car era Rally). After the success of Mäkinen and the Japanese manufacturers, France's Peugeot Peugeot 307 WRC and Ford Focus WRC on a road section during the 2008 Monte Carlo Rally For the 1997 season, the World Rally Car regulations were introduced as an intended replacement for Group A (only successive works Mitsubishis still conforming to the latter formula; until they, too, homologated a Lancer Evolution WRC from the 2001 San Remo made a very successful return to the World Rally Championship. Finn Marcus Grönholm took the drivers' title in his first full year in the series and Peugeot won the manufacturers' crown. England's Richard Burns won the 2001 title with a Subaru Impreza WRC, but Grönholm and Peugeot took back both titles in the 2002 season saw Norway's Petter Solberg become drivers' champion for Subaru and Citroën continue the success of the French manufacturers. Citroën's Sébastien Loeb went on to control the following seasons with his Citroën Xsara WRC. Citroën took the constructors' title three times in a row and Loeb surpassed Mäkinen's record of four drivers' titles earning his fifth with the 2008 season win. After many titleless years at the top with their Ford Focus WRC, Ford took the 2006 and 2007 manufacturers' titles with drivers Marcus Grönholm and Mikko Hirvonen.

10 Structure Škoda preparing their cars a day before the shakedown Each season normally consists of 13 rallies driven on surfaces ranging from gravel and tarmac to snow and ice. Points from these events are calculated towards the drivers' and manufacturers' world championships. The driver's championship and manufacturer's championship are separate championships, but based on the same point system. This means, for example, that Petter Solberg driving for Subaru can win the driver's championship but Citroën can win the manufacturer's championship, which is what happened in 2003, and again in 2006 and 2007 when Sébastien Loeb took his third and fourth WRC titles but Ford won the manufacturer's championship. In the current points system, points are awarded at the end of each rally to the top ten WRC (overall), junior, production car and super 2000 drivers that qualify as follows: 1st: 25 points, 2nd: 18 points, 3rd: 15 points, 4th: 12 points, 5th: 10 points, 6th: 8 points, 7th: 6 points, 8th: 4 points, 9th: 2 points, 10th: 1 point. Despite how many drivers are in one team, constructors can only nominate two drivers to score points for the team as well as scoring for themselves. As only nominated drivers are counted while awarding points, even competitors placed further down than tenth overall (if preceded by privateer drivers) can score them.

11 A stadium-based super special stage in Argentina In the current era, each rally usually consists of special stages of distances ranging from under 2 km (1.24 mi) (super specials) to over 50 kilometers (31 mi). These competitive stages driven on closed roads are linked by non-competitive road sections which are on open roads on which all road laws of that country must be adhered to. On average a day consists of a total of 400 kilometers (249 mi) of driving. A WRC event begins with reconnaissance (recce) on Tuesday and Wednesday, allowing crews to drive through the stages and create or update their pacenotes. On Thursday, teams can run through the shakedown stage to practice and test their set-ups. The competition begins on Friday and ends on Sunday. Cars start the stages at one or two minute intervals. Each day, or leg, has a few designated service parks between the stages, where the teams can within strict time limits perform maintenance and repairs on their cars. The service park also allows spectators and the media to get close to the teams and their cars and drivers. Between the days, after a 45-minute end of day service, cars are locked away in the guarded parc fermé.

12 Cars Andy Priaulx driving a Ford Focus WRC at the 2007 Race of Champions The production-based 2.0 L turbocharged four-wheel drive cars are built to World Rally Car regulations racing across tarmac, gravel and snow. The power output has been limited to around 300 bhp (225 kw). Current cars in the championship include the Citroën C4 and Ford Focus RS. Citroën, Peugeot, Škoda and Mitsubishi pulled out of the championship for 2006 and those cars, although in use by privateers, are not in further development. Citroën returned to WRC in 2007 using the C4. The Suzuki World Rally Team joined the 2008 championship for the first time with their SX4 but they have pulled out of the 2009 championship together with Subaru because of the economic downturn currently affecting the automotive industry. The WRC was formerly held for Group A and Group B rallycars. However, due to the increasing power, lack of reliability and the fatal accidents on the 1986 season, Group B was permanently banned. Later, in 1997, the Group A cars evolved into the WRC car spec, to ease the development of new cars and bring new makes to the competition. Cars in the Production car World Rally Championship are limited to production-based cars homologated under Group N rules. Cars in the Super 2000 World Rally Championship are homologated under Super 2000 rules. Most cars in the Junior World Rally Championship are homologated under Super 1600 rules, but Group N and selected Group A cars can also contest the series.

13 Teams and drivers Ford's Marcus Grönholm at the Bunnings Jumps of the 2006 Rally Australia

14 Marcus Grönholm at the 2001 Rally Finland 20 different manufacturers have won a World Rally Championship event, and a further ten have finished on the podium. Suzuki and Subaru pulled out of the WRC at the end of the 2008 championship, both citing the economic downturn currently affecting the automotive industry for their withdrawal. A typical WRC team will consist of about 40 people on the events, with a further at the team base. Manufacturers and manufacturer-backed teams usually have two or three drivers participating in each rally and eligible to score points. The total number of crews (driver and his co-driver) in the rallies varied from 47 (Monte Carlo and Mexico) to 108 (Great Britain) during the 2007 season.

15 Coverage TV A cameraman at a hairpin turn at the 2007 Rallye Deutschland ISC TV produce daily updates of each event after the day's stages have finished and the TV coverage has been processed. These daily highlight programs are around 30 minutes in duration and cover in depth the day's stages, with in-car footage as well as driver interviews. Before the rally there is also a Rally Preview that normally incorporates special driver, technical and team features as well as providing an overview of the upcoming rally's route. There is also a review program, which lasts approximately an hour, that summarises the rally and the big events that took place during the duration; the stages are not in such detail as the daily updates as it is a review program.

16 The service park area during the 2006 Rally Finland This is then shown in 186 different countries in multiple languages, each day of the event. The make up and format for the telecast can change from country to country depending on the local broadcaster but it all uses ISC TV feeds. ISC TV also provides coverage of all of the events in the Junior World Rally Championship and the Production World Rally Championship in a 26-minute highlights package. Also produced after each event is the lifestyle entertainment programme called WRC All Access, focused on a behind the scenes experience of WRC life, both on and off the road. These programmes focus on all elements of each country visited including culture, food, people, attractions as well as the WRC event itself. Rally World, a weekly rally programme reviews events from all around the planet, including the WRC, the PWRC, the JWRC as well as Asia Pacific Rally Championship, the Australian Rally Championship and the Middle East Rally Championship among others.

17 In the United Kingdom, coverage of the three-day event is shown on Dave on Sundays after the event is completed. Dave also shows different programmes on rallying for example about WRC cars or crashes before showing coverage of the event. During the 2007 season, the cumulative worldwide TV audience for ISC's WRC programmming was 816 million. The programming was available in over 180 countries, and was broadcast on over 250 different TV channels. The total number of dedicated broadcasts was 12,445, and the total number of hours of coverage was 5,457. Radio Live radio coverage is provided in English by World Rally Radio via the Internet, featuring end of stage reports direct from the drivers and teams plus service park news. It also features contemporary music during breaks in rally coverage. This coverage can even simulcast on local radio or via a temporary licence, pending on the event and its organisers. They are also responsible for producing podcasts for each day of each event available for download. Champions Petter Solberg at the 2006 Cyprus Rally

18 Season Sébastien Loeb during the Rally Catalunya 2008 Championship for Drivers Championship for Manufacturers Driver Car Manufacturer Car 2010 Sébastien Loeb Citroën C4 WRC Citroën Citroën C4 WRC 2009 Sébastien Loeb Citroën C4 WRC Citroën Citroën C4 WRC 2008 Sébastien Loeb Citroën C4 WRC Citroën Citroën C4 WRC 2007 Sébastien Loeb Citroën C4 WRC Ford Ford Focus WRC 2006 Sébastien Loeb Citroën Xsara WRC Ford Ford Focus WRC 2005 Sébastien Loeb Citroën Xsara WRC Citroën Citroën Xsara WRC 2004 Sébastien Loeb Citroën Xsara WRC Citroën Citroën Xsara WRC 2003 Petter Solberg Subaru Impreza WRC Citroën Citroën Xsara WRC 2002 Marcus Grönholm Peugeot 206 WRC Peugeot Peugeot 206 WRC 2001 Richard Burns Subaru Impreza WRC Peugeot Peugeot 206 WRC Marcus Grönholm Tommi Mäkinen Tommi Mäkinen Tommi Mäkinen Peugeot 206 WRC Peugeot Peugeot 206 WRC Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution Toyota Mitsubishi Subaru Toyota Corolla WRC Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution Subaru Impreza WRC

19 1996 Tommi Mäkinen Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution Subaru Subaru Impreza Colin McRae Subaru Impreza 555 Subaru Subaru Impreza Didier Auriol 1993 Juha Kankkunen 1992 Carlos Sainz 1991 Juha Kankkunen 1990 Carlos Sainz Toyota Celica Turbo 4WD Toyota Celica Turbo 4WD Toyota Celica Turbo 4WD Lancia Delta Integrale 16V Toyota Celica GT- Four Toyota Toyota Lancia Lancia Lancia Toyota Celica Turbo 4WD Toyota Celica Turbo 4WD Lancia Delta HF Integrale Lancia Delta Integrale 16V Lancia Delta Integrale 16V 1989 Miki Biasion Lancia Delta Integrale Lancia Lancia Delta Integrale 1988 Miki Biasion Lancia Delta Integrale Lancia Lancia Delta Integrale Juha Kankkunen Juha Kankkunen Lancia Delta HF 4WD Lancia Lancia Delta HF 4WD Peugeot 205 Turbo 16 Peugeot Peugeot 205 Turbo Timo Salonen Peugeot 205 Turbo 16 Peugeot Peugeot 205 Turbo Stig Blomqvist Audi Quattro Audi Audi Quattro 1983 Hannu Mikkola Audi Quattro Lancia Lancia Rally Walter Röhrl Opel Ascona 400 Audi Audi Quattro 1981 Ari Vatanen Ford Escort RS1800 Talbot Talbot Sunbeam Lotus 1980 Walter Röhrl Fiat 131 Abarth Fiat Fiat 131 Abarth Björn Waldegård Markku Alén*** Sandro Munari*** Ford Escort RS1800* Ford Ford Escort RS1800 Fiat 131 Abarth** Fiat Fiat 131 Abarth Lancia Stratos HF Fiat Fiat 131 Abarth 1976 No drivers' championship Lancia Lancia Stratos HF 1975 No drivers' championship Lancia Lancia Stratos HF 1974 No drivers' championship Lancia Lancia Stratos HF 1973 No drivers' championship Alpine-Renault Alpine A110 * - Björn Waldegård drove a Mercedes 450 SLC in two rallies in 1979 ** - Markku Alén drove a Lancia Stratos HF in two rallies in 1978 *** - In 1977 and 1978, the drivers championship was the FIA Cup for Rally Drivers No drivers title

20 Other classes A Super 1600 class Renault Clio Fiat Grande Punto Abarth S2000

21 The World Rally Championship also features support championships called the Production car World Rally Championship (PWRC), the Junior World Rally Championship (JWRC) and the Super 2000 World Rally Championship (SWRC). These championships are contested on the same events and stages as the WRC. In 2008, The PWRC includes eight and the JWRC seven events. In 2007, the junior championship had no events outside Europe so it was known simply as the Junior Rally Championship (JRC). The Production car World Rally Championship (P-WRC)began in 2002, replacing the FIA Group N Cup which had been contested from Cars in the championship are production-based and homologated under Group N rules. The Junior World Rally Championship (J-WRC) was started in 2001, and can be contested with Super 1600, Group N and selected Group A cars. Drivers in the championship have to be 28 years or younger. There is no age limit for co-drivers. The Super 2000 World Rally Championship (S-WRC) was started in Within the Super 2000 category are competitions for drivers (known as the S-WRC) and another for teams (the World Rally Championship Cup). The cars in the championship are under the Super 2000 rules.

22 Chapter 2 How to Race Your Car Steps on the Internet or look in a phone book. 1. Find a race track. Racing your car on public roads is dangerous and illegal. You will also have a lot more fun on a track that is made for speed and safety. Search 2. Get schooled. Call the race track and ask when they will be hosting a "Driver's Education" event or when it will be open for the public. You should not race your car until participating in a Driver's Education event. If the track knows of none, search on the Internet for "motorsports clubs" in your area. If you have a car with a racing heritage like Audi, Porsche, BMW, Yugo, Daewoo etc., search for that club (i.e., Porsche Club of America). When you go to any track, if there is classroom time, avail yourself of the wisdom which will be imparted. Many racers began their careers participating in autocross events. Contact the local NASA (National Auto Sport Association) or do an online search. 3. Perform a safety check. On the day of your first Driver's Education event, check all of the mechanics of your car including oil (which should be topped off), tire pressure (a few PSI higher than normal-ask the instructor or another participant), tire tread, steering fluid, brake fluid and brakes. If you are not experienced in doing a safety check on your car, take it to a mechanic and tell the mechanic you plan on racing the car. When you get to the track, check the tire pressure and oil again. Look under "Things You'll Need" (below) for a list of items to bring to the track.

23 4. Learn the rules. Every event has different rules. One common rule is a prohibition on passing, among the most dangerous of racing moments. Find out the rules from the event organizer. 5. See the track. Feel the track. Be the track. On the track, go around twice at a normal rate of speed to get the lay of the land; if possible, get out and walk the track paying special attention to the turns. Commit the track to memory by drawing it on paper, noting turn-in and track-out points. Do a drive-through with a instructor if at all possible. Don't be scared of the track (AKA: An "O'Gorman"), but give it the proper caution and respect. 6. Track to curb. When you first go on track at speed, follow an experienced driver. Every turn is approached with a minds-eye view of entry & exit and understanding of apexes. The prime apex point is the point in the center of the turn which will produce the fastest exit speed. Depending on track conditions (debris)and traffic you may need to use an early or late apex. You want to maintain as shallow an arc from your entry (turn-in point) to the exit (trackout)point. You should always maximize the amount of road surface used. 7. Learn how to Brake. Rather than braking incrementally when going into a curve, it is best to be going as fast as you are prepared to and to then brake fast. This does not mean slamming on your brakes to the point where you could go into a spin (a common mistake) but it does mean knowing when to brake at the last possible moment. Braking can be practiced daily on interstate off-ramps, etc. Braking is usually done to impending lock-up. With ABS, you simply stand on the brakes. Braking can slow the car to the speed necessary to successfully negotiate a turn as well as settle the car at turn-in or when used in combination with steering and acceleration can cause the car to begin to rotate in order to carry more speed into a corner. A teacher familiar with the track can tell you exactly when you should start braking and turning and even where your car should be positioned going into turns. 8. Alternate of braking. Or you can start drifting if you know how to and take a steady and compressive turn and go out of it without losing much speed. 9. How to be Passed. If you are driving under "No Pass" rules, this usually means that passing is still allowed if consent is given. Ask first. If this is the case, ask for the signal to show your consent. You should not be doing a lot of passing (or any passing) as a novice but you should be getting passed often. When you see a driver approaching rapidly, the driver may well be looking for your signal. It is important to be courteous by giving this signal whenever it is safe to do so. This signal is usually an arm point out straight to the left if you wish the driver to pass to your left or, if to the right, your arm out the window and bent over the roof pointing to your right. Give the signal clearly with your arm fully extended. Immediately upon giving the signal, make sure your car behaves as if it is ready to allow passage on the side you indicated. Do not point right and then track right. Stay in your line of travel. Only give a passing signal on straightaways. 10. Learn and be mindful of the flags. While most tracks attach the same meaning to each flag, there is some local variation. Use this paragraph as a guide but be sure to check with the event organizer. The following will usually apply:

24 o o o o o A solid green flag means that the warm-up lap has ended and that passing may commence (when passing is allowed and then only according to rules of consent). A blue flag with a diagonal yellow stripe means that you need to allow the car behind you to pass. This is usually only shown when you have already failed to do the right thing without request. At the next passing zone, give the signal and hold your line. A stationary yellow means that there is some type of danger ahead. Slow down and use caution. A waving yellow means that there is a disabled car on the track. Slow down and prepare to go off your line to avoid the car. A flag with alternating yellow and red vertical stripes means that there is debris on the track (e.g., an oil slick). Slow down and watch for debris on the road. A black flag means that there is something wrong with your car. If the black flag is shown at all flag stations, it means that all cars are being called back to the pit, usually because there has been a crash or there is something else obstructing the track. Safely slow your vehicle, indicate to the flagger that you have seen the flag and pull into the pits for instruction from the trackmaster. o o o A red flag means you must stop your car immediately. Brake slowly and be aware that another car may be behind you. Come to a stop, preferably off to the side. Stay still and stay in your car. There may be emergency vehicles entering the track. Wait for instruction. A black flag with a yellow meatball means that the run group is about to end. Proceed through the checkered flag and slow to a cool-down lap. 11. Chill out. The last run is called a "cool-down" lap because you are cooling down the brakes, which, by now, may be hot enough to melt rubber. Go slow and try not to use your brakes at all. Wave at all the corner workers. Use all of your fingers. 12. Steer correctly. When you are driving, position your hands at 3:00 and 9:00. This will give you the best response time and best posture at high speeds. 13. Keep your windows down. Keep both front windows down. This is necessary so you can signal a pass and arguably safer in crashes where the glass breaking would otherwise cause injury. Also keep your radio off. You want to hear the noises your car is communicating to you, not your icy stunna tunes (y0). 14. Driving fast takes a lots of practice. You will be shocked at how difficult it is. Early in your development you will be assigned an instructor at each Driver's Education event. As you improve and the different organizations get to know you, you will be allowed to drive without on instructor. 15. It is an expensive pursuit. You will be shocked at how fast you go through brake pads, rotors and tires. the additional strain on your car will have you replacing other unexpected items. 16. If you are smart and lucky you will recognize early that you've become addicted and will get your daily driver off of the track and buy a dedicated track car. If you are especially clever, buy a dedicated track car that will easily join a popular and relatively inexpensive race class.

25 Tips 17. After track days, you may begin think about racing. Each racing organization has a Competition School that is necessary to get your Novice License. Flags are a very important part of tracking your car because you cannot hear other people shouting while you are tooling around at 120 mph (190 km/h). Understand the flags as they are the sign-language of a race track. Bring extra oil and coolant with you. Check your oil after each run. Bring at least one spare. Tires can go quickly on a track. Watch from the stands so you can see where more experienced drivers begin their turns and start braking. Driver's Education events are critical and should be done prior to tracking your car. Most chapters of the Porsche Club of America allow other models of cars to participate. If you get into it, there are infinite modifications that can be done to make your car better and safer on the track; among the most important are better safety restraint harnesses, tires, brakes, fire extinguisher assemblies and roll bars. Check with the track or event organizer about anything you must bring or wear. Your car will not respond well to more than one drastic input at a time (throttle, brakes or steering). Your tires only have so much traction, so make sure that any strong inputs you need to do are separated. Brake or feather the throttle, turn in and accelerate. If done correctly, you will be at the outside edge of the track. Turning hard while braking or accelerating hard if done incorrectly can reduce traction, and possibly result in loss of control. Wet roads or cold tires (on your first lap) will require more caution. Smoking your tires before the race will warm up the tires giving you more traction. Spoilers will only increase down force and result in more traction in high performance cars. Learn how to drift. Drifting in the corners can allow you to corner at speed and keep you going. Remove unnecessary devices and objects from your car. You're not going to need the 800 Watt Amp and quad Subwoofer Box. You're not going to need your back seats either. Having Subwoofers and junk slide around your trunk changes your CG (center of gravity) and can change your cornering when you least expect it. Also, losing the weight makes you faster and you'll perform better. Spoilers are unnecessary in vehicles going speeds under 200kph. Warnings Obviously, there is significant danger in racing a car. Driving at high rates of speed on a race track takes different skills than everyday driving on public roads. People have died and been seriously injured when racing cars and you should

26 treat this as a serious sport with an education that must take place prior to going fast or even setting foot in the pit. Make sure your equipment is up to current standards. For example, helmet standards change from time to time. Be advised that insurance is unlikely to cover you if you crash your car while tracking it. Some drivers tow their wrecked cars out of the track and then call the insurance company. This is insurance fraud and it is easy to get caught. Some car warranties will be voided or altered if they find out you tracked your car. Things You'll Need A car to race A "Snell" approved helmet which meets or exceeds the standards of the event in which you will be participating. Numbers for your car. Go to a sign shop and get magnetic ones or use masking tape. Even if you use magnetic numbers, you may wish to tape down the leading edge of the magnet to avoid it being lifted up by wind speed. A valid driver's license. Shoes must be smooth-soled and must completely enclose the foot. Wear a long-sleeved cotton shirt and jeans. It is best, but not required, to wear a racing neck collar available at automotive sporting stores. Bring water and food unless you are certain it will be readily available in the pit. Tire pressure gauge Extra motor oil (synthetic is best) and engine coolant.

27 Chapter 3 How to Shift in a Drag Race feet/201 m). A standard drag racing event involves several classes, each competing in Drag racing is a sport in which cars or motorcycles race down a track with a set distance as fast as possible. A drag race pits two vehicles against each other over a straight, measured distance from a standing start. The standard distances are a quarter-mile (1,320 feet/402.3 m), 1000 feet (301.5m) (contested in the highest horsepower classes only), or an eighth-mile (660 their own single-elimination tournament of head-to-head races. Drag Races are always about shifting. We will think that Don't explain these in steps but in strategies and methods. Steps 1. The various strategies used in drag racing begin with the car itself. Performance enhancements must comply both with NHRA/IHRA rules and restrictions based on the class the car is running in. Some common enhancements include the use of slicks (smooth, soft tires that grip the track), methods for introducing more air into the motor such as turbochargers, superchargers, and nitrous oxide (N2O), specialized fuels (higher octane gas, methanol, etc...), improved suspensions, and a multitude of others. 2. The Burnout

28 3. When approaching the starting line (also known as the staging area), most racers will apply water (formerly thought to be bleach by spectators but was always water in old bleach bottles) to the driven tires either by backing into a small puddle (the "bleach box" or "water box") or having it sprayed on. The car then exits the water and does a burnout to heat the tires, making them even stickier. Some cars have a mandatory "line-lock" which prevents the rear brakes from engaging when the brake pedal is depressed (which can be toggled on and off). This allows the car to remain stationary (with the brakes applied) without burning up the rear brake pads while doing a burnout. Cars in street classes (which must be street legal) are the only exception to this pre-race ritual, as the grooved tires tend to retain some of the water. 4. Staging 5. After the burn-out comes the "staging phase", where the cars pull up to the starting line. Each lane has its own string of lights on the "Christmas tree", with two small orange lights on top. These are the "pre-staged" and "staged" lights. The two cars will slowly creep forward until the first (pre-staged) orange light is lit. This means they are very close to the actual starting line (a mere 7 inches). Then the cars will nudge forward until the second (staged) light is lit. This indicates they are at the starting line, this is the point where the driver will apply the "line-lock" to prevent the car from rolling while he uses the clutch and gas pedals. When both cars have lit both bulbs, the starter will engage the Christmas tree. If the racer moves too far the top bulb will go out and the driver is said to have "deep staged". While some drivers prefer this technique, some tracks and classes prohibit it. An advantage can be had, by deepstaging, in gaining a quicker reaction time (RT) but at the expense of the elapsed time (ET) and MPH achieved at the top end of the track; there is also a higher risk of "red lighting". A loose etiquette is followed when staging. The driver to illuminate the first light will wait for the second car to light both bulbs before advancing to the staged light. 6. The tree 7. Once the competitors have both staged, the starter presses a button to start the race. There are two types of tree used. A sportsman tree, used for bracket and handicap racing, consists of each yellow lighting 0.5 seconds after the one above it. The green comes on 0.5 seconds after the last yellow is lit. If the race is a handicap race each side of the tree will have its own timing. A pro tree consists of all three yellows being illuminated at the same time, followed by the green 0.4 seconds later. This type of tree is used for professional and heads-up racing. It should be noted that some tracks run a Pro-style tree for bracket racing during special "Street Racing" bracket events. 8. The race 9. Several things are important on the way down the track in drag racing. The first is not to cross into the opponent's lane, as this will result in disqualification. In case of a double disqualification in which one driver commits a foul start and the second driver crosses into his opponent's lane, the driver who committed the foul start wins. Another important consideration is when to shift gears. Most drag cars are shifted manually by the driver, and there are optimum times for shifting that vary with each car. Typically, power will increase as the engine RPMs

29 Tips (revolutions per minute) increase, but only up to a point before power begins to taper off. The ideal time to shift is when the descending power curve for the lower gear crosses the ascending power curve for the higher gear. Most drag racers use a tachometer to judge shift points. In Fuel classes especially, "pedalling" the car (adjusting the throttle) to prevent loss of traction is often important and one measure of how good a driver is. 10. Strategies for crossing the finish line usually only involve bracket racing. If one car has a huge lead, it may slow down before crossing the finish line to prevent a breakout. Especially in bracket racing, it is not uncommon to see the leading vehicle's brake lights come on briefly before the finish line. The term "sandbagging" is used in races where the driver in a bracket race puts a slower "dial in" (the predicted E.T.) that he/she could run and then at the finish line tap the brakes lightly or lift of the gas pedal (also known as pedalling) to reduce the E.T. to run as close as possible to the dial in. 11. If both cars break out, the car closer to their dial-in wins. In NHRA Junior Dragster racing, however, there is a mimimum elapsed time where a car which posts a time less than the minimum permissible time is ejected from the entire race. This is faster than the official break out elapsed time known as "Power Shifting" and will make your car "Lurch" forward after every The Perfect Shift is determined by your horspower and torque curves, not the redline of your vehicle. Shifting at the proper time will ensure you are in the power band for your next gear, improving acceleration. Shifting perfectly in the first 3 gears might be difficult for you so you might need practice. Nitrous Oxide will NOT make you shift faster. With a 5-Speed, never let your foot OFF of the GAS pedal during shifts, this is gear change. Just be careful, and make sure you hit every gear correctly, or at least have a very decent rev-limiter to protect from over-revving your engine in the case that you "miss" a gear. Keep the gas pedal floored, and yank (or throw) the shifter into the desired gear AS FAST AND AS HARD as possible WHILE depressing the clutch. Your next gear should be engaged before your clutch pedal hits the floor, and release it as QUICK as possible YOU NEED TO GET USED TO YOUR CAR and its clutch/gears in order to determine whether this is a good method. If you are used to the gears and where the clutch grabs, you should have no problem power shifting. Warnings If you didn't shift your gears and it passes over the red line of your gauge could cause your engine to give in, henceforth, making your car totaled.

30 Using NO2 could goof up your ability to shift gears. so use it if your gear is in 4th gear or higher.

31 Chapter 4 How to Setup a Race Car in the Shop before Racing Have you ever wanted to setup your race vehicle with minimal effort? Here is an ordered procedure to help eliminate going back to readjust a setting after other settings are changed. Make sure the driver is in the vehicle or the drivers weight is properly simulated and positioned for the following steps. Steps common surface such as a frame rail. If the ride height is not to specs, turn the 1. Weigh the vehicle. Set it to the proper racing weight including all fluids such as fuel, coolant and oil (this weight is usually the minimum weight requirement per the rule book). 2. Determine the tire stagger to be used. Install a set of tires that will give you this setting with the proper air pressure in the tires. (Don t over inflate or under inflate a tire to obtain proper stagger.) Set the air pressure in the tires to the pressure they will achieve at racing temperature. 3. Set the ride height of the chassis. Pick a point between the wheels and as close to the wheels as possible. It is preferable to have the measuring point on a weight jack bolts or shim the springs to achieve the specs. 4. Check the caster to make sure it is at the proper specification. Caster is the forward/aft (longitudinal) tilt of the steering spindle/mcpherson strut. Remember a positive number means that the top of the spindle/mcpherson strut leans to the rear of the vehicle. If the caster is not correct, then adjust it to the proper specification. 5. Check the camber to make sure it is at the proper specification. Camber is the left/right (lateral) tilt of the steering spindle/mcpherson strut. A positive number means that the top of the spindle/mcpherson strut leans toward the outside of the vehicle. If the camber is not correct, then adjust it to the proper specification. When adjusting the upper a-arm of an a-arm type suspension, make sure to keep the front and rear a-arm pivot points equal to avoid changing the caster. In other words if the a-arm uses shims to adjust it, make sure to use or remove the same thickness of shim in the front adjust bolt that is used or removed in the rear adjust bolt. When adjusting a McPherson strut, make sure the strut upper mount moves laterally only and does not move longitudinally. After adjusting the caster and

32 camber settings, it is a good idea to recheck them to make sure they are at the proper specs. 6. Set the toe in/out of the front suspension. 7. Adjust the cross weight to achieve the proper percentage of weight on the right front and left rear wheels. The easiest way to do this without changing the ride height is to determine the percentage of cross weight that is in the vehicle now. Multiply the percentage by the total vehicle weight. This is the amount of weight on the right front and left rear wheels. Determine the percentage of cross weight desired and multiply it times the total vehicle weight. This is the amount of weight desired on the right front and left rear wheels. Subtract the cross weight desired from the current cross weight (this is the weight difference and could be a negative number), then divide by 8. This number is how much weight on each wheel needs to be changed. Subtract this number from the left front wheel weight and adjust the weight jack accordingly. Add this number to the left rear wheel weight then adjust the weight jack. Subtract this number from the right rear wheel weight and change the weight jack. Finally add this number to the right front wheel weight and adjust the weight jack. An example of how this works is here. Warnings Tips Make sure the driver is in the vehicle or the drivers weight is properly simulated and positioned for all of the steps. The car is raced with a driver, if the driver's weight is not accounted for, then none of the adjustments will be correct. Sometimes it is not possible for the driver to be readily available when the vehicle is setup. If so, go through the setup the first time with the driver in the vehicle. When the driver gets out of the vehicle then record all of the weights and heights to be used later when the driver is not there. When the vehicle is jacked up, make sure no one gets under any part of the vehicle. If someone must get under the vehicle, put jack stands or some kind of support under the vehicle's frame. Driving and or working on a race vehicle is dangerous. Learn all the safety precautions needed and apply them to stay safe.

33 Chapter 5 How to Win Any Racing Game Racing games are hard to most of us, but if you follow my tips, you may see your winnings rise. Steps 1. Draw a "Line" - A "line" is is the path you will take around the track. The line generally goes low in the turns and high in the straights. 2. Choose a Car - A good car handles well, is fast, and has good brakes. Speed may not be a factor on shorter tracks, but handling is. Bigger tracks with larger turns are the opposite. Choose accordingly! 3. Practice - If there is a practice mode, use it. Test your line, and your cars handling, speed, and brakes. Memorizing the tracks is the key to most racing games. Pay particular attention to turns at the end of straights and chicanes. 4. Watch Your Opponents - Even if your cars runs great, your opponents may be even better, so you may have to tune your current car or get a better car. 5. Race - If you are pretty sure you can win, go for it. One way to tell you are beating the other drivers pretty bad is when you start passing them a second time. This is called lapping, which means they are a full lap behind you, so don't be Tips afraid to pit or slow down due to tire wear. If you're games run on a system of "credits" get a bunch first so you'll have plenty to blow on the car. Choose your car wisely. If you have 20,000 dollars, and buy a 20,000 car with 500 horsepower, you may have been able get a car for 10,000 dollars with 300 horsepower, but tune to 600 for only 7000 more dollars Warnings For the last time, watch your money! Some games have autosave where it will save automatically and you can't shut off the system and boot back up to get your money back.

34 Chapter 6 How to Drive Or rather, "How to learn How to drive". There are many things that require you to drive, such as an automobile, a racing car, a tractor, or a motor boat. Each may require a different driving technique, but each of them requires taking driving lessons, of some sort. Driving is not just getting into a vehicle and taking off. There are many safety procedures that have to used and learned. (NB: Some services are US only) Steps 1. Get a driver's or learner's permit, if local or national regulations require one. 2. Find a reputable drivers school and take driving lessons. If you are still in school, most have classes in driver's ed. If this is required to get a license, make sure that the program is properly accredited and accepted. 3. Study the driving rules in the book that you received when you signed up for the permit. If you do not learn the rules, and how to use them, you cannot get your license. 4. Practice with someone on a daily basis. It could be a friend, or a relative. Make sure that they have excellent driving knowledge, and that they have the patience to be sitting beside you, while you learn.

35 Tips 5. Watch others while they drive and ask questions. While there is no substitute for firsthand practice, this can be a good opportunity to review rules and techniques. 6. Apply for your driving test, after the required amount of lessons. The test involves, usually, depending on the state, a written test as well as a driving test. 7. Pass both tests, and you will be permitted to drive. If possible, try to sign up for grassroots motorsports events to practice car control. Autocross is an especially useful event to participate in, as it provides a safe environment for you to learn car control at relatively low speeds. The stuff you learn in autocross are rarely found in commercial driving schools which are only interested in making you a passively safe driver. Active safety is also an important step to being a good driver. Most people find it easier to start with a vehicle that has an automatic transmission. This will get you out on the road faster, but learning to drive manual is a very valuable skill, even though it has a steeper learning curve. A copy of your state's "rules of the road" can be gotten from any Department of Licensing (DOL) office. You may also be able to find one online. Always remember what you have learned in driving school. As soon as you get into the car, even before putting the key into the ignition, put on your seat belt. Adjust your mirrors, both side and top to make sure you have a good view of the cars on either side and behind you. Always use your hand signals, or car turn signals. Remember that the person in the car behind you cannot read your mind. They don't know which direction you are going to move unless you signal. If you're completely new behind the wheel, find someplace safe to get a feel for controlling a car the first time. Start on a slow back road or large, empty parking lot, out of traffic. If you fail the driving test, try a different licensing office next time. Some of them are tougher graders than others. Warnings Certain areas may require different steps to become legally permitted to drive. For example, some do not require lessons, while some require extra tests. Always drive at least a car length behind the car in front of you. If you have to make a fast stop, you do not want to crash into the front car. When going fast, mainly 60 mph or more, you will need even more than one car length in order to come safely to a stop, so understand and observe the two-second rule. Take weather and road conditions into account. Know your vehicle; how long it takes to stop, the responsiveness of the steering wheel, etc. Use caution when driving. Do not speed, nor drive too slowly. Never drink and drive.

36 Never drive if you are very tired. ALWAYS wear a seatbelt! Try not to stop suddenly unless its an emergency. This is especially true of higher end vehicles such as sports cars, as they have brakes that vehicles behind you can barely match in stopping power. Sudden stops can lead to vehicles behind you ploughing into your rear.

37 Chapter 7 How to Change the Oil in Your Car Car oil that has not been changed for 10,000 miles. Regularly changing your car's engine oil and filter is one of the most important things you can do to keep your car running well. Over time your oil breaks down and your filter becomes clogged with contaminants. Depending upon your driving habits and type of vehicle, this may take as few as 3 months or 3,000 miles, or be as long as 20,000 miles or

38 24 months (consult your owner's manual for service intervals). Fortunately, changing your oil is both easy and inexpensive. Steps An oil pan and socket wrench. Gather all the necessary supplies and equipment. Under your car with all the oil out is not the time to discover what is missing. It will help to have everything close at hand. (Caution: take great care when working with a hot engine.)

39 The oil drain plug Before draining out the old oil, you may want to open the hood of the car and open the oil filler cap on the top of the engine. This will help the oil drain easier because air can flow in as the crankcase drains. Locate the drain plug on the bottom of the oil pan. It is normally towards the back of the engine at the car to catch oil runoff. As the oil comes out of the pan at an angle, it can be tricky to catch, and may land on the ground. If this includes your driveway, you will want some newspaper or a drop cloth to catch it, or you risk an oil stain on your driveway or garage. 3.

40 Removing the drain plug gasket Loosen the plug counter-clockwise using the proper sized socket (or wrench). The fit is especially important if the bolt is tight, which it shouldn't be. If you need more leverage, an extension such as a pipe segment on your ratchet handle can help. If this type of "breaker-bar" arrangement is required it was way too tight. You should also remove and replace the circular paper (or felt) drain plug gasket, but a metal washer can be re-used if in good condition. Be careful not to drop the plug in the oil, it's a messy job trying to find the plug in the black stuff. 4. o o If you do drop it in the pan, you can easily find it with a magnet. Ideally, use the type that is at the end of an expandable rod. Another easy way to "save" the drain plug is to use a funnel with a bit of screening in it. Catch the plug as it falls out. You can then pull the funnel out of the way of the stream and set it to one side.

41 5. The oil filler cap Some vehicles (such as BMW, Mercedes, newer Volvos, etc) may have a filter element or cartridge as opposed to the simpler spin-on type. They require you to open the cap of a built-in resevoir and lift out the filter element itself.

42 Remove the filter, using a filter socket or filter wrench if necessary Tip the filter into your pan to drain the contents

43 Locate the filter assembly. This can be a tough part. Filters are not put in a standard position, and they can be on the front, back or side of engines. Look at the filter you purchased to replace the old one and look for something similar. Once you have located it, remove it from the engine. This can be tough, and often seems too hard. Once you get a good grip slow and steady twisting can sometimes get it to begin to spin. If you can't get it off by hand, use an oil filter wrench. Keep trying. It will eventually come off. There will be oil in the filter, so be careful not to spill it and have a pan underneath to catch the drips. o When removing the oil filter, make sure that the rubber gasket ring comes off with the filter. If you don't and it sticks to the car, the new filter won't seal properly and will leak. o Lubricate the gasket on the new filter with new oil When installing the new filter, remove all packaging, then dip the tip of your finger in the new oil and smear it on the gasket ring of the new filter. If you use the old oil, it may contain buildup that will wear away between the gasket and the car and eventually become a leak. o You might pour some oil into the filter prior to installing it. This can reduce the amount of time your car takes to regain proper oil pressure. If your filter is mounted vertically, you may be able to fill it almost to the

44 6. top. If mounted at an angle then a little oil will spill just prior to spinning the filter on but that will not amount to much. Garages don't tend to prefill filters because it takes time, and for them time is money. Replace the drain plug Replace the drain plug on the oil pan. Don't forget to install a replacement gasket or washer. Start threading it with your fingers so as not to cross the threads, and it should be snug, but no need to be super-tight. 7.

45 to ensure that they will not leak. The filter will generally say how tight to tighten This would be a good time to wipe any debris or buildup off the surface where the gasket will seat. Carefully screw on the new, lubricated filter, being careful to not cross the threads. With the paper cartridge filters, they will always come with at least one o-ring, sometimes as many as four different ones. Make sure to replace all of them it. Go until the gasket touches, then however far it says it should be. This is usually 2/3 or 1/4 of a turn after the gasket touches but could be more. Read the specifications on the filter or box it came in. Using a cap wrench can make it easier to install per specs if the filter is in a difficult to reach location. 8.

46 A funnel will help Add new oil to the car at the fill hole. The amount you need is in the owner's manual, usually listed under "capacities". Don't always rely on the dipstick for an accurate measurement; it can be off, especially if the engine has just been run (the stick will read low because there is still oil in the galleries). If you want to check the stick accurately, just check it first thing in the morning, parked on a level surface, when it's cold and settled. o If you hold the bottle with the spout on top, as shown, it will pour more smoothly, without bubbling. 9. Replace the fill cap, check around for tools and close the hood. 10. Start the engine, watching to be sure the oil pressure light goes off after startup, and be sure to look under the car while the engine is running (put car in park or neutral with the parking brake on) to check for any drips. If the filter and drain plug aren't tight, they may leak slowly. Run the engine for a minute or so. Tips Be sure you have purchased the right filter and have all the tools you need before starting. It's a pain to have to run back to the store in the middle of the job, especially since you won't be able to use your car. It's helpful to have a friend who has done this before around for assistance.

47 To avoid getting oil all over your arm when removing the drain plug bolt, apply inward force (as if you are trying to push the plug back into the hole) while removing it. When you know that bolt is fully unscrewed, quickly pull it away from the opening. If you're lucky only a few drops will get on your hand. Tie a rag around your wrist when you remove the oil plug. Oil might get all over your hands, but it won't go all the way down your arm, making it a messy clean up. Also, have pumice or citrus hand-cleaner, or consider using disposable gloves to keep your hands perfectly clean. Latex rubber will decay quickly in oil, so nitrile or another material is a better choice. For a very stubborn filter, using a hammer and a large screwdriver as a sort of "chisel" can push the filter counter-clockwise. Be advised: once you punch hole in this thin filter wall, the engine cannot be started until it's replaced. There are some oil drain valves on the market that replace your normal drain pan bolt. These can make oil changes much more convenient and can reduce the amount of mess you make. To avoid spilling too much oil as you remove the filter, wrap a plastic bag around the filter, which will catch any oil that escapes as you remove it. Before disposing of the old filter, it is best to get all possible oil out. This can be done by suspending it upside-down on a heavy wire mesh set across your oil catch basin. As a last step, taking your time (because warm used oil is thin, ie, low viscosity), pour it through a big funnel into gallon jugs. They can be coolant, windshieldwasher fluid, anything with a secure screw cap. Leave a few inches of room at the top. Don't allow these containers to sit in sunlight too long, the plastic can get very brittle. Remember to always make sure that the oil you use fulfills the car manufacturer's requirements as stated in the manual. Be sure to use the oil specified in the owners manual as to viscosity. That's the number that looks like "10W-30". A lower "W" rating means the oil is formulated to flow better in cold. Below freezing, a 5W oil is preferred. Below 0 F (-18 C), a synthetic 0W oil is worth considering. Draining your oil with the engine still warm can speed up the draining process. Be careful not to let the hot oil get on your skin. Taking your car into the shop to get the oil changed is never a bad idea. It is inexpensive and allows them to check for any other problems that may arise in order to prevent a large repair bill later on. Spills happen. To avoid fines or polluting the environment consider having a green, eco-friendly oil absorbent product on hand in case you spill some oil. They will absorb oil and most other liquids like gasoline or paint and will keep your garage and driveway clean. Kitty litter or clay-based products are not effective solutions for this. You can find a wide variety of eco-friendly oil absorbent products online. They are extremely absorbent, easy to use and renewable.

48 Warnings Iridescence in an engine oil spill Recycle your oil, or store it if you have to. Dumping it on the ground is illegal. Your local auto store or garage will take your used oil for free, in most cases. Many of them heat their garages with waste oil so they are happy to get it. Instead of lifting the car, you can park over a trench or ditch or with two wheels up on a curb. Be sure to take every safety precaution while doing this (use the emergency brake, block the wheels, make sure the tires are completely stable on the ground, etc.). It is unsafe to work on a car that is still on a jack. Instead, use jack stands (never cinder blocks) and do the whole thing on a level concrete surface. Be careful not to burn yourself! Your engine, the used oil inside it, and other parts of the car can stay hot enough to burn you for a long time after you turn the ignition off. Refer to your owner's manual for jack/lift instructions; improper jack placement can damage your car badly.

49 Recommended reading This how-to is not meant for all cars, and certainly shouldn't be your only source of information. Always consult your owner's manual for manufacturer's recommendations when determining your maintenance schedule. Don't get the oil inlet confused with the transmission fluid inlet. You can ruin your transmission if you put oil in it. If you don't use the correct wrench on the drain plug bolt you run the risk of "rounding it off" (destroying the head of the bolt). Do NOT over or under-tighten the new filter. Always tighten it to the manufacturer's specs either by hand or with a cap tool. Don't overfill; that can cause foaming or spills. Be careful with additives. Many of these products are more marketing than substance, and some can void your warranty or harm your vehicle. Check with the service people at your dealership first. Check with your owner's manual on selecting the correct weight (0W-40, 10W-30 etc) and type of oil (mineral, synthetic). Many high performance vehicles (especially those with turbochargers) require synthetic oil of a specified weight. Running mineral oil or the wrong weight may cause damage. Things You'll Need Oil (check your owner's manual for specific weight and quantity needed). Most cars use 4-6 litres. Also, make sure you use oil that meets the API performance rating for your vehicle. Most vehicles made since 2004 require rating "SM",

50 which is better than the oil that was available when older cars were made. Always use the newest and latest spec oil available. Socket wrench (for European or Japanese cars you will likely need a metric set). Oil filter (contact your local auto parts store for specific model of filter). Expensive ones do not clean oil any better. The ones that have a grippy coating are easier to install and tighten. Oil filter wrench. There are different size oil wrenches available depending on the diameter of the filter. The expensive one that is double articulated is the surest one to use. A way to get your car off the ground (ramps or a jack & jack stands work best). NEVER get underneath a car supported only by a jack! This is extremely risky. Always use a jack stand. 2 ton jack stands tend to run between $20-$25 at your local auto store. Something to catch the used oil in, and a funnel and sturdy gallon jugs to transport it. Oil rags or paper towel. Some vehicles require you to remove top or bottom panels, which might require additional tools.

51 Chapter 8 World Rally Cars Ford Focus WRC Jari-Matti Latvala, winner of the Neste Oil Rally Finland 2010, driving his Ford Focus RS WRC 09 in Muurame shakedown. The Ford Focus RS WRC is a car built for the BP Ford World Rally Team by Ford and M-Sport and based on the Ford Focus Climate 2 litre production hatchback, developed to compete in the World Rally Championship. The RS stands for Rallye Sport and the WRC for World Rally Car, the car's FIA specification. Like all contemporary World Rally Cars, the car is heavily modified from the production version, with which it shares only the basic shape and some parts of the bodyshell. The car features four wheel drive, rather than the front wheel drive of the road car. The engine

52 used in the 2007 Focus WRC is based on Ford's 2.0 Litre Duratec from other models in the Focus range as rallying rules do not permit the standard 2.5 Litre engine of the Focus ST or road going RS. As with most rally cars, the 2.0 Litre engine is heavily modified and performance was increased using a turbocharger. Also the 2009 Ford Focus WRC uses a Ford 1998cc Pipo built l4 Duratec WRC engine (Four Cylinders, 16 Valves, Bore 85 mm and Stroke 88 mm), Pi electronic engine Management system, Garrett Turbocharger (with required 34 mm inlet restrictor), Air Intercooler, and a Catalytic Converter. Power is 300bhp at 6000rpm and 550 Nm (406 ftlb) of Torque at 4000rpm Transmission is a Permanent four - wheel drive with M - Sport designed active Centre Differential, Pi electronic differential control Units, M - Sport / Ricardo Five - Speed sequential gearbox with electro - hydraulically controlled shift, M - Sport / Sachs multidisc carbon Clutch RS WRC 05 at the 2005 Acropolis Rally Suspension is Front and Rear: MacPherson struts (front)and Trailing Arm (Rear) with Reiger external reservoir dampers adjustable in bump and rebound, and Fully Adjustable fabricated steel links. Brakes are 300 mm (11.8 in.) Brembo ventilated discs with Brembo four-piston monoblock calipers for Gravel.

53 Weight is a minimum of 1230 kg (2712 lb.) Wheelbase is 1800 mm (70.9 in.) Length is 4362 mm (171.7 in.) Width is 1800mm (70.9 in.) Tyres are Pirelli 650 mm for Gravel History Carlos Sainz driving an RS WRC 01 at the 2001 Rally Finland The first version of the car was built in 1999 to replace the Ford Escort WRC. It debuted in the Monte Carlo Rally with Colin McRae and Simon Jean-Joseph behind the wheels of the two cars. It was immediately on the pace, setting many fastest stage times, but the use of an illegal water pump meant that the two cars were excluded from the event. McRae gave the Focus its first win two events later on the Safari Rally Kenya finishing over 15 minutes ahead of the second placed Toyota of Didier Auriol. In 2003, Ford released a newly designed Focus WRC, named Focus RS WRC 03, for competition during the second part of the season. The car, with most parts redesigned from the ground up, featured a lighter body shell and a new aerodynamically enhanced front bumper and wing. Markko Märtin drove the car to two world rally victories. The

54 2004 and 2005 Focus WRCs were evolutions based on the RS WRC 03. The Focus RS WRC 04 won three events with Märtin at the wheel. By 2005, the car was no longer very competitive and Ford had a winless season. From the last rally of the 2005 season, Ford campaigned a brand new model, the Focus RS WRC 06, following the launch of the new road-going version of the car. The engine chosen for this Focus was a Duratec motor developed by the French engine specialist Pipo Moteur. The car took twelve world rally wins, starting with the 2006 season opener Monte Carlo Rally in the hands of Marcus Grönholm. The Focus RS WRC 07 is based on the 2006 model, and according to Ford's technical director Christian Loriaux "the changes on the new car are mainly to save weight and to improve efficiency, driveability and performance at the bottom end of the range." The car debuted very successfully at the 2007 Rally Finland as Ford's Finns Grönholm and Mikko Hirvonen finished in first and second. It later made history at the 2008 Swedish Rally when Jari-Matti Latvala used the car to become youngest-ever driver to win a world rally. Mikko Hirvonen driving an RS WRC 08 in Germany

55 Khalid al-qassimi driving an RS WRC 08 in Rallye de France The Focus RS WRC 08 is based on the 2007 model, Ford Focus WRC 08 seen here for the first time with its new front aero design at the Rallye Deutschland 2008 Shakedown. This is the first time Hirvonen and Latvala have driven the 08 car with the new front styling. The 2008 version of the Focus RS WRC includes design style changes as well as engine improvements. Style changes to the grill area reflect the looks of the recently previewed Focus RS Mk II road sport car. The rally car Focus RS WRC won four times in 2008 and has 36 WRC victories to its crsince the original model debuted in The 2009 actual version of the Focus RS WRC includes small design style changes. Style changes to the lights frame and rear bumper the looks more of the such as Focus RS Mk II 2009 road sport car.

56 Ford Fiesta RS WRC Ford Fiesta RS WRC Manufacturer M-Sport Production 2011 Assembly Class Layout Engine(s) Cockermouth, United Kingdom World Rally Car 4-wheel drive 1.6 L turbo Ford EcoBoost engine The Ford Fiesta RS WRC will be the World Rally Car built for the Ford World Rally Team by Ford and M-Sport for use from the 2011 World Rally Championship season. It will be based upon the Ford Fiesta road car, and will replace the Ford Focus RS WRC, which has been competing in various versions since It will be built to the new World Rally Car regulations for 2011, which are based upon the existing Super 2000 regulations, but will be powered by a turbocharged 1.6 litre engine (1.6 L turbo Ford EcoBoost engine) rather than the normally-aspirated 2 litre engine found in Super 2000 cars. M-Sport and Ford introduced a Super 2000 version of the Ford Fiesta at the beginning of 2010, which will form the base of the WRC car. Stobart Ford World Rally Team drivers Matthew Wilson and Henning Solberg have carried out much of the development work on the car during 2010, with Per-Gunnar Andersson and M-Sport managing director and Ford team director Malcolm Wilson have also driven the car.

57 Citroën C4 WRC Citroën C4 WRC The Citroën C4 WRC is a World Rally Car built for the Citroën World Rally Team by Citroën Racing to compete in the World Rally Championship. It is based upon the Citroën C4 road car and replaced the Citroën Xsara WRC. The car was introduced for the 2007 World Rally Championship season and has taken the drivers' title each year since in the hands of Sébastien Loeb, as well as the manufacturers' title in 2008, 2009 and The C4 WRC and Loeb maintained a 100% record on asphalt events during its WRC career, winning all 13 pure asphalt rounds of the World Rally Championship.

58 Citroën C4 WRC at the 2006 Paris Motor Show Competition history 2007 The car made its debut at the 2007 Monte Carlo Rally in the hands of Citroën World Rally Team drivers Sébastien Loeb and Daniel Sordo. Loeb won the rally after leading throughout, with Sordo finishing as runner-up, with the pair winning the first nine of 15 stages. Loeb went on to win seven of the remaining 15 rallies that season to beat Ford's Marcus Grönholm to the title by nine points. Sordo finished fourth in the standings Citroën retained Loeb and Sordo in their team for 2008, with Loeb winning 11 out of 15 rallies to take the title, while Sordo finished third in the standings. This was enough for Citroën to regain the manufacturers' crown. C4 WRCs were also run by privateer squad PH-Sport for Conrad Rautenbach and Urmo Aava during the season, as well as for Junior World Rally Championship winner Sébastien Ogier at the final event of the season, Rally GB. Ogier lead the event early on despite it being his first in a WRC car.

59 2009 Urmo Aava at 2008 Rallye de France In 2009, Loeb and Sordo would once again drove for the factory squad, with Loeb winning the first five events of the year and then winning the final two to beat Ford driver Mikko Hirvonen to the title by just one point. Sordo finished a solid third as Citroën retained the manufactuers' title. PH-Sport ran a second team of C4 WRCs under the Citroën Junior Team banner for Rautenbach and Ogier, with Evgeny Novikov, Chris Atkinson and Aaron Burkart also appearing under the banner during the year. Petter Solberg ran an old Xsara WRC for his own team for most of the season, before switching to a C4 WRC for the penulitmate round, and was then entered under the Junior Team banner for the final round of the season Loeb and Sordo continued with the factory team into 2010, while the Junior Team ran Ogier and Kimi Räikkönen. Ogier, though, had a strong start to the season (including a win in Portugal) and so was swapped with Sordo for gravel rounds in the second half of the season.

60 Petter Solberg has been driving a C4 WRC for his own team and has picked up four podiums so far this season. Mitsubishi Lancer WRC Mitsubishi Lancer WRC Manufacturer Mitsubishi Motors Ralliart Production Successor Class Mitsubishi Racing Lancer World Rally Car Body style(s) Engine(s) Transmission(s) Wheelbase Length Width Curb weight 4-door sedan 4G L DOHC 16v I4, turbocharger sequential transmission; front, centre & rear LSDs; four-wheel drive 2,600 mm (102.4 in) 4,360 mm (171.7 in) 1,770 mm (69.7 in) ( ) 1,800 mm (70.9 in) (2005) 1,230 kg (2,712 lb)

61 The Mitsubishi Lancer WRC is a World Rally Car built by Ralliart, Mitsubishi Motors' motorsport division, to compete in the World Rally Championship. The previous Lancer Evolution series were homologated for the Group A class, and their competitiveness against World Rally Cars from other manufacturers was therefore limited. WRC The Lancer Evolution WRC is powered by the same 1996 cc 4G63 engine that has been used in its sports and rally cars since the 1980s, in this iteration producing 300 PS (221 kw) at 5500 rpm and 540 N m (398 lb ft) at 3500 rpm. WRC2 The Lancer Evolution WRC2 is also powered by the 4G63, also producing 300 PS (221 kw) at 5500 rpm and 540 N m (398 lb ft) at 3500 rpm. It is mated to a 6-speed INVECStype sequential transmission via a triple-plate carbon clutch and distributes power to all four wheels via front-, centre- and rear- active differentials. The car's suspension is independent, with MacPherson struts and coil springs at each corner. The brakes are vented discs clamped by 6-piston calipers at the front, and 4-piston calipers at the rear. The lead Lancer WRC04 in the 2004 World Rally Championship was driven by ex- WRC04 The Lancer WRC04 continued with the 4G63 engine, mounted to a 5-speed semiautomatic transmission and a new all-wheel drive system co-developed by Ricardo Consulting Engineers and Mitsubishi Motors Motorsports (MMSP). The bodywork was subjected to extensive aerodynamic testing at the Lola Cars wind tunnel. The front brakes were upgraded to 8-piston calipers clamping 370 mm (15 in) discs. Peugeot driver Gilles Panizzi, with his brother Hervé as co-driver. WRC05 The Lancer WRC05 saw no significant changes to the powertrain, but the car's width was increased by 30 mm (1.2 in) due to a change in the WRC regulations. Aerodynamic alterations to the bodywork were introduced to improve stability, while suspension links and driveshafts were lengthened. Steering-mounted gearshift paddles were also introduced, and longer ratios were adopted for first, third and fourth gears.

62 World Rally Car World Rally Car is a term used to describe racing automobiles built to the specification set by the FIA, the international motorsports governing body, and used to compete in the outright class of the World Rally Championship (WRC). The WRC specifications were introduced by the FIA in Technical regulations mandate that World Rally Cars must be built upon a production car with a minimum production run of 2500 units. A number of modifications may be made to the car, including but not limited to: Engine with displacement of no more than 2.0 litres Turbocharger with Anti-Lag System Four wheel drive Sequential gearbox Aerodynamic parts Weight reduction to a minimum weight of 1230 kg Chassis strengthening for greater rigidity and safety enhancement (rollcage) the latest WRC engines are believed to produce around hp in spite of the air However, unlike Group A, manufacturers are no longer required to build "Homologation Specials" in order to meet approval. The base model need not have the characteristics of the WRC car, as evidenced from cars such the Peugeot 206, 307, Citroën Xsara and Škoda Fabia, which have no road car variant with a turbocharged petrol engine or four wheel drive. To limit power, all forced induction (turbocharged) cars are fitted with a 34 mm diameter air restrictor before the turbocharger inlet, limiting the air flow to about 10 cubic meters per minute. This air flow limits power output of the engine to 300 hp officially, although restrictor. With this technologically easy to achieve, engine development is focused towards producing an engine with a very wide powerband (or power curve). Generally speaking, a power output in excess of 300 hp is available from 3000 rpm to the 7500 rpm maximum, with a peak of hp at around 5500 rpm. At 2000 rpm, which is the idle speed in "stage" mode, the power output is slightly above 200 hp. Before competing in stages (tracks) of the rally, the competing cars are tailored to the specific conditions of stages ahead. Suspension settings are adjusted, the most appropriate type of tyres are selected and fitted, the four wheel drive system's differential settings are also modified to suit the conditions of the coming stages. Stages may take place on asphalt roads, gravel and dirt roads of varying consistency and frozen snowcovered roads on some rallies held in relatively cold climates.

63 World Rally Cars Ford Focus RS WRC 09 Citroën C4 WRC

64 Toyota Corolla WRC Manufacturer Car From To Citroën Xsara WRC Citroën C4 WRC Citroën DS3 WRC Ford Escort WRC Ford Focus WRC Ford Fiesta WRC Hyundai Accent WRC MINI Countryman WRC Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution WRC Mitsubishi Lancer WRC Peugeot 206 WRC Peugeot 307 WRC SEAT Córdoba WRC Škoda Fabia WRC Škoda Octavia WRC Subaru Impreza WRC Suzuki SX4 WRC Toyota Corolla WRC

65 Mini Countryman WRC Mini Countryman WRC Manufacturer Prodrive Production 2011 Assembly Class Layout Engine(s) Banbury, United Kingdom World Rally Car 4-wheel drive BMW powered Turbocharged 1.6L engine The MINI Countryman WRC will be the MINI's World Rally Car for use from the 2011 World Rally Championship season. It will be the first World Rally Car designed by Mini for the World Rally Championship since The car will entered in a limited campaign for 2011, with a view to a complete championship from 2012 and will be run by Prodrive, who previously had success with the Subaru Impreza WRC.

66 Chapter 9 Rally Car Formulas and Championships Super 1600 Category Country or region Championships Various Inaugural season 2001 Status Active Current champions Super 1600 Motor racing formula Rallying International Aaron Burkart. The 2010 winner of the Junior World Rally Championship Super 1600 is a rally car formula that is primarily used in the Junior World Rally Championship, as well as various national rally championships. Any automobile manufacturer that has a suitable road-going production model in its range may develop a specification for use in this formula. It was devised by the Fédération Internationale de l'automobile (the international governing body of motorsport) in 2000 and first saw competitive use in Super 1600 is intended to provide a young driver's entry point into international rallying, and the World Rally Championship in particular. Technical details Eligibility Most FIA-approved rally car formulae are in some way production-based, from Super 1600 to World Rally car specification. This necessitates a process of homologation in which a suitable production road car design is modified within the limits of a formula's technical regulations. Such changes may include modified or entirely new parts in the engine, gearbox, suspension, bodywork and so on. In the Super 1600 formula, "suitable" is defined as a passenger car that has one driven axle (two-wheel drive) and a 4-cylinder engine that is of naturally-aspirated configuration with a maximum volume of 1640cc. At

67 the time of homologation, the car must currently or have previously been in serial production. The direct involvement of manufacturers is not necessary for homologation to be granted; in most forms of production-based motorsport, it is quite common for cars to be developed by independent constructors and specialist teams. Even official factory-supported development programs are often outsourced to an experienced third party. The Citroën C2 is an example of in-house development; the Ford Fiesta was developed by a contracted specialist (M-Sport); and the Opel Corsa was developed independently without assistance from GM. Modifications The production car's standard gearbox is replaced by a sequential manual gearbox with a maximum of six forward ratios. The engine may be modified (with the exception of the cylinder block and head) to produce a maximum power output of 230hp and the exhaust is subject to a noise restriction of 100dB at 4500rpm. S1600 homologations As with the World Rally Car specification, Super 1600 requires a production-standard bodyshell that is made safe for competition with the addition of a roll cage. Certain other modifications can be made to increase the width of the bodywork and improve its aerodynamic efficiency. The weight of the competition car is reduced to a minimum of 980kg, with a lower minimum weight of 920 kg if an engine with only two valves per cylinder is employed. In most cases, this is approximately 50 to 100 kg less than the weight of the production car version; the 1.6ltr Citroën C2, for example, weighs 1084 kg. This table shows the most notable S1600 cars that have competed at international level.

68 Make Citroën C2 22 Suzuki Swift 15 Citroën Saxo 10 Renault Clio 10 Suzuki Ignis 9 Fiat Punto 3 Ford Puma 1 Volkswagen Polo 1 Super 2000 Suzuki Swift Super 1600 '05 Model JWRC wins Super 2000 Motor racing formula Category Touring cars Rally cars Country or region International Championships Various Inaugural season 2000 Status Active

69 Super 2000, also known as S2000, is an FIA specification and classification for production based race cars. The specification is split to cover both rally and touring car racing. Super 2000 rally cars are also permitted to compete in Super 2000 World Rally Championship events. The goal of the Super 2000 classification is to allow more manufacturers and privateers to race by reducing the cost of a competitive car. The World Rally Championship currently has two manufacturers fielding teams, while private teams rely on older cars from current manufacturers or from "works" teams that have left the WRC, such as Subaru, Škoda, Proton, or Mitsubishi. The World Touring Car Championship, which is open to both Super 2000 and Diesel 2000 cars, currently has three manufacturers competing, these being BMW, SEAT and Chevrolet,with independent teams generally using older cars from previous seasons. In order to cut costs & shorten development time, the Super 2000 rally cars originally used a common control gearbox & drivetrain made by a French company, Sadev. The FIA has since announced that Xtrac and Ricardo Consulting Engineers will be allowed to also manufacture S2000 gearboxes to FIA specification. This is to further cut costs by introducing competition into gearbox supply. Rally cars In effect these new rules allowed Ford to build from scratch their S2000 Fiesta vehicles in Australia, in as little as 14 weeks, starting out with a Super 1600 chassis & rollcage. Models Fiat Grande Punto Abarth S2000, one of the most popular Super 2000 rally cars

70 Ford Fiesta S2000, Martin Prokop at 2010 Rally Finland The following Super 2000 World Rally Championship and Intercontinental Rally Challenge are the two top rally tournaments that use Super 2000 cars. Super 2000 rally cars are currently in production, or slated for production in the near future: Citroën DS3 Fiat Grande Punto Abarth S2000 Ford Fiesta MG ZR MINI Countryman Opel Corsa Peugeot 207 S2000 Proton Satria Neo Škoda Fabia Toyota Corolla / RunX (South African version of Corolla) Toyota Auris Volkswagen Polo S2000 There was development & testing of a Dacia Logan S2000 car in 2005 but it was not brought into competition. The new technical regulations for the future World Rally Car will become effective from S2000 cars will become World Rally Cars, they will be powered by a 1600cc turbo

71 engine instead of the current 2000cc N/A unit. The new technical regulations for the future World Rally Car will become effective from The WRC Car will be based on the current Super 2000 cars, fitted with a supplementary kit, which includes turbo and rear-wing additions. The kit must be able to be fitted or removed within a defined time limit, to be determined. Touring cars A Super 2000 BMW 320si competing in the 2009 World Touring Car Championship The following Super 2000 Touring Cars are currently competing in championships: Alfa Romeo 156 Audi A4 BMW 320i BMW 320si Chevrolet Cruze Chevrolet Lacetti Ford Focus ST Honda Accord Honda Civic Honda Civic Type R Lada 110 Lada Priora Lexus IS200

72 Mercedes C200 Peugeot 307 Peugeot 407 SEAT León TFSI SEAT León TDI Toyota Auris Toyota Corolla Vauxhall Vectra Volkswagen Scirocco Volkswagen Golf Volvo C30 Specifications FIA specifications include the following: Derived from production model, of which at least 2500 have been produced in the past year Maximum of 2 liter (2000 cc) displacement Normal Aspiration, Rally: 8500 rpm maximum, Circuit: 8500 rpm maximum for 4 cylinders, 8750 rpm maximum for 5 cylinders, 9000 rpm maximum for 6 cylinders. All wheel drive is permitted in rally cars, but not in touring cars. 6-speed sequential gearbox (Control specification), or 5-speed MT gearbox retaining original gear ratios. Front and rear McPherson suspension No electronic driver aids Must be for sale at a maximum price of 168,000. Series Super 2000 spec cars are currently run in: World Touring Car Championship British Touring Car Championship Intercontinental Rally Challenge Australian Rally Championship Italian Rally Championship Production World Rally Championship Swedish Touring Car Championship South African Rally Championship Danish Touring Car Championship ADAC Procar Series Dominican Touring Series Russian Touring Car Championship

73 South Africa was the first country in the world to run Super 2000 cars in rallying. Toyota South Africa and Volkswagen South Africa each built 2 cars to compete in the South African Rally Championship in Super 2000 World Rally Championship The FIA Super 2000 World Rally Championship or SWRC, is a companion rally series to the World Rally Championship, and is driven on the same stages. SWRC is limited to production-based cars homologated under the Super 2000 rules. The series begins in 2010 and splits the Production World Rally Championship (P-WRC), which was previously open to both Super 2000 and Group N4 cars, into two separate competitions, both of which get their own FIA titles. There is also a World Rally Championship Cup for teams within the SWRC. Models Škoda Fabia S2000

74 Peugeot 207 S2000

75 Ford Fiesta S2000 Fiat Grande Punto Abarth S2000, one of the most popular Super 2000 rally cars

76 The following Super 2000 rally cars are currently in production, or slated for production in the near future: Fiat Grande Punto Abarth S2000 Ford Fiesta Peugeot 207 S2000 Skoda Fabia Toyota Corolla / RunX (South African version of Corolla) Toyota Auris Volkswagen Polo S2000 MG ZR Opel Corsa Proton Satria Neo There was development and testing of a Dacia Logan S2000 car in 2005 but it was not brought into competition. Jan Kopecký's Fiat Grande Punto S2000 at the 2008 Rally Mexico

77 Calendar From 2010, there are 10 qualifying rallies for the new series, and at the time of registration entrants must nominate seven rallies, including two outside Europe, in which to score points. The SWRC is in addition to the WRC Cup for S2000 Teams, which was announced earlier in the year. Round Dates Rally Name Rally HQ Surface February Swedish Rally Karlstad Ice and snow covered gravel 02 7 March Rally Mexico León Gravel 03 3 April Jordan Rally Amman Gravel 05 9 May Rally New Zealand Auckland Gravel with some asphalt May Rally de Portugal Vilamoura Gravel July Rally Finland Jyväskylä Gravel August Rallye Deutschland Trier Asphalt September Rally Japan Sapporo Gravel 11 3 October Rallye de France Alsace Strasbourg Asphalt November Wales Rally GB Cardiff Gravel

78 Chapter 10 Group A: Set of Regulations Providing Production-derived Vehicles for Competition Homologation In relation to motorsport governed by the FIA, Group A referred to a set of regulations providing production-derived vehicles for outright competition. In contrast to the shortlived Group B and Group C, the Group A referred to production-derived vehicles limited in terms of power, weight, allowed technology and overall cost. Group A was aimed at ensuring a large number of privately-owned entries in races. Group A was introduced by the FIA in 1982 to replace the outgoing Group 2 as "modified touring cars", while Group N would replace Group 1 as "standard touring cars". To qualify for approval, a minimum of 2500 cars of the competing model had to be built in one year, out of 25,000 for the entire range of the model (e.g.: 2500 Subaru Impreza WRX, out of 25,000 Subaru Impreza). Up to 1991, the requirement was a minimum of 5000 cars in one year, without regards to the entire range, but the FIA allowed "Evolution" models to be homologated with a minimum of 500 cars (e.g.: BMW M3 Sport Evo, Mercedes-Benz W201 Evo). Rules also required some of the interior panels to be retained, e.g. interior door panels and dashboard. However, not all manufacturers who built 500 such models sold them all, some stripped the majority of them to rebuild them as stock models or used them to allow teams to use modified parts. One such example of this was Volvo with the 240 Turbo in After they had produced 500 such models, Volvo stripped 477 cars of their competition equipment and sold them as standard 240 turbo roadcars. As a result, after FISA's failed attempt at finding an "Evolution" car in any European countries, Volvo were forced to reveal the names of all 500 "evo" owners to be permitted to compete. The other example was Ford, after selling off their entire RS500 stocks, they read the rulebooks and found themselves that rather than using either the Sierra Cosworths or the RS500s, they could use the body of the basic 3-door Sierra, which Ford was discontinuing, and use their Evolution equipment on them. Nowadays, these cars are treated as any other model in the range.

79 Touring Cars For touring car competition, vehicles such as the BMW 635CSi, Volvo 242 Turbo, Jaguar XJS, Ford Sierra RS500 and Nissan Skyline GT-R were provided. In the European Touring Car Championship, Group A consisted of three divisions, Division 3 - for cars over 2500cc, Division 2 - for car engine size that are between cc, Division 1 for cars that are less than 1600cc. These cars competed in standard bodykits, with the production-derived nature required manufactures to release faster vehicles for the roads in order to be competitive on the track. Tyre width were dependent on the car's engine size. Group A stopped being used in touring car racing in 1994, when the German Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM) switched to a 2.5 L class 1 formula, while in Japan by that year as the Japanese Touring Car Championship organisers followed suit and switched classes like most other countries who had adopted the British Touring Car Championship-derived Supertouring regulations, many of the redundant Skylines found a new home in the form of the JGTC (Japanese GT Championship) with modified aerodynamic devices, showing its competitiveness whilst being up against Group C, former race modified roadcars and specially developed racers, like the Toyota Supras during the earlier years. For 1993 the Confederation of Australian Motor Sport replaced Group A (or Group 3A as it was officially designated in Australia) with a new formula for Australian Touring Car racing. This was initially open to five litre V8 powered cars and two litre cars (later to become known as V8 Supercars and Super Touring Cars respectively). Hillclimb races still use Group A as a Touring Car class across Europe.

80 Rallying Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution VI, Tommi Mäkinen Edition Under Group A in the World Rally Championship, the cars used were modified road cars, often based on turbocharged, four wheel drive versions of small cars such as the Lancia Delta Integrale, Toyota Celica GT-Four, Nissan Pulsar GTI-R, Subaru Impreza WRX and the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution. In order to be homologated, manufacturers were required to produce 5,000 units worldwide, and then in 1993 this number was reduced to 2,500. The cars are further modified for greater power and torque, and fitted with suspension and tires specifically suited to the conditions of the specific rally, which may take place entirely on asphalt roads, different consistencies of gravel and dirt roads and even snow/ice-covered roads on some rallies held in northern Europe. Group A is still used as the basis for most rally competitions around the world, but the most competitive cars are limited-production prototypes, known as Kit Car, World Rally Cars, Super 1600 and Super The last WRC car to use the old Group A homologation requirement was the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution VI. With the new S2000 rally car category currently under review due to lack of manufacturer interest, R4 which is effectively the new name for GpA (GpN 4WD fitted with a GpA/WRC spec. engine) is being evaluated for rallying in the WRC for 2011.

81 Series that used the Group A formula Australian Touring Car Championship Australian 2.0 Litre Touring Car Championship Australian Endurance Championship & Australian Manufacturers' Championship British Touring Car Championship Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft European Touring Car Championship All Japan Touring Car Championship World Rally Championship World Touring Car Championship 1987 The cars Alfa Romeo 33 Alfa Romeo 75 Alfa Romeo Alfasud Alfa Romeo Alfetta GTV and GTV/6 Audi Coupé GT5E Audi 80 GLE Austin Metro BMW 323i BMW 5 series BMW 635 CSi BMW M3 E30 Fiat Uno Ford Capri Ford Falcon XE Ford Escort RS 1600i Ford Escort RS Turbo Ford Escort RS Cosworth Ford Mustang Ford Sierra RS Cosworth and RS500 Ford Sierra XR4Ti and XR4i Holden Commodore VK and VK Commodore Group A SS Holden Commodore VL Group A SS and VL Commodore SS Group A SV Holden Commodore VN Group A SS Holden Gemini Honda Civic 3rd gen./ef/eg Jaguar XJS Lancia Delta Integrale Maserati Biturbo Mazda 323 GTX/GT- R Mazda 929 Mercedes-Benz 190E Mitsubishi Galant VR-4 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution I - VI Mitsubishi Starion Nissan Gazelle Nissan Pulsar EN13 Nissan Pulsar GTI-R Nissan Skyline RS-X Nissan Skyline GTS- R Nissan Skyline GT-R R32 Opel Ascona Opel Monza 3.0E Rover SD1 3500/Vitesse Subaru Impreza WRX and Subaru Impreza WRX STI Subaru Legacy Subaru Vivio Talbot Sunbeam TI Toyota Celica Supra Toyota Celica ST162 Toyota Celica GT- Four ST165, ST185, ST205 Toyota Corolla FX AE82 Toyota Corolla AE86 Toyota Corolla AE92 Toyota Corolla AE101 Toyota Supra and Turbo-A Vauxhall Astra GTE/Opel Kadett GSi Volvo 240 turbo Volvo 360 Volkswagen Golf GTI Volkswagen Scirocco

82 Chapter 11 Group B: Set of Regulations Audi Quattro S1, one of the most successful Group B cars

83 Group B Ford RS200 The Group B referred to a set of regulations introduced in 1982 for competition vehicles in sportscar racing and rallying regulated by the FIA. The Group B regulations fostered some of the quickest, most powerful and sophisticated rally cars ever built. However, a series of major accidents, some fatal, were blamed on their outright speed. After the death of Henri Toivonen and his co-driver in the 1986 Tour de Corse, the FIA disestablished the class after four years. The short-lived Group B era has acquired legendary status among rally fans. Overview Group B was introduced by the FIA in 1982 as replacement for both Group 4 (modified grand touring) and Group 5 (touring prototypes) cars. Group A referred to production-derived vehicles limited in terms of power, weight, allowed technology and overall cost. The base model had to be mass produced (5000 units/year) and had to have 4 seats. Group A was aimed at ensuring a large number of privately-owned entries in races. By contrast, Group B had few restrictions on technology, design and the number of cars required for homologation to compete 200, less than other series. Weight was kept as low as possible, high-tech materials were permitted, and there were no restrictions on

84 boost, which turned out to mean almost unlimited power. The category was aimed at car manufacturers by promising outright competition victories and the subsequent publicity opportunities without the need for an existing production model. There was also a Group C, which had a similarly lax approach to chassis and engine development, but with strict rules on overall weight and maximum fuel load. Group B was initially a very successful concept, with many manufacturers joining the premier World Rally Championship, and increased spectator numbers. But the cost of competing quickly rose, and the performance of the cars proved too much, resulting in a series of fatal crashes. As a consequence Group B was cancelled at the end of 1986 and Group A regulations became the standard for all cars until the advent of World Rally Cars in In the following years Group B found a niche in the European Rallycross Championship, with cars such as the MG Metro 6R4 and the Ford RS200 competing as late as For 1993, the FIA replaced the Group B models with prototypes that had to be based on existing Group A cars, but still followed the spirit of Group B, with low weight, 4WD, high turbo boost pressure and staggering amounts of power. Group 2 and Group 4 Until 1983 the two main classes of rallying were called Group 2 and Group 4. Major manufacturers competed in Group 4, which required a minimum of 400 examples of a competition car. Notable cars of the era included the Lancia Stratos, Ford Escort and Fiat 131 Abarth. In 1979 the FISA (then the name of the FIA's motorsport regulatory division) legalized four-wheel drive (4WD). Car companies were not keen on using 4WD as it was generally felt that the extra weight and complexity of 4WD systems would cancel out any performance benefits. This belief was shattered when Audi launched a competition car in 1980, the Turbocharged and 4WD Quattro. That year a Quattro was used in Portugal's Algarve Rallye. Registered by the Audi Sport Factory Rally Team, IN-NE 3, as a opening (zero) car, it was driven by professional driver Hannu Mikkola. Mikkola's Co-Driver was Arne Hertz. IN-NE 3's combined time for all stages on this rally was over 30 minutes quicker than that of the winner. While the new car was indeed heavy and cumbersome its standing starts on gravel and road grip on Special Stages was staggering. The Quattro was officially entered in the 1980 Jänner-Rallye in Austria and easily won. Audi kept on winning throughout 1980 and 1981 seasons, although lack of consistent results meant that Ford took the driver's title in 1981 with Ari Vatanen driving a rearwheel-drive Escort. The team's victory at the 1981 Rallye San Remo was particularly historic: Piloted by Michèle Mouton, it was the first time a woman won a World Championship rally. Mouton placed second in the drivers' championship the next year, behind Opel's Walter Röhrl.

85 Groups N, A and B Rothmans Rally Team's Prodrive-run Porsche 911 SC RS The FISA decided to separate the rally cars into three classes: Group N (production cars), Group A (modified production cars), and Group B (modified sport cars). These groups were introduced in Group N and Group A cars were the same cars with different amount of race preparation allowed (In Group N almost no modifications, in Group A significant modifications). The cars had to have 4 seats (although the miminum size of the rear seats was small enough that some 2+2 cars could qualify) and be produced in large numbers. This was 5000 cars/year between 1982 and It later changed to 2500 cars/year if the version being homologated was derived from a mass-market car (25000 cars/year for all versions).

86 Peugeot 205 Turbo 16 won Peugeot the 1985 and 1986 WRC manufacturers' titles Group B was conceived when the FISA found that numerous car manufacturers wanted to compete in rallying, witnessing the successes of the Stratos and the Quattro, they felt that having cars with mid-engine and RWD or 4WD was the way to go. Unfortunately, they found that their RWD models had been gradually replaced by their FWD counterparts, lessening their chance of winning. By reducing the homologation minimum from 400 (in Group 4) to 200, manufacturers had a chance. Group B cars could be two-seaters and the minimum production was 200 cars/year. Manufacturers were allowed to homologate an evolution each year by producing 20 cars of that evolution. The cars entered in the races were further modified (same modifications allowed as in Group A). Group B could in theory be used to homologate production sport cars, which could not be homologated in Group N or A, because they did not have four seats or were not produced in large enough numbers (e.g. cars like the Ferrari 308, the Porsche 911, etc.). The designation used in the regulations "Sports Grand Touring Cars") show this intention. The big manufacturers, however, used them in a different way: they designed a rally car, of which 20 were produced and designated the evolution model, and then built a limited series of 200 street cars for homologation. (Similar things have been done before in Group 4, for instance the Lancia Stratos.) In some cases these cars were sold at a loss and

87 journalists reviewing them now acknowledge that their development was not quite finished. In each group there were classes based on engine displacement (with a 1.4 equivalence factor for forced induction engines). Each class had different weight limits, maximum tyre sizes, etc. The most important classes for Group B were the 3000 cc class ( cc with turbo or supercharger), 960 kg minimum weight (Audi Quattro, Lancia 037) and 2500 cc (1785 cc), 890 kg (Peugeot 205 T16, Lancia Delta S4). Renault 5 Turbo

88 Porsche 959 The original Renault 5 Turbo had a 1.4 L engine so it was in the 2000 cc class. The Ferrari 288 GTO and the Porsche 959 were in the 4000 cc (2857 cc), 1100 kg class, which would have probably become the normal class for track racing if Group B had seen much use there. Otherwise they existed for old Group 4 cars which competed until Classes in Group B: Normally aspirated displacement Supercharged turbocharged displacement Weight Wheel width (front+back) Cars 4000 cc 2857 cc 1100 kg 24" Ferrari 288 GTO, Porsche cc cc 960 kg 22" Audi Quattro, Lancia cc 1785 cc 890 kg 22" Peugeot 205 T16, Lancia Delta S cc 1428 cc 820 kg 20" Renault 5 Turbo Audi was in the 3000 cc class due to the displacement of the street car happened to be in that class, and as a car derived from the street version, it would have been difficult to reach the minimum weight needed. For the 037 Lancia decided that the lower class might

89 be too light and consequently too fragile for gravel rallies, and they happened to have a good 2000 cc engine. When these rules were decided it was felt that these displacement restrictions would be enough to control power, but in the early and mid-80s engineers learnt how to extract almost unlimited amounts of power from turbo engines (the same thing was happening in F1). Nowadays the power of turbo engines is limited by mandating a restrictor in the intake (in World Rally Car, Group A and Group N) Lancia's 037 Although the Audi Quattro was still in essence a Group 4 car, it carried Hannu Mikkola to the driver's title in Lancia had designed a new car to Group B specifications, but the Lancia 037 still had rear wheel drive and was thus less consistent than the Audi over different surfaces (generally the Lancia had the upper hand on tarmac, with the Audi remaining superior on looser surfaces such as snow and gravel). Nevertheless, the 037 performed well enough for Lancia to capture the manufacturers title with a rally to spare, which was generally considered more prestigious at the time. In fact, so low was Lancia's regard for the Drivers Championship, they did not enter a single car into the season finale RAC Rally, despite the fact that driver Walter Röhrl was still in the hunt for the title.

90 Russell Brookes' Opel Manta 400 The low homologation requirements quickly attracted manufacturers to Group B. Opel replaced their production-derived Ascona with the Group B Manta 400, and Toyota built a new car based on their Celica. Like the Lancia 037 both cars were rear drive, but, while successful in national rallying in various countries, they were less so at World Championship level, although Toyota won the 1983 Ivory Coast Rally after hiring Swedish desert driving specialist Björn Waldegård. In 1984, Audi's Stig Blomqvist beat Lancia to the driver's title, although the victory was bittersweet: Midway through the year Peugeot had joined the rallying scene with its Group B 205 T16. The T16 also had four wheel drive and was smaller and lighter than the Audi Quattro. At the wheel was the 1981 driver's champion Ari Vatanen, with future Ferrari Formula One team manager and FIA President Jean Todt overseeing the operation. A crash prevented the T16 from winning its first rally but the writing was on the wall for Audi.

91 The Metro 6R4 was developed to compete in the 1986 WRC Despite massive revisions to the Quattro, including a shorter wheelbase, Peugeot dominated the 1985 season. Although not without mishap: Vatanen plunged off the road in Argentina and was gravely injured when his seat mountings broke in the ensuing crash. Although the crash was a sign that Group B cars had already become dangerously quick (Although Vatanen did have a consistent record of crashing out while leading), a rash of new Group B cars entered the rallying world in 1985: Late in the year, Lancia replaced their outclassed 037 with the Delta S4, which featured both a turbocharger and a supercharger for optimum power output. Ford returned after several years away with the Ford RS200 Citroën developed and entered the BX 4TC, which ultimately was too heavy and cumbersome to be successful. Rover created the distinctive Metro 6R4, which featured boxy bodywork and a large spoiler mounted on the front of the car.

92 1986 Ford RS 200 The stage was set for 1986 to be a very exciting season. Defending champion Timo Salonen had the new Evolution 2 version of Peugeot's T16 with ex Toyota driver, Juha Kankkunen. Audi's new Sport Quattro S1 boasted over 600 hp (450 kw) and a huge snowplow-like front end. Lancia's Delta S4 would be in the hands of the Finnish prodigy Henri Toivonen and Markku Alen, and Ford was ready with its high tech RS200 with Stig Blomqvist and Kalle Grundel. On the "Lagoa Azul" stage of Portuguese Rally near Sintra everything was to go tragiccally wrong. Portuguese national champion Joaquim Santos crested a rise to find the road blocked with spectators crowding to see the fastest cars come through. He lost control of his Ford RS200 while trying to stop and plunged into the crowd. Thirty-one people were injured and three were killed. All the top teams immediately pulled out of the rally and Group B was placed in jeopardy.

93 Lancia Delta S4 Disaster struck again in early May at the Tour de Corse. Lancia's Toivonen was leading the championship, and once the rally got underway he was the pace setter. Seven kilometres into the 18th stage, Toivonen's S4 flew off the unguarded edge of a tightening left hand bend and plunged down a steep wooded hillside. The car landed inverted with the fuel tanks ruptured by the impact. The combination of red hot turbocharger, Kevlar bodywork, and ruptured fuel tank ignited the car and set fire to the dry undergrowth. Only a cloud of smoke and the lack of Toivonen's car at the finish indicated that something was very wrong. By the time rescue workers made it to the remote spot (some 30 minutes, by some accounts) all that remained of the car was a blackened frame with the bones of Toivonen and co-driver Sergio Cresto inside. With no witnesses to the accident it was impossible to determine what caused the crash other than Toivonen had left the road at high speed. Some cite Toivonen's ill health at the time (he reportedly was suffering from flu); other suggest mechanical failure, or simply the difficulty of driving the machine although Toivonen had a career full of crashing out while leading rallies. Up until that stage he was taking stage win after stage win and leading the rally by a large margin with no other driver challenging him. Simply using a racing fuel cell in place of the fuel tank may have saved them. The crash came a year after Lancia driver Attilio Bettega had crashed and died in his 037. While that fatality was largely blamed on the unforgiving Corsican scenery (and bad luck, as his co-driver, Maurizio Perissinot was uninjured), Toivonen and Cresto's death, combined with the Portugal tragedy and televised accident of F1 driver Marc Surer in

94 another RS200 which killed his co-driver, compelled the FIA to act: Group B cars were immediately banned for Audi decided to quit Group B entirely after Corsica. The final days of Group B would also be controversial. The Peugeots were disqualified from the Rally San Remo by the Italian scrutineers as the 'skirts' around the bottom of the car were deemed to be illegal. Peugeot immediately accused the Italians of favouring the Lancias. Their case was strengthened at the next event, the RAC Rally, when the British scrutineers passed the Peugeots as legal in identical trim. FISA annulled the result of the San Remo Rally eleven days after the final round in America. As a result the championship title was passed from Lancia's Markku Alen to Peugeot's Juha Kankkunen. Disposition Ari Vatanen's Dakar Rally trim 205 T16

95 respectively. Ford sold off their RS200s to private buyers, with many being used in Three Ford RS200 E2, one Audi Sport quattro S1, one MG Metro 6R4 and one Peugeot 205 T16 E2 pictured competing in the 1989 Rallycross EC round at Melk. Although 1987 saw the end of the Group B cars on the world stage they did not disappear from motor sport. Peugeot adapted their T16 to run in the Dakar Rally. Ari Vatanen won the event in 1987, 1989 and Improved Peugeot and Audi cars also competed in the Pikes Peak Hillclimb in Colorado. Audi used their Group B experience to develop a production based racing car for the Trans-Am and IMSA GTO series in 1988 and 1989 European Rallycross events from the beginning of 1987 till the end of The Metro 6R4 also became a frequent sight in Rallycross and the car was also entered in British and Irish national championship events. Porsche's 959 never entered a World Rally event, although it did compete in the Middle East championship and swept the Dakar. The category as a circuit never in fact took off as the cars were proved to be too expensive for privateer teams which they were intended for. At US$325,000 for 959's sister car, the 961, many privateers would rather opt for a clone 962 or for less a Spice and were never expected to win in the face of the factory teams. The 961's career was proved to be short as Porsche built a single prototype car which burnt out in the 1987 Le Mans race. The Ferrari GTO Evoluzione, although meant to be used for Group B circuit, never saw action in its category. The WSPC grids it was intended for was filled up by a batch of Group C cars, but it saw limited use in a IMSA GTO race in The F40, a road car built to celebrate Ferrari's 40 th anniversary, appeared in various GT races for a few seasons after the demise of the Gr. C category, but was to be made obsolete by the new generation GT1 cars such as the McLaren F1.

96 Group S The Lancia ECV for the Group S pictured during its first public presentation in 1986 As well as the cancellation of Group B, the tragedies of 1986 also brought about the scrapping of Group B's proposed replacement: Group S. Group S rules would have limited car engine power to 300 hp (225 kw). To encourage innovative designs, ten examples of a car would have been required for homologation, rather than the 200 required for Group B. By the time of its cancellation, at least three Group S prototypes had been built: The Lancia ECV, the Toyota MR2-based 222D, and the Opel Kadett Rallye 4x4 (aka Vauxhall Astra 4S), and new cars were also planned by both Audi (the 002 Quattro) and Ford (a Group S development of the RS200). The cancellation of Group S angered many rally insiders who considered the new specification to be safer than Group B and more exciting than Group A. The Group S concept was revived by the FIA in 1997 as the World Rally Car specification which, as of 2010, is still in use. WRC cars are limited to 300 hp (220 kw) and require 20 examples of a model but, unlike Group S, are required to share certain parts with production cars.

97 Cars Group B Mazda RX-7 NB: cars that are issued with Group B homologation certificate but was never built as a Group B racer are listed. Car Class Homologation n Alfa Romeo Alfasud Sprint 6C Audi Quattro 80 A1 B January 1981 Audi Quattro A1 B January 1983 Audi 80 Quattro A2 B January 1983 Audi Quattro A2 B January 1983 Date of Homologation Audi Quattro A2 B May 1983 Audi Sport Quattro S1 B May July 1985 BMW M1 B March 1983 Citroën BX 4TC Under 3000cc B October 1986 Citroën Visa Trophée Under 1300cc B201 1 January 1982 Citroën Visa Chrono II B October 1982 Citroën Visa 1000 Pistes

98 Daihatsu Charade 926 Turbo Under 1300cc B January 1985 Daihatsu Charade DeTomaso Under 926R 1300cc Prototype Ferrari 308 GTB Michelotto B October 1982 Ferrari 308 GTB Michelotto B January 1983 Ferrari 308 Quattrovalvole B April 1983 Ferrari 288 GTO B June 1985 Ferrari 288 GTO Evoluzione Prototype Ford RS200 B February 1986 Ford Escort RS 1700T Prototype Lada VFTS B October 1982 Prototype Lada Samara EVA Lancia 037 Rally B April 1982 Lancia Delta S4 B November 1985 Mazda RX-7 4x4 B February 1984 Mercedes-Benz 190E Cosworth Prototype MG Metro 6R4 B November 1985 Mitsubishi Lancer 2000 Turbo B April 1981 Mitsubishi Lancer 2000 Turbo B January 1983 Mitsubishi Starion 4WD Moskvich 2141-KR Prototype Prototype Nissan 240RS B January 1983 Opel Manta 400 B March 1983 Peugeot 205 T16 B April 1984 Peugeot 305 V6 Peugeot 504 Pickup B December 1982 Porsche 924 Turbo Carrera GT B January 1982 Porsche 911 SC RS B March 1982 Porsche 911 Turbo B January 1982 Porsche 928S B January Carrera B June 1986 Porsche 928S B June 1986 Porsche 911 Turbo B June 1986 Porsche 959 Prototype Porsche 961 Prototype Renault 5 Maxi Turbo Škoda 130 LR B January 1985

99 Subaru XT 4WD Turbo B-275 Talbot Sunbeam B227 1 December 1982 Talbot Horizon Prototype Talbot Samba B January 1983 Toyota Celica Twin-Cam Turbo B March 1983 Group S Opel s Kadett Rallye 4x4 was later used by Briton John Welch for Rallycross Audi Sport Quattro RS 002 Ford RS200 Lada Samara S-proto Lancia ECV Toyota 222D (based upon MR2) Opel Kadett Rallye 4x4/Vauxhall Astra 4S

100 Drivers Michèle Mouton and her Quattro in 2007 Markku Alen Attilio Bettega Massimo Biasion Stig Blomqvist John Buffum Juha Kankkunen Hannu Mikkola Michèle Mouton Tony Pond Walter Röhrl Timo Salonen Henri Toivonen Ari Vatanen

101 Chapter 12 Formula One Formula One Category Country or region Single seaters Inaugural season 1950 Drivers 24 Teams 12 Engine suppliers International Cosworth, Ferrari, Mercedes, Renault Tyre suppliers Drivers' champion Constructors' champion Bridgestone (2010) Pirelli (2011) Sebastian Vettel Red Bull Racing Formula One, also known as Formula 1 or F1, and officially referred to as the FIA Formula One World Championship, is the highest class of single seater auto racing sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'automobile (FIA). The "formula" in the name refers to a set of rules with which all participants' cars must comply. The F1 season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix (translated to English as "Big Prize"), held on purpose-built circuits and public roads. The results of each race are combined to determine two annual World Championships, one for the drivers and one for the

102 constructors, with racing drivers, constructor teams, track officials, organizers, and circuits required to be holders of valid Super Licences, the highest class of racing licence issued by the FIA. Formula One cars race at high speeds, up to 360 km/h (220 mph) with engines revving up to a formula-imposed limit of 18,000 rpm. The cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of 5 g in corners. The performance of the cars is highly dependent on electronics (although traction control and driving aids have been banned since 2008), aerodynamics, suspension, and tyres. The formula has seen many evolutions and changes through the history of the sport. Europe is Formula One's traditional centre, where all of the teams are based, and where around half of the races take place. However, the sport's scope has expanded significantly in recent years and Grands Prix are held all over the world. Formula One is a massive television event, with an aggregate global audience of 600 million people for each race. The Formula One Group is the legal holder of the commercial rights. With annual spending totalling billions of US dollars, Formula One's economic effect is significant, and its financial and political battles are widely covered. Its high profile and popularity make it an obvious merchandising environment, which leads to very high investments from sponsors, translating into extremely high budgets for the constructors. However, mostly since 2000, due to the always increasing expenditures, several teams, including works teams from car makers and those teams with minimal support from the automotive industry, have gone bankrupt or been bought out by companies wanting to establish a team within the sport; these buyouts are also influenced by Formula One limiting the number of participant teams. participants and cars must meet. Formula One was a new formula agreed after World History The Formula One series has its roots in the European Grand Prix Motor Racing (q.v. for pre-1947 history) of the 1920s and 1930s. The "formula" is a set of rules which all War II in 1946, with the first non-championship races being held that year. A number of Grand Prix racing organisations had laid out rules for a World Championship before the war, but due to the suspension of racing during the conflict, the World Drivers' Championship was not formalised until The first world championship race was held at Silverstone, United Kingdom in A championship for constructors followed in National championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-championship Formula One events were held for many years but, due to the rising cost of competition, the last of these occurred in The sport's title, Formula One, indicates it is intended to be the most advanced and most competitive of the FIA's racing formulae.

103 Return of racing Juan Manuel Fangio's 1951 title-winning Alfa Romeo 159 The first Formula One World Championship was won by Italian Giuseppe Farina in his Alfa Romeo in 1950, barely defeating his Argentine teammate Juan Manuel Fangio. However Fangio won the title in 1951, 1954, 1955, 1956 & 1957 (His record of five World Championship titles stood for 45 years until German driver Michael Schumacher took his sixth title in 2003), his streak interrupted (after an injury) by two-time champion Alberto Ascari of Ferrari. Although the UK's Stirling Moss was able to compete regularly, he was never able to win the World Championship, and is now widely considered to be the greatest driver never to have won the title. Fangio, however, is remembered for dominating Formula One's first decade and has long been considered the "grand master" of Formula One. The period was highlighted by teams run by road car manufacturers Alfa Romeo, Ferrari, Mercedes Benz and Maserati all of whom had competed before the war. The first seasons were run using pre-war cars like Alfa's 158. They were front engined, with narrow tyres and 1.5 litre supercharged or 4.5 litre normally aspirated engines. The 1952 and 1953 world championships were run to Formula Two regulations, for smaller, less powerful cars, due to concerns over the paucity of Formula One cars available. When a new Formula One, for engines limited to 2.5 litres, was reinstated to the world championship in 1954, Mercedes-Benz introduced the advanced W196, which featured

104 innovations such as desmodromic valves and fuel injection as well as enclosed streamlined bodywork. Mercedes drivers won the championship for two years, before the team withdrew from all motorsport in the wake of the 1955 Le Mans disaster. The Garagistes Stirling Moss's Lotus 18 at the Nürburgring in 1961 The first major technological development, Cooper's re-introduction of mid-engined cars (following Ferdinand Porsche's pioneering Auto Unions of the 1930s), which evolved from the company's successful Formula 3 designs, occurred in the 1950s. Australian Jack Brabham, World Champion in 1959, 1960, and 1966, soon proved the new design's superiority. By 1961, all regular competitors had switched to mid-engined cars. The first British World Champion was Mike Hawthorn, who drove a Ferrari to the title in However, when Colin Chapman entered F1 as a chassis designer and later founder of Team Lotus, British racing green came to dominate the field for the next decade. Between Brabham, Jim Clark, Jackie Stewart, John Surtees, Graham Hill, and Denny Hulme, British teams and Commonwealth drivers won twelve world championships between 1962 and In 1962, Lotus introduced a car with an aluminium sheet monocoque chassis instead of the traditional space frame design. This proved to be the greatest technological break-

105 through since the introduction of mid-engined cars. In 1968, Lotus painted Imperial Tobacco livery on their cars, thus introducing sponsorship to the sport. Aerodynamic downforce slowly gained importance in car design from the appearance of aerofoils in the late 1960s. In the late 1970s, Lotus introduced ground effect aerodynamics that provided enormous downforce and greatly increased cornering speeds (previously used on Jim Hall's Chaparral 2J in 1970). So great were the aerodynamic forces pressing the cars to the track (up to 5 times the car's weight), extremely stiff springs were needed to maintain a constant ride height, leaving the suspension virtually solid, depending entirely on the tyres for any small amount of cushioning of the car and driver from irregularities in the road surface. Big business Nigel Mansell's Williams FW10 from 1985

106 Beginning in the 1970s, Bernie Ecclestone rearranged the management of Formula One's Damon Hill's Williams FW18 from The FW18 was one of the most successful cars of the era commercial rights; he is widely credited with transforming the sport into the billiondollar business it is today. When Ecclestone bought the Brabham team in 1971 he gained a seat on the Formula One Constructors' Association and in 1978 became its President. Previously the circuit owners controlled the income of the teams and negotiated with each individually, however Ecclestone persuaded the teams to "hunt as a pack" through FOCA. He offered Formula One to circuit owners as a package which they could take or leave. In return for the package almost all are required to surrender trackside advertising. The formation of the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile (FISA) in 1979 set off the FISA-FOCA war, during which FISA and its president Jean-Marie Balestre clashed repeatedly with FOCA over television revenues and technical regulations. The Guardian said of FOCA that Ecclestone and Max Mosley "used it to wage a guerrilla war with a very long-term aim in view." FOCA threatened to set up a rival series, boycotted a Grand Prix and FISA withdrew its sanction from races. The result was the 1981 Concorde Agreement, which guaranteed technical stability, as teams were to be given reasonable notice of new regulations. Although FISA asserted its right to the TV revenues, it handed the administration of those rights to FOCA.

107 FISA imposed a ban on ground effect aerodynamics in By then, however, turbocharged engines, which Renault had pioneered in 1977, were producing over 700 bhp (520 kw) and were essential to be competitive. By 1986, a BMW turbocharged engine achieved a flash reading of 5.5 bar pressure, estimated to be over 1,300 bhp (970 kw) in qualifying for the Italian Grand Prix. The following year power in race trim reached around 1,100 bhp (820 kw), with boost pressure limited to only 4.0 bar. These cars were the most powerful open-wheel circuit racing cars ever. To reduce engine power output and thus speeds, the FIA limited fuel tank capacity in 1984 and boost pressures in 1988 before banning turbocharged engines completely in The development of electronic driver aids began in the 1980s. Lotus began to develop a system of active suspension which first appeared in 1982 on the F1 Lotus 91 and Lotus Esprit road car. By 1987, this system had been perfected and was driven to victory by Ayrton Senna in the Monaco Grand Prix that year. In the early 1990s, other teams followed suit and semi-automatic gearboxes and traction control were a natural progression. The FIA, due to complaints that technology was determining the outcome of races more than driver skill, banned many such aids for This led to cars that were previously dependent on electronic aids becoming very "twitchy" and difficult to drive (notably the Williams FW16), and many observers felt the ban on driver aids was in name only as they "have proved difficult to police effectively". (nine constructors', seven drivers'). The rivalry between racing legends Ayrton Senna and The teams signed a second Concorde Agreement in 1992 and a third in 1997, which expired on the last day of On the track, the McLaren and Williams teams dominated the 1980s and 1990s, with Brabham also being competitive in the early part of the 1980s, winning two drivers' championships with Nelson Piquet. Powered by Porsche, Honda, and Mercedes-Benz, McLaren won sixteen championships (seven constructors', nine drivers') in that period, while Williams used engines from Ford, Honda, and Renault to also win sixteen titles Alain Prost became F1's central focus in 1988, and continued until Prost retired at the end of Senna died at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix after crashing into a wall on the exit of the notorious curve Tamburello, having taken over Prost's lead drive at Williams that year. The FIA worked to improve the sport's safety standards since that weekend, during which Roland Ratzenberger also lost his life in an accident during Saturday qualifying. No driver has died on the track at the wheel of a Formula One car since, though two track marshals have lost their lives, one at the 2000 Italian Grand Prix, and the other at the 2001 Australian Grand Prix. Since the deaths of Ayrton Senna and Roland Ratzenberger, the FIA has used safety as a reason to impose rule changes which otherwise, under the Concorde Agreement, would have had to be agreed upon by all the teams most notably the changes introduced for This so called 'narrow track' era resulted in cars with smaller rear tyres, a narrower track overall and the introduction of 'grooved' tyres to reduce mechanical grip. There would be four grooves, on the front and rear although initially three on the front tyres in the first year that ran through the entire circumference of the tyre. The objective

108 was to reduce cornering speeds and to produce racing similar to rain conditions by enforcing a smaller contact patch between tyre and track. This, according to the FIA, was to promote driver skill and provide a better spectacle. Results have been mixed as the lack of mechanical grip has resulted in the more ingenious designers clawing back the deficit with aerodynamic grip pushing more force onto the tyres through wings, aerodynamic devices etc. which in turn has resulted in less overtaking as these devices tend to make the wake behind the car 'dirty' (turbulent), preventing other cars from following closely, due to their dependence on 'clean' air to make the car stick to the track. The grooved tyres also had the unfortunate side effect of initially being of a harder compound, to be able to hold the groove tread blocks, which resulted in spectacular accidents in times of aerodynamic grip failure (e.g., rear wing failures), as the harder compound could not grip the track as well. Drivers from McLaren, Williams, Renault (formerly Benetton) and Ferrari, dubbed the "Big Four", have won every World Championship from 1984 to 2008 and the constructors won from 1979 to Due to the technological advances of the 1990s, the cost of competing in Formula One rose dramatically. This increased financial burden, combined with four teams' dominance (largely funded by big car manufacturers such as Mercedes-Benz), caused the poorer independent teams to struggle not only to remain competitive, but to stay in business. Financial troubles forced several teams to withdraw. Since 1990, twenty-eight teams have pulled out of Formula One. This has prompted former Jordan owner Eddie Jordan to say the days of competitive privateers are over. Manufacturers' return Michael Schumacher won five consecutive titles with Ferrari Michael Schumacher and Ferrari won an unprecedented five consecutive drivers championships and six consecutive constructors championships between 1999 and Schumacher set many new records, including those for Grand Prix wins (91), wins in a season (13 of 18), and most drivers' championships (7). Schumacher's championship

109 streak ended on 25 September 2005 when Renault driver Fernando Alonso became Formula One s youngest champion at that time. In 2006, Renault and Alonso won both titles again. Schumacher retired at the end of 2006 after sixteen years in Formula One, but came out of retirement for the 2010 season, racing for the newly-formed Mercedes GP. During this period the championship rules were frequently changed by the FIA with the intention of improving the on-track action and cutting costs. Team orders, legal since the championship started in 1950, were banned in 2002 after several incidents in which teams openly manipulated race results, generating negative publicity, most famously by Ferrari at the 2002 Austrian Grand Prix. Other changes included the qualifying format, the points scoring system, the technical regulations, and rules specifying how long engines and tyres must last. A 'tyre war' between suppliers Michelin and Bridgestone saw lap times fall, although at the 2005 United States Grand Prix at Indianapolis seven out of ten teams did not race when their Michelin tyres were deemed unsafe for use. During 2006, Max Mosley outlined a green future for Formula One, in which efficient use of energy would become an important factor. And the tyre war ended, as Bridgestone became the sole tyre supplier to Formula One for the 2007 season. Manufacturers' decline and return of the privateers Since 1983, Formula One had been dominated by specialist race teams like Williams, McLaren, and Benetton, using engines supplied by large car manufacturers like Mercedes-Benz, Honda, Renault, and Ford. Starting in 2000, with Ford s creation of the largely unsuccessful Jaguar team, new manufacturer-owned teams entered Formula One for the first time since the departure of Alfa Romeo and Renault at the end of By 2006, the manufacturer teams Renault, BMW, Toyota, Honda, and Ferrari dominated the championship, taking five of the first six places in the constructors' championship. The sole exception was McLaren, which at the time was part-owned by Mercedes Benz. Through the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association (GPMA) they negotiated a larger share of Formula One s commercial profit and a greater say in the running of the sport. In 2008 and 2009 Honda, BMW, and Toyota all withdrew from Formula One racing within the space of a year, blaming the economic recession. This led to the end of manufacturer dominance within the sport. In the 2010 season Mercedes Benz re-entered the sport as a manufacturer after its purchase of Brawn GP, and split with McLaren after 15 seasons with the team. This leaves Mercedes, Renault and Ferrari as the only car manufacturers in the sport. AT&T Williams confirmed towards the end of 2009 their new engine deal with Cosworth, who also supply the wave of new teams Virgin Racing, Hispania Racing F1, and the newly formed Lotus F1 team. The exit of car manufacturers has also paved the way for teams representing their countries, with some having the financial backing of their respective national governments (such as Lotus), something not seen since the 1930s.

110 Political disputes FISA FOCA war The battle for control of Formula One was contested between the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile (FISA), at the time an autonomous subcommittee of the FIA, and FOCA (the Formula One Constructors' Association). The beginnings of the dispute are numerous, and many of the underlying reasons may be lost in history. The teams (excepting Ferrari and the other major manufacturers Renault and Alfa Romeo in particular) were of the opinion that their rights and ability to compete against the larger and better funded teams were being negatively affected by a perceived bias on the part of the controlling organisation (FISA) toward the major manufacturers. In addition, the battle revolved around the commercial aspects of the sport (the FOCA teams were unhappy with the disbursement of proceeds from the races) and the technical regulations which, in FOCA's opinion, tended to be malleable according to the nature of the transgressor more than the nature of the transgression. FIA FOTA dispute The war culminated in a FOCA boycott of the 1982 San Marino Grand Prix months later. In theory, all FOCA teams were supposed to boycott the Grand Prix as a sign of solidarity and complaint at the handling of the regulations and financial compensation (and extreme opposition to the accession of Balestre to the position of FISA president:both Colin Chapman of Lotus and Frank Williams of Williams stated clearly that they would not continue in Formula One with Balestre as its governor). In practice, several of the FOCA teams backed out of the boycott, citing "sponsor obligations". Notable among these were the Tyrrell and Toleman teams. During the 2009 season of Formula One, the sport was gripped in a governance crisis. The FIA President Max Mosley proposed numerous cost cutting measures for the following season, including an optional budget cap for the teams; teams electing to take the budget cap would be granted greater technical freedom, adjustable front and rear wings and an engine not subject to a rev limiter. The Formula One Teams Association (FOTA) believed that allowing some teams to have such technical freedom would have created a two-tier championship, and thus requested urgent talks with the FIA. However talks broke down and FOTA teams announced, with the exception of Williams and Force India, that they had no choice but to form a breakaway championship series.

111 Bernie Ecclestone, known as the "F1 Supremo" and CEO of FOM and FOA On 24 June, an agreement was reached between Formula One's governing body and the teams to prevent a breakaway series. It was agreed teams must cut spending to the level of the early 1990s within two years; exact figures were not specified, and Max Mosley agreed he would not stand for re-election to the FIA presidency in October. After further disagreements after Max Mosley suggested he would stand for re-election, FOTA made it clear that breakaway plans were still being pursued. On 8 July, FOTA issued a press release stating they had been informed they were not entered for the 2010 season, and an FIA press release said the FOTA representatives had walked out of the meeting. On 1 August, it was announced FIA and FOTA had signed a new Concorde Agreement, bringing an end to the crisis and securing the sport's future until 2012.

112 Outside the World Championship The terms "Formula One race" and "World Championship race" are effectively synonymous; since 1984, every Formula One race has counted towards an Official FIA World Championship, and every World Championship race has been to Formula One regulations. This has not always been the case, and in the earlier history of Formula One many races took place outside the world championship. European non-championship racing In the early years of Formula One, before the world championship was established, there were around twenty races held from late Spring to early Autumn in Europe, although not all of these were considered significant. Most competitive cars came from Italy, particularly Alfa Romeo. After the start of the world championship, these non-championship races continued. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were many Formula One races which did not count for the World Championship (e.g., in 1950, a total of twenty-two Formula One races were held, of which only six counted towards the World Championship). In 1952 and 1953, when the world championship was run for Formula Two cars, a full season of non-championship Formula One racing took place. Some races, particularly in the UK, including the Race of Champions, Oulton Park International Gold Cup and International Trophy, were attended by the majority of the world championship contenders. These became less common through the 1970s and 1983 saw the last nonchampionship Formula One race: The 1983 Race of Champions at Brands Hatch, won by reigning World Champion Keke Rosberg in a Williams-Cosworth in a close fight with American Danny Sullivan. South African Formula One championship South Africa's flourishing domestic Formula One championship ran from 1960 through to The frontrunning cars in the series were recently retired from the world championship although there was also a healthy selection of locally built or modified machines. Frontrunning drivers from the series usually contested their local World Championship Grand Prix, as well as occasional European events, although they had little success at that level. British Formula One Series The DFV helped make the UK domestic Formula One series possible between 1978 and As in South Africa a decade before, second hand cars from manufacturers like Lotus and Fittipaldi Automotive were the order of the day, although some, such as the March 781, were built specifically for the series. In 1980, the series saw South African Desiré Wilson become the only woman to win a Formula One race when she triumphed at Brands Hatch in a Wolf WR3.

113 Racing and strategy are allowed to run on Fridays, but only two cars may be used per team, requiring a race Nick Heidfeld and Nico Rosberg on the street circuit of Albert Park in the 2008 Australian Grand Prix. A Formula One Grand Prix event spans a weekend. It begins with two free practice sessions on Friday (except in Monaco, where Friday practices are moved to Thursday), and one free practice on Saturday. Additional drivers (commonly known as third drivers) driver to give up their seat. A Qualifying session is held after the last free practice session. This session determines the starting order for the race.

114 Qualifying sometimes within a limited number of attempts, with the grid order determined by each A typical pitwall control centre, from which the team managers and strategists communicate with their drivers and engineers over the course of a testing session or a race weekend. For much of the sport's history, qualifying sessions differed little from practice sessions; drivers would have an entire session in which to attempt to set their fastest time, driver's best single lap, fastest (on pole position) to slowest. Grids were limited to the fastest 26 cars and drivers had to lap within 107% of the pole sitter's time to qualify for the race; the 107% rule (as it is more commonly known), re-introduced for Other formats have included Friday pre-qualifying, and sessions in which each driver was allowed only one qualifying lap, run separately in a predetermined order. The current qualifying system was adopted for the 2006 season. Known as "knock-out" qualifying, it is split into three periods (or rounds). In each period, drivers run qualifying laps to attempt to advance to the next period, running as many laps as they wish, with the slowest drivers being "knocked out" at the end of the period and their grid positions set, based on their best lap times. Cars are eliminated in this manner until 10 cars remain eligible to attempt to qualify for pole position in the third and final period. For each period, all previous times are reset, and only a driver's fastest lap in that period (barring infractions) counts. For all periods, any timed lap started before the chequered flag falls signalling the end of that period may be completed, and will count toward that driver's placement, even if they cross the finish line after the period has ended. In the first two

115 periods, cars may run any tyre compound they wish, and drivers eliminated in these periods are allowed to change their choice of tyres prior to the race. Cars taking part in the final period, however, must start the race with the tyres used during their fastest lap (exactly the same tyres, not just the same compound), barring changes in weather that require usage of wet-weather tyres. With refuelling not allowed during races from 2010, the final session is run with low-fuel configuration and the cars are refuelled after qualifying. For example, for a 20-car grid, all 20 cars are permitted to take part in the first period. At the end of the period, the slowest five cars are eliminated and take up the last five grid positions (16 to 20). In the second period, the remaining fifteen cars take part, with five more cars eliminated at the end, taking the next five lowest grid positions (11 to 15). In the third and final period, the remaining 10 cars compete for pole position, and fill grid positions 1 through 10. Once all the cars have formed on the grid, a light system above the track indicates the The knock-out format has received minor updates since its inception, such as adjustments to the number of drivers eliminated in each period as the total number of cars entered has changed (from 20 drivers in 2009 to 24 in 2010). The race The race begins with a warm-up lap, after which the cars assemble on the starting grid in the order they qualified. This lap is often referred to as the formation lap, as the cars lap in formation with no overtaking (although a driver who makes a mistake may regain lost ground provided he has not fallen to the back of the field). The warm-up lap allows drivers to check the condition of the track and their car, gives the tyres a chance to get some heat in them to get some much-needed traction, and gives the pit crews time to clear themselves and their equipment from the grid. start of the race: five red lights are illuminated at intervals of one second; they are all then extinguished simultaneously after an unspecified time (typically less than 3 seconds) to signal the start of the race. The start procedure may be abandoned if a driver stalls on the grid, signalled by raising his arm. If this happens the procedure restarts: a new formation lap begins with the offending car removed from the grid. The race may also be restarted in the event of a serious accident or dangerous conditions, with the original start voided. The race may be started from behind the Safety Car if officials feel a racing start would be excessively dangerous, such as extremely heavy rainfall. There is no formation lap when races start behind the Safety Car. Under normal circumstances the winner of the race is the first driver to cross the finish line having completed a set number of laps, which added together should give a distance of approximately 305 km (190 mi) (260 km (160 mi) for Monaco). Race officials may end the race early (putting out a red flag) due to unsafe conditions such as extreme rainfall, and it must finish within two hours, although races are only likely to last this long in the case of extreme weather. Drivers may overtake one another for position over

116 the course of the race and are 'Classified' in the order they finished the race. If a leader comes across a back marker (slower car) who has completed fewer laps, the back marker is shown a blue flag telling him he is obliged to allow the leader to overtake him. The slower car is said to be 'lapped' and, once the leader finishes the race, is classified as finishing the race 'one lap down'. A driver can be lapped numerous times, by any car in front of him. A driver who fails to finish a race, through mechanical problems, accident, or any other reason is said to have retired from the race and is 'Not Classified' in the results. However, if driver has completed more than 90% of the race distance, he will be classified. When required, the safety car (above, driven by Bernd Mayländer) will lead the field around the circuit at reduced speed, until race officials deem the race safe to continue.

117 Throughout the race drivers may make pit stops to change tyres and repair damage (until the 2010 season they could also refuel). Different teams and drivers employ different pit stop strategies in order to maximise their car's potential. Two tyre compounds, with different durability and adhesion characteristics, are available to drivers. Over the course of a race, drivers must use both. One compound will have a performance advantage over the other, and choosing when to use which compound is a key tactical decision to make. The softer of the available tyres are marked with a green stripe on the sidewall to help spectators to understand the strategies. Under wet conditions drivers may switch to one of two specialised wet weather tyres with additional grooves (one "intermediate", for mild wet conditions, such as after recent rain, one "full wet", for racing in or immediately after rain). If rain tyres are used, drivers are no longer obliged to use both types of dry tyres. A driver must make at least one stop to use both tyre compounds; up to three stops are typically made, although further stops may be necessary to fix damage or if weather conditions change. Race director As of 2010 the race director in Formula One is Charlie Whiting. This role involves him generally managing the logistics of each F1 Grand Prix, inspecting cars in Parc fermé before a race, enforcing FIA rules and controlling the lights which start each race. As the head of the race officials he also plays a large role in sorting disputes amongst teams and drivers. Penalties, such as drive-through penalties (and stop-and-go penalties), demotions on a pre-race start grid, race disqualifications, and fines can all be handed out should parties break regulations. Safety car In the event of an incident that risks the safety of competitors or trackside race marshals, race officials may choose to deploy the safety car. This in effect suspends the race, with drivers following the safety car around the track at its speed in race order, with overtaking not permitted. The safety car circulates until the danger is cleared; after it comes in the race restarts with a 'rolling start'. Pit stops are permitted under the safety car. Mercedes-Benz supplies Mercedes-AMG models to Formula One to use as the safety cars. Since 2000, the main safety car driver has been German ex-racing driver Bernd Mayländer. On the lap in which the safety car returns back into the pits the leading car takes over the role of the safety car until the first safety car line, which is usually a white line after the pit lane entrance. After crossing this line drivers are allowed to start racing for track position once more. Red flag In the event of a major incident or unsafe weather conditions, the race may be redflagged. Then: If under 3 laps have been completed when the red flag is displayed, the race is restarted from original grid positions. All drivers may restart, provided their car is in a fit state to do so. If between 3 laps and 75% of the race distance have been completed, the race may be restarted once it is safe to do so, maintaining the race order at

118 the time of the red flag. The two-hour time limit still applies and the clock does not stop. If more than 75% of the race distance has been completed then the race is terminated and the race result counted back to the second last completed lap before the red flag. The format of the race has changed little through Formula One's history. The main changes have revolved around what is allowed at pit stops. In the early days of Grand Prix racing, a driver would be allowed to continue a race in his teammate's car should his develop a problem; cars are now so carefully fitted to drivers this is now impossible. In recent years, the focus has been on changing refuelling and tyre change regulations. From the 2010 season, refuelling which was reintroduced in 1994 is not allowed, to encourage less tactical racing following safety concerns. The rule requiring both compounds of tyre to be used during the race was introduced in 2007, again to encourage racing on the track. The safety car is another relatively recent innovation that reduced the need to deploy the red flag, allowing races to be completed on time for a growing international live television audience. Points system Points awarded for finishing Position Points 1st 25 2nd 18 3rd 15 4th 12 5th 10 6th 8 7th 6 8th 4 9th 2 10th 1 Various systems for awarding championship points have been used since As of 2010 the top ten cars are all awarded points, the winner receiving 25 points. The total number of points won at each race are added together and the driver and constructor with the most points at the end of the season are World Champions. If both a team's cars finish in the points, they both receive Constructors Championship points, meaning the Drivers and Constructors Championships often have different results. To receive points, a driver must be Classified. Strictly speaking in order to be Classified a driver need not finish the race, but complete at least 90% of the winner's race distance. Therefore, it is possible for a driver to receive some points even though he retired before the end of the race.

119 In the event that less than 75% of the race laps are completed, only half points are awarded to the drivers and constructors. This has happened on only five occasions in the history of the championship, and it has decided the championship winner on one occasion. The last occurrence was at the 2009 Malaysian Grand Prix when the race was called off after 31 laps due to torrential rain. This was the first time half points were awarded since the 1991 Australian Grand Prix. A driver can switch teams during the season and keep any points gained at the previous team. In 2010 Formula One modified its points system, giving points to the first ten drivers instead of eight or six in previous years. Constructors Since 1981, Formula One teams have been required to build the chassis in which they compete, and consequently the terms "team" and "constructor" became more or less interchangeable. This requirement distinguishes the sport from series such as the IndyCar Series which allows teams to purchase chassis, and "spec series" such as GP2, which require all cars be kept to an identical specification. It also effectively prohibits privateers, which were common even in Formula One well into the 1970s. McLaren won all but one race in 1988 with engine partner Honda, and remains a championship contender in the present day

120 The sport's debut season, 1950, saw eighteen teams compete, but due to high costs many dropped out quickly. In fact, such was the scarcity of competitive cars for much of the first decade of Formula One that Formula Two cars were admitted to fill the grids. Ferrari is the only still-active team which competed in Early manufacturer involvement came in the form of a "factory team" or "works team" (that is, one owned and staffed by a major car company), such as those of Alfa Romeo, Ferrari, or Renault. After having virtually disappeared by the early 1980s, factory teams made a comeback in the 1990s and 2000s and formed up to half the grid with Ferrari, Jaguar BMW, Renault, Toyota, and Honda either setting up their own teams or buying out existing ones. Mercedes-Benz owned 40% of the McLaren team and manufactures the team's engines. Factory teams make up the top competitive teams; in 2008 wholly owned factory teams took four of the top five positions in the Constructors' Championship, and McLaren the other. Ferrari holds the record for having won the most Constructors' Championships (fifteen). However by the end of the 2000s factory teams were once again on the decline with only Ferrari, Mercedes-Benz and Renault lodging entries to the 2010 championship. Ferrari have competed in every season, and hold the record for the most titles Companies such as Climax, Repco, Cosworth, Hart, Judd and Supertec, which had no direct team affiliation, often sold engines to teams that could not afford to manufacture them. In the early years, independently owned Formula One teams sometimes also built their engines, though this became less common with the increased involvement of major car manufacturers such as BMW, Ferrari, Honda, Mercedes-Benz, Renault, and Toyota, whose large budgets rendered privately built engines less competitive. Cosworth are the last independent engine supplier. Beginning in 2007, the manufacturers' deep pockets and engineering ability took over, eliminating the last of the independent engine manu-

121 facturers. It is estimated the major teams spend between 100 and 200 million ($125 $225 million) per year per manufacturer on engines alone. In the 2007 season, for the first time since the 1984 rule, two teams used chassis built by other teams. Super Aguri started the season using a modified Honda Racing RA106 chassis (used by Honda in the 2006 season), while Scuderia Toro Rosso used a modified Red Bull Racing RB3 chassis (same as the one used by Red Bull in the 2007 season). This decision did not come as a surprise as costs are increasing, Super Aguri is partially owned by Honda, and Toro Rosso half-owned by Red Bull. Formula One team Spyker raised a complaint against this decision, and other teams such as McLaren and Ferrari have officially confirmed they support the campaign. Because of this use of other teams' chassis, the 2006 season could have been the last one in which the terms "team" and "constructor" were truly interchangeable. This attracted the Prodrive team to F1 to the 2008 season, where it intended to run a customer car. After not being able to secure a package from McLaren, Prodrive's intention to enter the 2008 season was dropped after Williams threatened legal action against them. Now, it seems customer cars will be formally banned in Although teams rarely disclose information about their budgets, it is estimated they range from US$66 million to US$400 million each. Entering a new team in the Formula One World Championship requires a 25 million (about US$47 million) up-front payment to the FIA, which is then repaid to the team over the course of the season. As a consequence, constructors desiring to enter Formula One often prefer to buy an existing team: B.A.R.'s purchase of Tyrrell and Midland's purchase of Jordan allowed both of these teams to sidestep the large deposit and secure the benefits the team already had, such as TV revenue.

122 Drivers The Formula One Drivers' Trophy Modern drivers are contracted to a team for at least the duration of the season, but it is not uncommon for drivers to be fired or even swapped during the course of a season. Although most drivers earn their seat on ability, commercial considerations also come into play with teams having to satisfy sponsors and suppliers. Most teams also have a spare driver, whom they bring to race weekends, in case of injury or illness to a main driver. All competitors must be in possession of a FIA Super Licence. Each driver is assigned a number. The previous season's champion is designated number 1, with his team-mate given number 2. Numbers are then assigned in order according to

123 each team's position in the previous season's constructors' championship. The number 13 is not used. There have been exceptions to this rule, such as in 1993 and 1994, when the current World Drivers' Champion (Nigel Mansell and Alain Prost, respectively) was no longer competing in Formula One. In this case the drivers for the team of the previous year's champion are given numbers 0 (Damon Hill, on both occasions) and 2 (Prost himself and Ayrton Senna replaced after his death by David Coulthard and occasionally Nigel Mansell respectively). The number 13 has not been used since 1976, before which it was occasionally assigned at the discretion of individual race organisers. Before 1996, only the world championship winning driver and his team generally swapped numbers with the previous champion the remainder held their numbers from prior years, as they had been originally set at the start of the 1974 season. For many years, for example, Ferrari held numbers 27 and 28, regardless of their finishing position in the world championship. Feeder series Jochen Rindt is the only posthumous World Champion after his points total was not overhauled despite his fatal accident at the 1970 Italian Grand Prix. Michael Schumacher holds the record for having won the most Drivers' Championships, with seven. GP2, the main F1 feeder series

124 Most F1 drivers start in kart racing competitions, and then come up through traditional European single seater series like Formula Ford and Formula Renault to Formula 3, and finally the GP2 Series. GP2 started in 2005, replacing Formula 3000, which itself had replaced Formula Two as the last major "stepping stone" into F1. Most champions from this level graduate into F1, but 2006 GP2 champion Lewis Hamilton became the first F2, F3000 or GP2 champion to win the Formula One driver's title in Drivers are not required to have competed at this level before entering Formula One. British F3 has supplied many F1 drivers, with champions including Nigel Mansell, Ayrton Senna and Mika Häkkinen having moved straight from that series to Formula One. More rarely a driver may be picked from an even lower level, as was the case with 2007 World Champion Kimi Räikkönen, who went straight from Formula Renault to F1. American Championship Car Racing has also contributed to the Formula One grid with mixed results. CART Champions Mario Andretti and Jacques Villeneuve became F1 World Champions, while Juan Pablo Montoya won seven races in F1. Other CART or ChampCar Champions, like Michael Andretti and Alessandro Zanardi won no races in F1. Other drivers have taken different paths to F1; Damon Hill raced motorbikes, and Michael Schumacher raced in sports cars, albeit after climbing through the junior single seater ranks. To race, however, the driver must hold an FIA Super Licence ensuring that the driver has the requisite skills, and will not therefore be a danger to others. Some drivers have not had the license when first signed to a F1 team; Räikkönen received the license despite having only 23 car races to his credit. Beyond F1 DTM has become a popular destination for retired F1 drivers

125 Most F1 drivers retire in their mid to late 30s; however, many keep racing in disciplines which are less physically demanding. The German touring car championship, the DTM, is a popular category involving ex-drivers such as two-time champion Mika Häkkinen and F1 race winners David Coulthard and Ralf Schumacher. Some F1 drivers have left to race in America Nigel Mansell and Emerson Fittipaldi duelled for the 1993 CART title, while Jacques Villeneuve, Juan Pablo Montoya, Nelson Piquet Jr and Scott Speed have moved to NASCAR. Some drivers, such as Vitantonio Liuzzi, Narain Karthikeyan and Jos Verstappen went on to race in the A1 Grand Prix, and others, like Jackie Stewart, Gerhard Berger and Alain Prost, returned to F1 as team owners. Since its inaugural season in 2008, Superleague Formula has attracted such ex-formula One drivers as Sébastien Bourdais, Antônio Pizzonia and Giorgio Pantano. A series for former Formula One drivers, called Grand Prix Masters, ran briefly in 2005 and Others have become colour commentators for TV coverage such as James Hunt (BBC), Martin Brundle (BBC and ITV), Luciano Burti for Globo (Brazil), and Jean Alesi for Italian national network RAI. Others, such as Damon Hill and Jackie Stewart take active roles in running motorsport in their own countries. Grands Prix The number of Grands Prix held in a season has varied over the years. Only seven races comprised the inaugural 1950 world championship season; over the years the calendar has almost tripled in size. Though the number of races had stayed at sixteen or seventeen since the 1980s, it peaked at nineteen in both 2005 & 2010, though the 2011 season is expected to have 20 races. Six of the original seven races took place in Europe; the only non-european race that counted towards the World Championship in 1950 was the Indianapolis 500, which, due to lack of participation by F1 teams, since it required cars with different specifications from the other races, was later replaced by the United States Grand Prix. The F1 championship gradually expanded to other non-european countries as well. Argentina hosted the first South American grand prix in 1953, and Morocco hosted the first African World Championship race in Asia (Japan in 1976) and Oceania (Australia in 1985) followed. The nineteen races are spread over the continents of Europe, Asia, Oceania, North America and South America.

126 Pacific Grand Prix. In 1982, the United States hosted three Grands Prix. Cars wind through the infield section of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway at the 2003 United States Grand Prix. Traditionally each nation has hosted a single Grand Prix, which carries the name of the country. If a single country hosts multiple Grands Prix in a year they receive different names. For instance, a European country (such as Britain, Germany or Spain) which has hosted two Grands Prix has the second one known as the European Grand Prix, while Italy's second grand prix was named after nearby republic of San Marino. Similarly, as two races were scheduled in Japan in 1994/1995, the second event was known as the The Grands Prix, some of which have a history that pre-dates the Formula One World Championship, are not always held on the same circuit every year. The British Grand Prix, for example, though held every year since 1950, alternated between Brands Hatch and Silverstone from 1963 to The only other race to have been included in every season is the Italian Grand Prix. The World Championship event has taken place exclusively at Monza with just one exception: in 1980, it was held at Imola, host to the San Marino Grand Prix until One of the newer races on the Grand Prix calendar, held in Bahrain, represents Formula One's first foray into the Middle East with a high-tech purpose-built desert track. The Bahrain Grand Prix, and other new races in China and Turkey, present new opportunities for the growth and evolution of the Formula One Grand Prix franchise while new facilities also raise the bar for other Formula One racing venues around the world. In order to make room on the schedule for the newer races, older or less successful events in

127 Europe and the Americas have been dropped from the calendar, such as these in Argentina, Austria, Mexico, France, San Marino, and the United States. Even more recent additions to the calendar include the Valencia Street Circuit, which became the host of the European Grand Prix in 2008, giving Spain two Grands Prix. In September 2008, the Singapore Grand Prix, hosted the first night race ever held in Formula One, in order to be held at a time better suited to the sport's core European audience. The most recent addition to the calendar is the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, which hosted the final race of the 2009 season, becoming the first day-to-night race. New events scheduled to join the calendar in the near future include the Korean Grand Prix, which will be held for the first time in October 2010, and the Indian Grand Prix which will be held in Delhi, India in October The United States Grand Prix will be hosted in Austin, Texas from Circuits The Autodromo Nazionale Monza, home to the Italian Grand Prix, is one of the oldest circuits still in use in Formula One

128 Autódromo José Carlos Pace in São Paulo hosts the Brazilian Grand Prix A typical circuit usually features a stretch of straight road on which the starting grid is situated. The pit lane, where the drivers stop for fuel, tyres, or minor repairs (such as changing the car's nose due to front wing damage) during the race, and where the teams work on the cars before the race, is normally located next to the starting grid. The layout of the rest of the circuit varies widely, although in most cases the circuit runs in a clockwise direction. Those few circuits that run anticlockwise (and therefore have predominantly left-handed corners) can cause drivers neck problems due to the enormous lateral forces generated by F1 cars pulling their heads in the opposite direction to normal. use, since it is thought not to meet the strict safety requirements imposed on other tracks. Most of the circuits currently in use are specially constructed for competition. The current street circuits are Monaco, Melbourne, Valencia, and Singapore, although races in other urban locations come and go (Las Vegas and Detroit, for example) and proposals for such races are often discussed most recently London and Paris. Several other circuits are also completely or partially laid out on public roads, such as Spa-Francorchamps. The glamour and history of the Monaco race are the primary reasons why the circuit is still in Three-time World champion Nelson Piquet famously described racing in Monaco as "like riding a bicycle around your living room". Circuit design to protect the safety of drivers is becoming increasingly sophisticated, as exemplified by the new Bahrain International Circuit, added in 2004 and designed like most of F1's new circuits by Hermann Tilke. Several of the new circuits in F1, especially those designed by Tilke, have been criticised as lacking the "flow" of such classics as Spa-Francorchamps and Imola. His redesign of the Hockenheim circuit in Germany for example, while providing more capacity for grandstands and eliminating extremely long and dangerous straights, has been frowned upon by many who argue that part of the character of the Hockenheim circuits was the long and blinding straights into dark forest sections. These newer circuits, however, are generally agreed to meet the safety standards of modern Formula One better than the older ones. The most recent additions to the F1 calendar are Valencia, Singapore and Abu Dhabi. A Formula One Grand Prix will be held in India for the first time in Tilke is designing

129 the India circuit while Design Cell, a reputed landscape architectural firm based in India and US are designing the landscape for all the areas. A single race requires hotel rooms to accommodate at least 5000 visitors. Cars and Technology A topdown view of the rear of a 2006 McLaren MP4-21 Modern Formula One cars are mid-engined open cockpit, open wheel single-seaters. The chassis is made largely of carbon fibre composites, rendering it light but extremely stiff and strong. The whole car, including engine, fluids and driver, weighs only 620 kg (1,367 lbs) the minimum weight set by the regulations. The construction of the cars is typically lighter than the minimum and so they are ballasted up to the minimum weight. The race teams take advantage of this by placing this ballast at the extreme bottom of the chassis, thereby locating the centre of gravity as low as possible in order to improve handling and weight transfer.

130 The cornering speed of Formula One cars is largely determined by the aerodynamic downforce that they generate, which pushes the car down onto the track. This is provided by "wings" mounted at the front and rear of the vehicle, and by ground effect created by low pressure air under the flat bottom of the car. The aerodynamic design of the cars is very heavily constrained to limit performance and the current generation of cars sport a large number of small winglets, "barge boards" and turning vanes designed to closely control the flow of the air over, under and around the car. The other major factor controlling the cornering speed of the cars is the design of the tyres. From 1998 to 2008, the tyres in Formula One were not "slicks" (tyres with no tread pattern) as in most other circuit racing series. Instead, each tyre had four large circumferential grooves on its surface designed to limit the cornering speed of the cars. Slick tyres returned to Formula One in the 2009 season. Suspension is double wishbone or multilink all round with pushrod operated springs and dampers on the chassis. The only exception being on that of the 2009 specification Red Bull Racing car (RB5) which uses pullrod suspension at the rear, the first car in over 20 years to do so. Carbon-Carbon disc brakes are used for reduced weight and increased frictional performance. These provide a very high level of braking performance and are usually the element which provokes the greatest reaction from drivers new to the formula. A BMW Sauber P86 V8 engine, which powered their 2006 F1.06

131 Engines must be 2.4 litre naturally aspirated V8s, with many other constraints on their design and the materials that may be used. Engines run on unleaded fuel closely resembling publicly available petrol. The oil which lubricates and protects the engine from overheating is very similar in viscosity to water. The 2006 generation of engines spun up to 20,000 RPM and produced up to 780 bhp (580 kw). For 2007 engines were restricted to 19,000 rpm with limited development areas allowed, following the engine specification freeze from the end of For the 2009 Formula One season the engines have been further restricted to 18,000 rpm. A wide variety of technologies including active suspension, ground effect, and turbochargers are banned under the current regulations. Despite this the current generation of cars can reach speeds up to 350 km/h (220 mph) at some circuits. The highest straight line speed recorded during a Grand Prix was km/h (221.5 mph), set by David Coulthard during the 1998 German Grand Prix. A Honda Formula One car, running with minimum downforce on a runway in the Mojave desert achieved a top speed of 415 km/h (258 mph) in According to Honda, the car fully met the FIA Formula One regulations. Even with the limitations on aerodynamics, at 160 km/h (99 mph) aerodynamically generated downforce is equal to the weight of the car, and the oft-repeated claim that Formula One cars create enough downforce to "drive on the ceiling", while possible in principle, has never been put to the test. Downforce of 2.5 times the car's weight can be achieved at full speed. The downforce means that the cars can achieve a lateral force with a magnitude of up to 3.5 times that of the force of gravity (3.5g) in cornering. Consequently, the driver's head is pulled sideways with a force equivalent to the weight of 20 kg in corners. Such high lateral forces are enough to make breathing difficult and the drivers need supreme concentration and fitness to maintain their focus for the one to two hours that it takes to complete the race. A high-performance road car like the Ferrari Enzo only achieves around 1g. As of 2010 each team may have no more than two cars available for use at any time. Each driver can use no more than eight engines during a season; if more are used, he drops ten places on the starting grid of the event at which an additional engine is used. Each driver may use no more than one gearbox for four consecutive events; every unscheduled gearbox change requires the driver to drop five places on the grid unless he failed to finish the previous race due to reasons beyond the team's control.

132 Revenue and profits Estimated budget split of a Formula One team based on the 2006 season Formula One is profitable for most parties involved TV channels make profits from broadcasting the races, and teams get a slice of the money from the sale of broadcasting rights and from the sponsor's logos on their cars. The cost of building a brand new permanent circuit like that in Shanghai, China can be up to hundreds of millions of dollars, while the cost of converting a public road, such as Albert Park, into a temporary circuit is much less. Permanent circuits, however, can generate revenue all year round from leasing the track for private races and other races, such as MotoGP. The Shanghai circuit cost over $300 million. The owners are hoping to break-even by The Istanbul Park circuit cost $150 million to build. Not all circuits make profits Albert Park, for example, lost $32 million in In March 2007, F1 Racing published its annual estimates of spending by Formula One teams. The total spending of all eleven teams in 2006 was estimated at $2.9 billion US. This was broken down as follows; Toyota $418.5 million, Ferrari $406.5 m, McLaren $402 m, Honda $380.5 m, BMW Sauber $355 m, Renault $324 m, Red Bull $252 m, Williams $195.5 m, Midland F1/Spyker-MF1 $120 m, Toro Rosso $75 m, and Super Aguri $57 million.

133 Costs vary greatly from team to team. Honda, Toyota, McLaren-Mercedes, and Ferrari are estimated to have spent approximately $200 million on engines in 2006, Renault spent approximately $125 million and Cosworth's 2006 V8 was developed for $15 million. In contrast to the 2006 season on which these figures are based, the 2007 sporting regulations ban all performance related engine development. Future A sign announcing that the safety car (SC) is deployed. Safety is of paramount concern in modern F1. The FIA is responsible for making rules to combat the spiralling costs of Formula One racing (which affects the smaller teams the most) and for ensuring the sport remains as safe as possible, especially in the wake of the deaths of Roland Ratzenberger and Ayrton Senna in To this end the FIA have instituted a number of rule changes, including new tyre restrictions, multi-race engines, and reductions on downforce. Safety and cost have traditionally been paramount in all rule-change discussions. More recently the FIA has added efficiency to its priorities. Currently the FIA and manufacturers are discussing adding bio-fuel engines and regenerative braking for the 2011 season or from the start of the 2013 season. Former FIA President Max Mosley believes F1 must focus on efficiency to stay technologically relevant in the automotive industry as well as keep the public excited about F1 technology. In the interest of making the sport truer to its role as a World Championship, FOM president Bernie Ecclestone has initiated and organised a number of Grands Prix in new countries and continues to discuss new future races. Confirmation for the 2011 Indian

134 Grand Prix is only subject to the homologation of the circuit. The United States Grand Prix will celebrate its return onto the F1 circuit in In October 2010, Russian prime minster Vladimir Putin signed an agreement with Ecclestone establishing the Russian Grand Prix in the Black Sea resort city of Sochi from 2014, with the circuit to be run in and around the site of the 2014 Winter Olympic Park. Formula 1 is also exploring the potential for a revival of the South African Grand Prix, while a proposals for races to be held in Vietnam and the Ukraine have also been put forward. The sport's rapid expansion into new areas of the globe also leaves some question as to which races will be cut. In December 2010, reports emerged detailing new engine regulations set to take effect from The 2.4-litre V8 engines used since 2006 will be downsized to 1.6-litre fourcylinder turbocharged engines augmented by the KERS device, with projected power outputs predicting that the new engine formula would remain constant from the 2006 design. The new engine regulations emphasise efficiency and eco-friendliness, and have been designed in an attempt to lure new engine suppliers back into the sport - with the mass exodus of manufacturers Toyota, Honda and BMW ahead of the 2010 season, the number of manufacturers on the grid was at a thirty-year low, with just Ferrari, Mercedes, Renault and the independent Cosworth supplying engines, the lowest since The new engines will reportedly consume 35% less fuel than the pre-2013 engine formula. Television It has also been reported that ground effects - banned since are being considered for a future return. In December 2010, a proposal created by Rory Byrne and Patrick Head emerged, which outlined design specifications that included the re-introduction of ground effects in addition to greatly-reduced downforce, and much smaller front and rear wings. It has been estimated that the cars will become harder to drive - where drivers in 2010 can spend up to 70% of a lap at full throttle, they will only be able to spend 50% of the lap at full throttle from Byrne and Head have speculated that their proposed regulations will make overtaking easier as a driver following another will lose less downforce when following closely courtesy of the car's shaped underside. Formula One can be seen live or tape delayed in almost every country and territory around the world and attracts one of the largest global television audiences. The 2008 season attracted a global audience of 600 million people per race. It is a massive television event; the cumulative television audience was calculated to be 54 billion for the 2001 season, broadcast to two hundred countries.

135 Track photographers at the 2007 British Grand Prix During the early 2000s, Formula One Group created a number of trademarks, an official logo, and an official website for the sport in an attempt to give it a corporate identity. Ecclestone experimented with a digital television package (known colloquially as Bernievision) which was launched at the 1996 German Grand Prix in cooperation with German digital television service "DF1", thirty years after the first GP colour TV broadcast, the 1967 German Grand Prix. This service offered the viewer several simultaneous feeds (such as super signal, onboard, top of field, backfield, highlights, pit lane, timing) which were produced with cameras, technical equipment and staff different from those used for the conventional coverage. It was introduced in many countries over the years, but was shut down after the 2002 season for financial reasons. TV stations all take what is known as the "World Feed", either produced by the FOM (Formula One Management) or occasionally, the "host broadcaster". The only station that originally differed from this was "Premiere" a German channel which offers all sessions live and interactive, with features such as the onboard channel. This service was more widely available around Europe until the end of 2002, when the cost of a whole different feed for the digital interactive services was thought too much. This was in large part because of the failure of the "F1 Digital +" Channel launched through Sky in the United Kingdom. Prices were too high for viewers, considering they could watch both the qualifying and the races themselves free on ITV.

136 Official FOM still from the pre-race opening sequence However, upon the commencement of its coverage for the 2009 season, the BBC reintroduced complementary features such as the "red button" in-car camera angles, multiple soundtracks (broadcast commentary, CBBC commentary for children, or ambient sound only) and a rolling highlights package. Different combinations of these features are available across the various digital platforms (Freeview, Freesat, Sky, Virgin Media cable and the BBC F1 web site) prior to, during, and after the race weekend. Not all services are available across all the various platforms due to technical constraints. The BBC also broadcasts a post-race programme called "F1 Forum" on the digital terrestrial platforms' "red button" interactive services. Bernie Ecclestone had announced that F1 would adopt the HD format near the end of the 2007 season. A subsequent announcement in early 2008 claimed that the BBC would be broadcasting F1 for five years starting in 2009, regaining the rights from ITV who had been broadcasting it since However, on 31 December 2008, Roger Mosey, Director of BBC Sport announced that F1 would not be broadcast on BBC HD because "no HD world feed is available". Other media Formula One has an extensive web following, with most major TV companies covering it such as the BBC. The Formula One website is the official website for Formula One, and has a live timing Java applet that can be used during the race to keep up with the leaderboard in real time. Recently an official application has been made available in the itunes App Store that allows iphone / ipod Touch users to see a real time feed of driver positions, timing and commentary.

137 Distinction between Formula One and World Championship races Currently the terms "Formula One race" and "World Championship race" are effectively synonymous; since 1984, every Formula One race has counted towards the World Championship, and every World Championship race has been to Formula One regulations. But the two terms are not interchangeable. Consider that: the first Formula One race was held in 1947, whereas the World Championship did not start until in the 1950s and 1960s there were many Formula One races which did not count for the World Championship (e.g., in 1950, a total of twenty-two Formula One races were held, of which only six counted towards the World Championship). The number of non-championship Formula One events decreased throughout the 1970s and 1980s, to the point where the last non-championship Formula One race was held in the World Championship was not always exclusively composed of Formula One only officially became the Formula One World Championship in events: o The World Championship was originally established as the "World Championship for Drivers", i.e., without the term "Formula One" in the title. It o o From 1950 to 1960, the Indianapolis 500 counted towards the World Championship. This race was run to AAA/USAC regulations, rather than to Formula One regulations. Only one of the world championship regulars, Alberto Ascari in 1952, competed at Indianapolis during this period. From 1952 to 1953, all races counting towards the World Championship (except the Indianapolis 500) were run to Formula Two regulations. Formula One was not "changed to Formula Two" during this period; the Formula One regulations remained the same, and numerous Formula One races were staged during this time. The distinction is most relevant when considering career summaries and "all time lists". For example, in the List of Formula One drivers, Clemente Biondetti is shown with 1 race against his name. Biondetti actually competed in four Formula One races in 1950, but only one of these counted for the World Championship. Similarly, several Indy 500 winners technically won their first world championship race, though most record books choose to ignore this and instead only record regular participants.

138 Chapter 13 Formula One Racing Formula One cars wind through the infield section of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway during the 2003 United States Grand Prix A Formula One race takes place over an entire weekend, with two free practice sessions on Friday, a practice session and a qualifying session on Saturday, and the race on Sunday. There are typically races in other FIA series (such as the GP2 Series) over the weekend to keep crowds entertained. Free practice sessions The event usually begins on Friday (except in Monaco where it begins on Thursday) with two free practice sessions, from 10:00 to 11:30 and from 14:00 to 15:30 (except in Singapore where it is 19:00 to 20:30, 21:30 to 23:00), for the drivers to learn the circuit and for the teams to experiment with their cars to figure out the best settings for the particular track. Third drivers for teams that finished outside the top four of the previous

139 season's World Constructors' Championship are allowed to take part in Friday's free practice sessions. Another free practice session takes place on Saturday from 11:00 to 12:00 (19:00 to 20:00 in Singapore). Qualifying sessions On Saturday at 14:00 the qualifying session takes place to determine the running order at the beginning of the race. The qualifying hour is split into three sessions of 20, 15 and 10 minutes, with a seven-minute break between the first and second sessions and an eightminute break between the second and third sessions. During the first session, all 24 cars run laps at any time. The seven slowest cars are assigned grid places 18 through 24. Lap times are reset for the second session, which sees the remaining 17 cars on track together. Again, the seven slowest of those cars are assigned grid places 11 through 17. The final qualifying session is a shootout among the final ten competitors to determine the final 10 grid places. The number of laps run during any session is uncontrolled. As of 2010 only 12 teams are entered for the Formula One World Championship, each Generally, a driver will leave the pits and drive around the track in order to get to the start/finish line (the out-lap). Having crossed the line, they will attempt to achieve the quickest time around the circuit that they can (the flying lap or hot lap). This is the lap time which is used in calculating grid position. Finally, the driver will continue back around the track and re-enter the pit-lane (the in-lap). However, this is merely strategy, and no teams are obligated by the rules to follow this formula. A driver or car that sets the fastest time qualifies at the front of the grid and is said to be on pole position. DNQ entering two cars for a total of 24 cars, while the regulations place a limit of 26 entries for the championship. At some periods in the history of Formula One the number of cars entered for each race has exceeded the number permitted, which historically would vary from race to race according to the circuit used. Monaco, for example, for many years allowed only 20 cars to compete because of the restricted space available. The slowest cars excess to the circuit limit would not qualify for the race and would be list as 'Did not Qualify' (DNQ) in race results. Pre-qualifying In the late 1980s and early 1990s the number of cars attempting to enter each race was as high as 39 for some races. Because of the dangers of having so many cars on the track at the same time, a pre-qualifying session was introduced for the teams with the worst record over the previous 6 months, including all new teams. Only the four fastest cars from this session were then allowed into the qualifying session proper, where 30 cars competed for 26 places on the starting grid for the race. The slowest cars from the pre-

140 qualifying session were listed in race results as 'Did Not Pre-Qualify' (DNPQ). Prequalifying was discontinued after 1992 when many small teams withdrew from the sport. 107% rule As the number of cars entered in the world championship fell below 26, a situation arose in which any car entered would automatically qualify for the race, no matter how slowly it had been driven. The 107% rule was introduced in 1996 to prevent completely uncompetitive cars being entered in the championship. If a car's qualifying time was not within 107% of the pole sitter's time, that car would not qualify for the race, unless at the discretion of the race stewards for a situation such as a rain affected qualifying session. There are now 12 teams in F1 so the 107% rule has been removed since the FIA's rules indicate that 24 cars can take the start of an F1 race, and a minimum of 20 cars must enter a race. For 2003 the qualifying procedure changed to a single-lap system, rendering the rule inoperable. However, the rule will be reintroduced for the 2011 F1 season. / km), though occasionally some races are truncated due to special circumstances. Race The race itself is held on Sunday afternoon. Thirty minutes prior to race time, the cars take to the track for any number of warm-up laps, after which the cars are assembled on the starting grid in the order they qualified. At the hour of the race, a green light signifies the beginning of the relatively slow formation lap during which all cars parade around the course doing a final tire warmup and system checks. The cars then return to their assigned grid spot for the standing race start. The starting light system, which consists of five pairs of lights mounted above the start/finish line, then lights up each pair at one second intervals. Once all five pairs are illuminated, after a random length of time (one to nine seconds), the red lights are turned off by the race director, at which point the race starts. The race length is defined as the smallest number of complete laps that exceeds 305 kilometers (the Monaco Grand Prix is the sole exception with a race length of 78 laps The race can not exceed two hours in length; if this interval is reached the race will be ended at the end of that lap. Teams are supplied by the sole tyre supplier (currently Bridgestone), and receive two different types of slick dry tyre compounds: Prime tyres (either Hard or Medium compounds), and Option tyres (Soft and Super-soft compounds). The Prime tyres are more durable than the Option tyres, however the Option tyres are faster than the Prime tyres (the Option tyres are said to be 2-3 tenths of a second per lap quicker than the Prime tyres). While the drivers who qualified 1st - 10th are required to use the tyres they qualified with to start the race; the other drivers have freedom over which tyres they can start with, which can give those who qualified in 11th and 12th place a slight advantage over those placed 9th and 10th in the race. Each driver is also required to use both types of dry compound during a dry race, and so must make a mandatory pit-stop. Drivers used to make pitstops for fuel more than once during a race though refuelling during the race has been banned for the 2010 season. The cars, on average, get around 2

141 kilometres per litre (~5mpg). Timing pitstops with reference to other cars is crucial - if they are following another car but are unable to pass, driver may try to stay on the track as long as possible, as usually a car with worn tyres and low fuel load is faster than a car with new tyres and heavy fuel load. At the end of the race, the first-, second-, and third-placed drivers take their places on a podium, where they stand as the national anthem of the race winner's home country and that of his team is played. Dignitaries from the country hosting the race then present trophies to the drivers and a constructor's trophy to a representative from the winner's team, and the winning drivers spray each other and the fans with champagne. The three drivers then go to a media room for a press conference where they answer questions in English and their native languages. Points system Points are awarded to drivers and teams exclusively on where they finish in a race. The winner receives 25 points, the second place finisher 18 points, with 15, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2 and 1 points for positions 3 through 10. If a race has to be abandoned before 75% of the planned distance has been completed all points are halved. In a dead heat, prizes and points are added together and shared equally for all those drivers who tie. The winner of the annual championship is the driver (or team, for the Constructors' Championship) with the most points. If the number of points is the same, priority is given to the driver with more wins. If that is the same it will be decided on the most second places and so on. Historically, the races were scored on the basis of a five-place tally: i.e. via an scoring system, with the holder of the fastest race lap also receiving a bonus point. In 1961, the scoring was revised to give the winner nine points instead of eight, and the single point awarded for fastest lap was given for sixth place for the first time the previous year. In 1991, the points system was again revised to give the victor 10 points, with all other scorers recording the same result. This was thought to have been something of a knee-jerk reaction to the spate of drivers who had won the championship despite scoring fewer victories than their nearest challenger. In 2003, the FIA again revised the scoring system to apportion points to the first eight classified finishers (a classified finisher must complete 90% of race distance) on a basis. The winner of the world championship is the driver who accumulates the most points throughout the course of the season. At certain periods in F1's history, the world champion has been determined by virtue of the "best 7 scores" in each "half" of the world championship, meaning that drivers have had to "discard" lower scores in either half of the season. This was done in order to equalise the footings of teams which may not have had the wherewithal to compete in all events. With the advent of the Concorde Agreements, this practice has been discontinued,

142 though it did feature prominently in several world championships through the 1970s and 1980s. The change in the awarding of world championship points has rendered the comparison of historical teams and drivers to current ones largely ineffective. For instance, Michael Schumacher is widely credited with being the most successful GP driver of all time. While his statistics are very impressive and easily outstrip those of his nearest competitor, it is worth noting that his points tally vs points available, and winning percentage of grands prix entered, do not significantly exceed those of Juan Manuel Fangio, whom he dethroned as "winningest" driver recently. As with most other sports, it is very difficult to compare stars of different eras owing to the changes in the sport and regulations. Worldwide appeal Despite having the highest budget in all of auto racing, Formula One racing has often been accused of being unexciting when compared to less expensive categories. The differences in driver ability are usually dwarfed when compared to the relative speed of the different makes of cars, and on-track overtaking is very rare due to the aerodynamics of trailing cars being adversely affected by the car in front (making overtaking only possible by very risky and thus rarely-taken chances, or a much faster car trailing a slower one). Also, the use of electronic driver aids such as semi-automatic gearboxes and traction control has been widely criticized by F1 fans around the globe. Traction control was banned in the 2008 Formula One season. Estimates for Ferrari's racing budget in 1999 were around 240 million USD, and even The sport is lesser-known in the United States than the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series or their mostly-domestic open-wheel racing series, the IndyCar Series, but in terms of budgets and global TV audiences F1 is bigger than both combined. tailender Minardi reportedly spent 50 million. Estimates of TV audiences are around 300 million per race.

143 Chapter 14 Formula One Car Michael Schumacher driving a Formula One car at the 2004 United States Grand Prix A modern Formula One car is a single-seat, open cockpit, open wheel race car with substantial front and rear wings, and an engine positioned behind the driver. The regulations governing the cars are unique to the championship. The Formula One regulations specify that cars must be constructed by the racing teams themselves, though the design and manufacture can be outsourced.

144 Engines A BMW Sauber P86 V8 engine, which powered the 2006 BMW Sauber F1.06 The 2006 Formula One season saw the Fédération Internationale de l'automobile (FIA) introduce the current engine formula, which mandated cars to be powered by 2.4 litre naturally-aspirated engines in the V8 engine configuration, with no more than four valves per cylinder. Further technical restrictions, such as a ban on variable intake trumpets, have also been introduced with the new 2.4 L V8 formula to prevent the teams from achieving higher RPM and horsepower too quickly. The 2009 season limited engines to 18,000 rpm, in order to improve engine reliability and cut costs down. For a decade F1 cars had run with 3.0 litre naturally aspirated V10 engines, however development had led to these engines producing between 980 and 1,000 hp (730 and 750 kw), and reaching dangerous top speeds of 370 km/h (230 mph) on the Monza circuit. Teams started using exotic alloys in the late 1990s, leading to the FIA banning the use of exotic materials in engine construction, and only aluminium and iron alloys were allowed for the pistons, cylinders, connecting rods, and crankshafts. The FIA has continually enforced material and design restrictions to limit power, otherwise the 3.0L V10 engines would easily have exceeded 22,000 rpm and well over 1,000 hp (745 kw). Even with the restrictions the V10s in the 2005 season were reputed to develop 980 hp (730 kw) and 18,000 rpm, which were reaching power levels not seen since the ban on turbo-charged engines in 1989.

145 The lesser funded teams (the former Minardi team spends less than 50 million, while Ferrari spent hundreds of millions of euros a year developing their car) had the option of keeping the current V10 for another season, but with a rev limiter to keep them from being competitive with the most powerful V8 engines. The only team to take this option was the Toro Rosso team, which was the reformed and regrouped Minardi. The engines produce over 100,000 BTU per minute (1,750 kw) of heat which is dissipated via radiators and the exhaust, which can reach temperatures over 1,000 C (1,830 F). They consume around 650 liters (23 ft³) of air per second. Race fuel consumption rate is normally around 75 liters per 100 kilometers traveled (3.1 US mpg UK mpg km/l). Nonetheless a Formula One engine is over 20% more efficient at turning fuel into power than most small commuter cars, considering their craftsmanship. All cars have the engine located between the driver and the rear axle. The engines are a stressed member in most cars, meaning that the engine is part of the structural support framework; being bolted to the cockpit at the front end, and transmission and rear suspension at the back end. As of the 2006 Chinese Grand Prix all engine development was frozen until 2009, In the 2004 championship, engines were required to last a full race weekend. For the 2005 championship, they were required to last two full race weekends and if a team changes an engine between the two races, they incur a penalty of 10 grid positions. In 2007 this rule was altered slightly and an engine only had to last for Saturday and Sunday running. This was to promote Friday running. In the 2008 season, engines were required to last two full race weekends - the same regulation as the 2006 season. However for the 2009 season, each driver is allowed to use a maximum of 8 engines over the season, meaning that a couple of engines have to last three race weekends. This method of limiting engine costs also increases the importance of tactics, since the teams have to choose which races to have a new or an already-used engine. meaning that the teams must use existing engine specs for the next two seasons. FIA President Max Mosley has suggested the possible introduction of bio-fuel and reintroduction of turbochargers to F1 to improve the efficiency of future engines developed after the freeze is lifted.

146 Transmission The gearbox from the Lotus T127, Lotus Racing's car for the 2010 season Formula One cars use semi-automatic sequential gearboxes, with regulations stating a maximum of seven forward gears and one reverse gear, using rear wheel drive. The gearbox is constructed of carbon fibre or titanium, and is bolted onto the back of the engine. Full automatic gearboxes, and systems such as launch control and traction control, are illegal, to keep driver skill important in controlling the car. The driver initiates gear changes using paddles mounted on the back of the steering wheel and electrohydraulics perform the actual change as well as throttle control. Clutch control is also performed electro-hydraulically, except to and from a standstill, when the driver operates the clutch using a lever mounted on the back of the steering wheel. A modern F1 clutch is a multi-plate carbon design with a diameter of less than four inches (100 mm), weighing less than 2.20 lb (1.00 kg) and handling around 720 hp (670 kw). As of the 2009 race season, all teams are using seamless shift transmissions, which allow almost instantaneous changing of gears with minimum loss of drive. Shift times for Formula One cars are in the region of 0.05 seconds. In order to keep costs low in Formula One, gearboxes must last four consecutive events, although gear ratios can be changed for each race. Changing a gearbox before the allowed time will cause a penalty of five places drop on the starting grid.

147 Aerodynamics The rear wing of a modern Formula One car, with three aerodynamic elements (1, 2, 3). The rows of holes for adjustment of the angle of attack (4) and installation of another element (5) are visible on the wing's endplate. racers, which depend more on suspension tuning; for instance, the nose is raised above The use of aerodynamics to increase the cars' grip was pioneered in Formula One in the late 1960s by Lotus, Ferrari and Brabham. Wings Early designs linked wings directly to the suspension, but several accidents led to rules stating that wings must be fixed rigidly to the chassis. The cars' aerodynamics are designed to provide maximum downforce with a minimum of drag; every part of the bodywork is designed with this aim in mind. Like most open wheeler cars they feature large front and rear aerofoils, but they are far more developed than American open wheel the centre of the front aerofoil, allowing its entire width to provide downforce. The front and rear wings are highly sculpted and extremely fine 'tuned', along with the rest of the body such as the turning vanes beneath the nose, bargeboards, sidepods, underbody, and the rear diffuser. They also feature aerodynamic appendages that direct the airflow. Such an extreme level of aerodynamic development means that an F1 car produces much more downforce than any other open-wheel formula; for example the Indycars produce downforce equal to their weight at 190 km/h (118 mph), while an F1 car achieves the same downforce:weight ratio of 1:1 at 125 to 130 km/h (78 to 81 mph), and at 190 km/h (118 mph) the ratio is roughly 2:1.

148 feature of the latest breeds of F1 cars. Since a vortex is a rotating fluid that creates a low A low downforce spec front wing on the Renault R30 F1 car. Front wings heavily influence the cornering speed and handling of a car, and are regularly changed depending on the downforce requirements of a circuit. The bargeboards in particular are designed, shaped, configured, adjusted and positioned not to create downforce directly, as with a conventional wing or underbody venturi, but to create vortices from the air spillage at their edges. The use of vortices is a significant pressure zone at its centre, creating vortices lowers the overall local pressure of the air. Since low pressure is what is desired under the car, as it allows normal atmospheric pressure to press the car down from the top, by creating vortices downforce can be augmented while still staying within the rules prohibiting ground effects. The F1 cars for the 2009 season came under much questioning due to the design of the rear diffusers of the Brawn GP cars raced by Jenson Button and Rubens Barrichello. Appeals from many of the teams were heard by the FIA, which met in Paris, before the 2009 Chinese Grand Prix and the use of diffusers was declared as legal. Brawn GP boss Ross Brawn claimed the diffuser design as "an innovative approach of an existing idea". Ground effects F1 regulations heavily limit the use of ground effect aerodynamics, which are a highly efficient means of creating downforce with a relatively small drag penalty. The underside of the vehicle, the undertray, must be flat between the axles. A 10mm thick wooden plank or skid block runs down the middle of the car to prevent the cars from running low

149 enough to contact the track surface; this skid block is measured before and after a race. Should the plank be less than 9 mm thick after the race, the car is disqualified. A substantial amount of downforce is provided by using a rear diffuser which rises from the undertray at the rear axle to the actual rear of the bodywork. The limitations on ground effects, limited size of the wings (requiring use at high angles of attack to create sufficient downforce), and vortices created by open wheels lead to a high aerodynamic drag coefficient (about 1 according to Minardi's technical director Gabriele Tredozi; compare with the average modern saloon car (sedan in the USA), which has a C d value between 0.25 and 0.35), so that, despite the enormous power output of the engines, the top speed of these cars is less than that of World War II vintage Mercedes-Benz and Auto Union Silver Arrows racers. However, this drag is more than compensated for by the ability to corner at extremely high speed. The aerodynamics are adjusted for each track; with a relatively low drag configuration for tracks where high speed is relatively more important like Autodromo Nazionale Monza, and a high traction configuration for tracks where cornering is more important, like the Circuit de Monaco. Regulations The front wing is lower than ever before

150 A ban on aerodynamic appendages resulted in the 2009 cars having smoother bodywork The FIA is hoping to rid F1 of small winglets and other parts of the car (minus the front and rear wing) used to manipulate the airflow of the car in order to decrease drag and increase downforce. As it is now, the front wing is shaped specifically to push air towards all the winglets and bargeboards so that the airflow is smooth. Should these be removed, various parts of the car will cause great drag when the front wing is unable to shape the air past the body of the car. The regulations which came into effect in 2009 have reduced the width of the rear wing by 25 cm, and standardised the centre section of the front wing to prevent teams developing the front wing. Construction The cars are constructed from composites of carbon fibre and similar ultra-lightweight (and expensive to manufacture) materials. The minimum weight permissible is 620 kg (1,367 lb) including the driver, fluids and on-board cameras. However, all F1 cars weigh significantly less than this (some as little as 440 kg (970 lb)) so teams add ballast to the cars to bring them up to the minimum legal weight. The advantage of using ballast is that it can be placed anywhere in the car to provide ideal weight distribution.

151 Steering wheel A modern Toyota F1 steering wheel, with a complex array of dials, knobs, and buttons The driver has the ability to fine tune many elements of the race car from within the machine using the steering wheel. The wheel can be used to change gears, apply rev limiter, adjust fuel air mix, change brake pressure and call the radio. Data such as rpm, laptimes, speed and gear is displayed on an LCD screen. The wheel alone can cost about 25,000, and with carbon fibre construction, weighs in at 1.3 kilograms. Fuel The fuel used in F1 cars is fairly similar to ordinary petrol, albeit with a far more tightly controlled mix. Formula One fuel can only contain compounds that are found in commercial gasoline, in contrast to alcohol-based fuels used in American open-wheel racing. Blends are tuned for maximum performance in given weather conditions or different circuits. During the period when teams were limited to a specific volume of fuel during a race, exotic high-density fuel blends were used which were actually heavier than water, since the energy content of a fuel depends on its mass density. To make sure that the teams and fuel suppliers are not violating the fuel regulations, the FIA requires Elf, Shell, Mobil, Petronas and the other fuel teams to submit a sample of the fuel they are providing for a race. At any time, FIA inspectors can request a sample

152 from the fueling rig to compare the "fingerprint" of what is in the car during the race with what was submitted. The teams usually abide by this rule, but in 1997, Mika Häkkinen was stripped of his third place finish at Spa-Francorchamps in Belgium after the FIA determined that his fuel was not the correct formula, as well as in 1976, both McLaren and Penske cars were forced to the rear of the Italian Grand Prix after octane number of the mixture was found to be too high. Tyres A BMW Sauber's right-rear Bridgestone tyre The 2009 season has seen the re-introduction of slick tyres replacing the grooved tyres used for a number of previous seasons. Tyres can be no wider than 355 and 380 mm (14.0 and 15.0 in) at the rear, front tyre width reduced from 270mm to 245mm for the 2010 season. Unlike the fuel, the tyres bear only a superficial resemblance to a normal road tyre. Whereas a roadcar tyre has a useful life of up to 80,000 km (50,000 mi), in 2005, a Formula One tyre is built to last just one race distance (a little over 300 km (190 mi)). This is the result of a drive to maximize the road-holding ability, leading to the use of very soft compounds (to ensure that the tyre surface conforms to the road surface as closely as possible).

153 Since the start of the 2007 season Bridgestone is the sole tyre supplier and have introduced four compounds (Hard, Medium, Soft and Super Soft) of tyre, two of which will be made available at each race. The harder tyre is more durable but gives less grip, and the softer tyre gives more grip but is less durable. In 2009 the slick tyres have returned as a part of revisions to the rules for the current 2009 season; slicks have no grooves and give up to 18% more contact with the track. A green band on the sidewall of the softer compound allows spectators to distinguish which tyre a driver is on. Bridgestone brings two compounds to the track that are separated by at least one specification. So if they bring the Hard tyres then they also take the Soft, because the Medium (although in some cases a better choice than the hard or soft) is not allowed. This was implemented by the FIA to create more noticeable difference between the compounds and hopefully add more excitement to the race when two drivers are on different strategies. Except for the Monaco GP, where they brought the soft and super soft tyres, because Monte Carlo has a very different track surface than other tracks with much less grip. Bridgestone have recently decided to bring consecutive compounds to some of the remaining races due to the data they have collected so far this season. Brakes Brake discs on the Williams FW27 Disc brakes consist of a rotor and caliper at each wheel. Carbon composite rotors (introduced by the Brabham team in 1976) are used instead of steel or cast iron because of their

154 superior frictional, thermal, and anti-warping properties, as well as significant weight savings. These brakes are designed and manufactured to work in extreme temperatures, up to 1,000 degrees Celsius (1800 F). The driver can control brake force distribution fore and aft to compensate for changes in track conditions or fuel load. Regulations specify this control must be mechanical, not electronic, thus it is typically operated by a lever inside the cockpit as opposed to a control on the steering wheel. An average F1 car can decelerate from 100 to 0 km/h (62 to 0 mph) in about 17 metres (55 ft), compared with a 2007 Porsche 911 Turbo which takes 31.4 metres (103 ft). When braking from higher speeds, aerodynamic downforce enables tremendous deceleration: 4.5 g to 5.0 g (44 to 49 m/s²), and up to 5.5 g (54 m/s²) at the high-speed circuits such as the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve (Canadian GP) and the Autodromo Nazionale Monza (Italian GP). This contrasts with 1.0 g to 1.5 g (10 to 15 m/s²) for the best sports cars (the Bugatti Veyron is claimed to be able to brake at 1.3 g). An F1 car can brake from 200 km/h (124 mph) to a complete stop in just 2.9 seconds, using only 65 metres (213 ft). Performance Grand Prix cars and the cutting edge technology that constitute them produce an unprecedented combination of outright speed and quickness for the drivers. Every F1 car on the grid is capable of going from 0 to 160 km/h (100 mph) and back to 0 in less than five seconds. During a demonstration at the Silverstone circuit in Britain, an F1 McLaren- Mercedes car driven by David Coulthard gave a pair of Mercedes-Benz street cars a head start of seventy seconds, and was able to beat the cars to the finish line from a standing start, a distance of only 3.2 miles (5.2 km). As well as being fast in a straight line, F1 cars also have incredible cornering ability. Grand Prix cars can negotiate corners at significantly higher speeds than other racing cars because of the intense levels of grip and downforce. Cornering speed is so high that Formula One drivers have strength training routines just for the neck muscles. Former F1 driver Juan Pablo Montoya claimed to be able to perform 300 reps of 50 pounds with his neck. Since most tracks are clockwise, most drivers have the neck muscles built up on one side of their neck, thus making counter-clockwise tracks (such as Imola, Istanbul Park and Interlagos) a much more testing race than even the high speed Monza or the tight and narrow Monaco. The combination of light weight (620 kg in race trim), power (950 bhp with the 3.0 L V10, 730 bhp (544 kw) with the 2007 regulation 2.4 L V8), aerodynamics, and ultra-high performance tyres is what gives the F1 car its performance figures. The principal consideration for F1 designers is acceleration, and not simply top speed. Acceleration is not just linear forward acceleration, but three types of acceleration can be considered for an F1 car's, and all cars' in general, performance: Forward acceleration Forward deceleration (under braking) Turning acceleration (centripetal acceleration)

155 All three accelerations should be maximized. The way these three accelerations are obtained and their values are: Acceleration The 2006 F1 cars have a power-to-weight ratio of 1250 hp/t (0.93 kw/kg). Theoretically this would allow the car to reach 100 km/h (60 mph) in less than 1 second. However the massive power cannot be converted to motion at low speeds due to traction loss and the usual figure is 2 seconds to reach 100 km/h (60 mph). After about 130 km/h (80 mph) traction loss is minimal due to the combined effect of the car moving faster and the downforce, hence the car continues accelerating at a very high rate. The figures are (for the 2006 Renault R26): 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph): 1.7 seconds 0 to 200 km/h (124 mph): 3.8 seconds 0 to 300 km/h (186 mph): 8.6 seconds* *Figures are heavily dependent on aerodynamic setup and gearing. The acceleration figure is usually 1.45 g (14.2 m/s²) up to 200 km/h (124 mph), which means the driver is pushed back in the seat with 1.45 times his bodyweight. Deceleration The carbon brakes in combination with tyre technology and the cars aerodynamics produce truly remarkable braking forces. The deceleration force under braking is usually 4 g (39 m/s²), and can be as high as 5-6 g when braking from extreme speeds, for instance at the Gilles Villeneuve circuit or at Indianapolis. In 2007, Martin Brundle, a former Grand Prix driver, tested the Williams Toyota FW29 Formula 1 car, and stated that under heavy braking he felt like his lungs were hitting the inside of his ribcage, forcing him to exhale involuntarily. Here the aerodynamic drag actually helps, and can contribute as much as 1.0 g of braking force, which is the equivalent of the brakes on most sports cars. In other words, if the throttle is let go, the F1 car will slow down under drag at the same rate as most sports cars do with braking, at least at speeds above 150 km/h (93 mph). The drivers do not utilise engine or compression braking, although it may seem this way. The only reason they change down gears prior to entering the corner is to be in the correct gear for maximum acceleration on the exit of the corner. There are three companies who manufacture brakes for Formula One. They are Hitco, (based in the US, part of the SGL Carbon Group), Brembo in Italy and Carbone Industrie of France. Whilst Hitco manufacture their own carbon/carbon, Brembo sources theirs from Honeywell, and Carbone Industrie purchases their carbon from Messier Bugatti. Carbon/Carbon is a short name for carbon fibre reinforced carbon. This means carbon fibres strengthening a matrix of carbon, which is added to the fibres by way of matrix deposition (CVI or CVD) or by pyrolosis of a resin binder.

156 F1 brakes are 278 mm (10.9 in) in diameter and a maximum of 28 mm (1.1 in) thick. The carbon/carbon brake pads are actuated by 6-piston opposed calipers provided by Akebono, AP Racing or Brembo. The calipers are aluminium alloy bodied with titanium pistons. The regulation limits the modulus of the caliper material to 80 GPa in order to prevent teams using exotic, high specific stiffness materials, for example beryllium. Titanium pistons save weight, and also have a low thermal conductivity, reducing the heat flow into the brake fluid. Lateral force As mentioned above, the car can accelerate to 300 km/h (190 mph) very quickly, however the top speeds are not much higher than 330 km/h (210 mph) at most circuits, being highest at Monza 360 km/h (224 mph), Indianapolis (about 335 km/h (208 mph)) and Gilles Villeneuve (about 325 km/h (202 mph)). This is because the top speeds are sacrificed for the turning speeds. An F1 car is designed principally for high-speed cornering, thus the aerodynamic elements can produce as much as three times the car's weight in downforce, at the expense of drag. In fact, at a speed of just 130 km/h (81 mph), the downforce equals the weight of the car. As the speed of the car rises, the downforce increases. The turning force at low speeds (below 70 to about 100 km/h) mostly comes from the so-called 'mechanical grip' of the tyres themselves. At such low speeds the car can turn at 2.0 g. At 210 km/h (130 mph) already the lateral force is 3.0g, as evidenced by the famous esses (turns 3 and 4) at the Suzuka circuit. Higher-speed corners such as Blanchimont (Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps) and Copse (Silverstone Circuit) are taken at above 5.0g, and 6.0g has been recorded at Suzuka's 130-R corner. This contrasts with 1g for the Enzo Ferrari, one of the best racing sports cars. cars can only do so at km/h (note that lateral force increases with the square of The large downforce allow a F1 car to corner at amazing speeds. As an example of the extreme cornering speeds; the Blanchimont and Eau Rouge corners at Spa-Francorchamps are taken flat-out at above 300 km/h (190 mph), whereas the race-spec touring the speed). A newer and perhaps even more extreme example is the Turn 8 at the Istanbul Park circuit, a 190 relatively tight 4-apex corner, in which the cars maintain speeds between 265 and 285 km/h (165 and 177 mph) (in 2006) and experience between 4.5g and 5.5g for 7 seconds the longest sustained hard cornering in Formula 1. Top speeds Top speeds are in practice limited by the longest straight at the track and by the need to balance the car's aerodynamic configuration between high straight line speed (low aerodynamic drag) and high cornering speed (high downforce) to achieve the fastest lap time. During the 2006 season, the top speeds of Formula 1 cars were a little over 300 km/ h (185 mph) at high-downforce tracks such as Albert Park, Australia and Sepang, Malaysia. These speeds were down by some 10 km/h (6 mph) from the 2005 speeds, and 15 km/h (9 mph) from the 2004 speeds, due to the recent performance restrictions (see below). On low-downforce circuits greater top speeds were registered: at Gilles- Villeneuve (Canada) 325 km/h (203 mph), at Indianapolis (USA) 335 km/h (210 mph),

157 and at Monza (Italy) 360 km/h (225 mph). In the Italian Grand Prix 2004, Antônio Pizzonia of BMW WilliamsF1 team recorded a top speed of kilometers per hour (229.8 mph). Away from the track, the BAR Honda team used a modified BAR 007 car, which they claim complied with FIA Formula One regulations, to set an unofficial speed record of 413 km/h (257 mph) on a one way straight line run on 6 November 2005 during a shakedown ahead of their Bonneville 400 record attempt. The car was optimised for top speed with only enough downforce to prevent it from leaving the ground. The car, badged as a Honda following their takeover of BAR at the end of 2005, set an FIA ratified record of 400 km/h (249 mph) on a one way run on 21 July 2006 at Bonneville Salt Flats. On this occasion the car did not fully meet FIA Formula One regulations, as it used a moveable aerodynamic rudder for stability control, breaching article 3.15 of the 2006 Formula One technical regulations which states that any specific part of the car influencing its aerodynamic performance must be rigidly secured. Recent FIA performance restrictions In an effort to reduce speeds and increase driver safety, the FIA has continuously introduced new rules for F1 constructors since the '80s. These rules have included the banning of such things as the "wing car" (ground effect) in 1983, the turbo in 1989, active suspension and traction control in 1994, the introduction of grooved tyres in 1998 and the reduction in engine capacity from 3.0 to 2.4 litres in Yet despite these changes, constructors continued to extract performance gains by increasing power and aerodynamic efficiency. As a result, the pole position speed at many circuits in comparable weather conditions dropped between 1.5 and 3 seconds in 2004 over the prior year's times. In 2006 the engine power was reduced from 950 to 750 bhp (710 to 560 kw) by going from the 3.0 L V10s, used for over a decade, to 2.4 L V8s. These new engines are capable of achieving over 20,000 rpm. The aerodynamic restrictions introduced in 2005 were meant to reduce downforce by about 30%, however most teams were able to successfully reduce this to a mere 5 to 10% downforce loss. For the 2007 season, teams were not allowed to make modifications to the engines and they were limited to 19,000 rpm. In 2008, the FIA has further strengthened its cost-cutting measures by asking that gearboxes are to last for 4 grand prix weekends in addition to the 2-race engine lives. Further, all teams are required to use a standardised ECU supplied by MES (McLaren Electronic Systems) made in conjunction with Microsoft. These ECUs have placed restrictions on the use of electronic driver aids such as Traction Control and engine braking. The emphasis being on reducing costs as well as placing the focus back onto driver skills as opposed to the so-called 'electronic gizmos' controlling the cars. Changes for the 2009 season included a return to slick tyres, considerable reduction in aerodynamic grip via the banning of winglets and other aero devices previously used to

158 better direct airflow over and under the cars and a drop in maximum engine rpm down to 18,000. Due to increasing environmental pressures from lobby groups and the like, many have brought into speculation the relevance of Formula 1 as an innovating force towards future technological advances (particularly those concerned with 'greener' cars). The FIA has been asked to consider how it can persuade the sport to moving down a more environmentally friendly path. Therefore, in addition to the above changes outlined for the 2009 season, teams were invited to construct a KERS (Kinetic Energy Recovery System) device, encompassing certain types of regenerative braking systems to be fitted to the cars in time for the 2009 season. The system aims to reduce the amount of kinetic energy converted to waste heat in braking, converting it instead to a useful form (such as electrical energy or energy in a flywheel) to be later fed back through the engine to create a power boost. However unlike road car systems which automatically store and release energy the energy is only released when the driver presses a button and is artificially limited to 400 kilojoules (kj) per lap effectively mimicking the "Push to pass" button from Indycar and A1GP series. No teams will be using KERS in 2010.

159 Chapter 15 Formula One Engines Since its inception in 1947, Formula One has used a variety of engine regulations. "Formulas" limiting engine capacity had been used in Grand Prix racing on a regular basis since after World War I. The engine formulae are divided according to era. Operation Formula One currently uses four-stroke V8, naturally-aspirated reciprocating engines. They typically produce 224 kilowatts (300 bhp, 304 PS) per litre of displacement, far higher than most internal combustion engines. The power a Formula One engine produces is generated by operating at a very high rotational speed, up to 18,000 revolutions per minute (RPM). This contrasts with road car engines of a similar size which operate safely at typically less than 7,000 rpm. However, the torque (turning force at a given speed) of a Formula One engine is not much higher than a conventional petrol engine. For example, the litre Toyota RVX-06 V8 engine produces 552 kw (740 bhp, 751 PS) at 19,000 rpm and outputs 274 N m (202 lb ft) of torque giving the engine a 14.3 bar (1.43 MPa) mean effective pressure. This is comparable with the 14.3 bar maximum MEP of the 2003 BMW E46 M3 CSL, the best production car in this respect. Consequently, high power is obtained by making an engine turn faster, a goal sought ever since research into performance engines began. The basic configuration of a naturallyaspirated Formula One engine has not been greatly modified since the 1967 Cosworth DFV and the mean effective pressure has stayed at around 14 bar MEP. Until the mid- 1980s Formula One engines were limited to around 12,000 rpm due to the traditional metal valve springs used inside the engine to close the valves. The speed required to operate the engine valves at a higher RPM is much greater than the metal valve springs can achieve and they were replaced by Pneumatic valve springs introduced by Renault. Since the 1990s all Formula One engine manufacturers now use pneumatic valve springs with the pressurised air allowing engines to reach speeds nearly 20,000 rpm. The bore is the diameter of the cylinder hole in the engine block for the piston and the stroke is the distance the piston travels from Top Dead Center (TDC) to Bottom Dead Center (BDC) inside the cylinder. A shorter stroke enables the engine to produce a higher rotating speed at a constant mean piston speed but also increases the speed at which the

160 piston must travel in each revolution. Shortening the stroke however requires enlarging the bore to produce a Formula One engine's 2.4 litre displacement resulting in a less efficient combustion chamber. The stroke of a Formula One engine is approximately 39.7 mm (1.563 in), less than half as long as the bore is wide (98.0 mm) producing an "over-square" configuration. A 2.4 litre Formula One engine at 19,000 rpm has a 25 m/s mean piston speed (39.7 mm rpm / 60), the same value as the previously mentioned Honda S2000 engine (84 mm rpm/60). This value is typically limited by increasing intake port velocities and frictional losses, but is attained by commercial vehicle engines, like the Honda S2000, BMW E46 M3's S54B32 with 24.5 m/s as far back as 2001, the Audi RS4 with 24.2 m/s or the Yamaha YZF-R6 motorcycle with 23 m/s. In addition to the use of pneumatic valve springs a Formula One engine's high RPM output has been made possible due to advances in metallurgy and design allowing lighter pistons and connecting rods to withstand the accelerations necessary to attain such high speeds, also by narrowing the connecting rod ends allowing for narrower main bearings. This allows higher RPM's with less bearing-damaging heat buildup. At each revolution, the piston goes from a null speed to almost two times the mean speed (approx. 40 m/s) then back to zero, and then another similar cycle to terminate the circle. Maximum piston acceleration occurs at TDC and is in the area of 95,000 m/s², about 10,000 times standard gravity. History Formula One engines have come through a variety of regulations, manufacturers and configurations through the years.

161 This Alfa Romeo 159 supercharged straight-8 engine of 1950s could produce up to 425 bhp This era used pre-war voiturette engine regulations, with 4.5 L atmospheric and 1.5 L supercharged engines. Formula 2 cars were allowed, and the World Championship was run under F2 rules in 1952 and 1953, but F1 races were still held in those years. The Indianapolis 500 used pre-war Grand Prix regulations, with 4.5 L atmospheric and 3.0 L supercharged engines. The power range was up to 425 hp (317 kw). Alta inline L Compressor Alfa Romeo inline L Compressor Bristol inline L BRM V L Compressor ERA inline L Compressor Ferrari inline L (F2), V L Compressor, V L (F2) and V L Gordini inline L (F2) Lea-Francis inline L (F2) Maserati inline L Compressor and inline L (F2) O.S.C.A. V L Simca-Gordini inline L Compressor Talbot-Lago inline L

162 Engine size was reduced for 2.5 L. 750 cc supercharged cars were allowed but no constructor built one for the World Championship. The Indianapolis 500 continued to use old pre-war regulations. The power range was up to 290 hp (216 kw). Alta inline L Aston Martin inline L BRM inline L Coventry Climax inline L and inline L, V8 2.5 L (unraced in this period but reappeared as a 3.0 L - see below) Ferrari inline L and V6 2.5 L. Ferrari also built an experimental 2.5 L inline-2 engine, but this never appeared in public. Gordini inline L Lancia V8 2.5 L (after Lancia withdrew from F1, these engines were used by Ferrari) Maserati inline L, inline L and V L Mercedes double-inline L Offenhauser inline L (run by Rodger Ward in a Kurtis midget in the USA) Scarab inline L (designed by Offenhauser) Vanwall inline L Porsche 804 had a cooling fan to cool the air-cooled flat-8 engine

163 Introduced in 1961 amidst some criticism, the new reduced engine 1.5 L formula took control of F1 just as every team and manufacturer switched from front to mid-engined cars. Although these were initially underpowered, five years later average power had increased by nearly 50%. Lap times were better than in 1960 anyway. The old 2.5 L formula had been retained for International Formula racing, but this didn't achieve much success until the introduction of the Tasman Series in Australia and New Zealand during the winter season, leaving the 1.5 L cars as the fastest single seaters in Europe during this time. The power range was between 150 hp (112 kw) and 225 hp (168 kw). ATS V8 1.5 L BRM V8 1.5 L Clisby V6 1.5 L (intended for the stillborn Ausper F1 project; never raced) Coventry Climax inline L, V8 1.5 L and Flat L (never raced) Ford inline L Ferrari V6 1.5 L, V8 1.5 L and Flat L Honda V L Porsche Flat L aircooled and Flat L aircooled Maserati inline L & V L (never raced) A Cosworth DFV 3L V8 Formula One engine