A snapshot of the training schedule for 8 professional riders riding dressage

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1 Comparative Exercise Physiology, 2015; 11 (1): Wageningen Academic P u b l i s h e r s A snapshot of the training schedule for 8 professional riders riding dressage M. Eisersiö 1, L. Roepstorff 2, M. Rhodin 1, A. Egenvall 1* 1 Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7054, Uppsala, Sweden; 2 Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Unit of Equine Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7046, Uppsala, Sweden; agneta.egenvall@slu.se Received: 10 November 2014 / Accepted: 12 January Wageningen Academic Publishers RESEARCH ARTICLE Abstract The aim of this study was to document and categorise riding sessions, carried out by professional riders, by describing the riding sessions according to gait, ridden track, lateral movements, rider position in the saddle and rein length. These data were then analysed relative to horse and rider characteristics, e.g. educational level of horse and rider, time in training and laterality of the horse. Eight professional riders riding 3 familiar horses each participated in the study and the riders were asked to demonstrate their normal routine for flatwork/dressage with each horse. The whole training session was video recorded. Video recordings were scrutinised and data were categorised and analysed. Mixed models were used for the statistical analysis, including rider as random effect. The median length of the riding sessions were 31 min. The riders spent 38% of the riding session at the walk, 39% at the trot, 8% at left lead canter and 9% at the right lead canter. The riders devoted 28-29% of the riding session to riding straight, turning left and turning right and 8% to riding lateral movements. The ridden exercises performed and the duration of the exercises was to a large extent connected to the educational level of the horse and its time in training with the rider. More work at the canter and lateral movements at the trot were included for upper level horses compared to lower level horses. Horses in training for more than one year, compared to less than one year, were ridden for longer durations at the canter and shorter durations at the trot. The disposition of riding sessions needs further investigation. In particular, large scale epidemiological studies of orthopaedic injuries need to consider the daily riding sessions in detail. Keywords: equine training, dressage, gait 1. Introduction The training of sport horses generally has the goal to enhance the performance level while avoiding injury and safeguarding the horse s physical and mental welfare. Yet, riding horses commonly suffer from orthopaedic injuries (Egenvall et al., 2008; Murray et al., 2010). There is little knowledge about the effect the actual training has on this welfare concern (Egenvall et al., 2013). While the risk factors for lameness are far from sorted out, training regimes and workload likely play a part in the horse s physical health status (Murray et al., 2010). Schooling and dressage of horses stem far back. Already 2,500 years ago Xenophon (350 BC) published one of the earliest writings on training of horses. Over the last centuries the topic has been addressed by numerous authors. One of the most famous is De la Guérinière, who describes many of the riding exercises we use in modern dressage (Anonymous, 1997; De la Guérinière, 1773). A riding session generally consists of 3 parts; warm-up, practice of different types of ridden exercises and a cool down period. During the riding session the rider can combine different gaits and exercises. There are a vast number of ridden exercises available and therefore riders have many alternatives for arranging an appropriate training schedule for the horse. The ridden exercises performed during a riding session are likely selected by the riders with the intent to practice an observed shortcoming or weakness in their horses or themselves. Substantial efforts have been made to prospectively document training regimens in Thoroughbred racehorses ISSN print, ISSN online, DOI /CEP

2 M. Eisersiö et al. (Bailey et al., 1999; Dyson et al., 2008; Lindner and Dingerkus, 1993; Olivier et al., 1997; Verheyen and Wood, 2004). The training regimes for professional trainers in show-jumping yards were documented in terms of exercise time and type of activity (Lönnell et al., 2014). In general the variation among Thoroughbred racehorse trainers, and show-jumping riders respectively, relative to how exercise of their horses is managed in terms of duration and combination of exercises is large. The consequences of the horse s daily training schedule in a long term perspective needs further scrutiny. This is because the horse s physical health is likely affected by the duration and reprises of different gaits and exercises during its regular training routine. The above-mentioned papers on Thoroughbred racehorse training (Bailey et al., 1999; Dyson et al., 2008; Lindner and Dingerkus, 1993; Olivier et al., 1997; Verheyen and Wood, 2004), as well as the showjumping paper by Egenvall et al. (2013), all addressed the soundness versus the daily training regimens of the horses. They all found evidence that the extent of orthopaedic soundness in the horses differed among trainers/riders and that this could be associated with the training. There is need to prepare detailed data collection for future large scale epidemiological studies with the long term goal of investigating the possible association between training related injuries and disposition of riding session. The aim of this present study was to describe and characterise normal everyday dressage riding sessions carried out by professional riders on familiar horses. We wanted to describe the riding sessions according to gait (duration and reprises [number of repetitions of a specific exercise]), ridden track (going straight, turning left/right), lateral movements (type, gait and reprises), rider s position in the saddle (sitting, posting, light seat) and rein length (duration and reprises of long and short reins at walk). All other exercises executed were also documented. Further, the aim was to analyse the data relative to horse and rider characteristics, i.e. educational level of horse and rider, the age, gender and discipline of the horse. Also the variables amount of time in training and laterality (defined as the preferred side of bending when riding) of the horse were analysed. The long term objective is to use the results and experiences from this study for developing an automated and systematic process for collecting training data from riding sessions and ultimately to be able to relate this information to data on health. 2. Material and methods Riders and horses 65.5±10 kg) riding 3 horses each (n=24) participated in the study during spring to autumn The riders all worked in the horse industry as riding instructors (rider 3 in Table 1 was only 14 years old but was training horses in a professional enterprise) and/or horse trainers on various levels and were selected for having a website offering horse training services as well as proximity of the facility to the workplace. The horses had been regularly trained by their riders for 1 month to 22 years, median 24 months. Each horse was equipped with their own saddle and bridle with a snaffle bit. The age and educational level of the riders and horses as well as the breed, height, gender and discipline of the horses are presented in Table 1. Both riders and horses were categorised according to competition level (according to national Swedish level). Seven riders were right-handed and 17 horses were (in general) considered easier to bend to the right (Table 1). Study design Data were collected at each horse s current stable in an indoor (n=4 riders) or outdoor (n=4 riders) riding arena. The riders were asked to demonstrate their normal routine for flatwork/dressage with each horse. The length of the riding session was determined by the rider and began when the rider had mounted and ended at dismounting. The whole training session was video recorded (Canon Legria HF200, 25 Hz; Canon, Tokyo, Japan). Video recordings were made from the middle of one of the long sides of the arena with the camera placed on a tripod. A GPS (SD GPS Data Logger V3.15, 10 Hz; OHARARP LLC, Hampton, VA, USA) was placed in the rider s clothing to measure the speed of the work. The GPS was synchronised with the video film both by clock time and by asking the riders to halt 3 times at the very beginning of the riding session. All horses were free from lameness based on visual assessment of the videos by a veterinarian. Data management One investigator (ME) scrutinised the video films and categorised the data according to gait, ridden track, lateral movement, rider position in the saddle and rein length (Table 2). These categorisations were as far as possible validated by a second researcher (AE) during the data management process. Data on speed were converted (spline function in Matlab (MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, USA)) to a frequency of 128 Hz and aligned with the ridden exercise data. Only speed data from outdoor measurements were included (due to inaccurate registrations from indoor arenas or even completely missing data). According to the Swedish legislation specific ethical permit was not necessary for this study. Eight riders (mean ± standard deviation; height 173±6 cm and weight 36 Comparative Exercise Physiology 11 (1)

3 Training schedules in dressage Table 1. The horses and riders participating in the study. 1 Rider Age, handedness and level of experience Horse Age Gender Breed 2 Height (cm) Educational level Discipline Easy bend gelding Trakehner 164 basic dressage left right handed 2 13 mare SWB 166 basic dressage right intermediate level 3 16 stallion Lusitano 166 medium dressage right gelding SWB 168 basic dressage left right handed 2 7 gelding Friesian 165 basic allround right intermediate level 3 4 gelding SWB 168 young horse dressage right gelding unknown 160 basic allround right right handed 2 14 mare riding pony 135 basic allround right basic level 3 10 gelding mixed breed 145 basic allround right mare SWB 160 basic allround right right handed 2 8 mare SWB 172 medium dressage left intermediate level 3 4 gelding SWB 164 young horse allround right gelding KWPN 180 basic allround right right handed 2 6 gelding Latvian WB 160 basic allround left intermediate level 3 8 mare Danish WB 165 basic allround left mare SWB 165 advanced dressage right left handed 2 12 gelding SWB 168 advanced dressage right advanced level 3 10 mare SWB 164 advanced dressage right gelding SWB 174 medium jumping both right handed 2 5 mare SWB 165 medium jumping left intermediate level 3 6 mare KWPN 175 medium jumping left/right gelding SWB 170 advanced dressage right right handed 2 6 gelding PRE 160 basic dressage right advanced level 3 5 gelding SWB 168 young horse dressage left 1 The riders were interviewed about the above information. The questions about the educational levels of rider and horse were phrased What are yours and your horse s educational level? The question about horse laterality Easy bend was posed as To which side is your horse more easily bent, left or right?. Horse number 1 rider 7 was easy to bend both left and right and horse number 3 rider 7 was easier to bend right at the trot and easier to bend left at the canter. 2 SWB = Swedish Warm Blood; WB = Warm Blood; KWPN = Koninklijk Warmbloed Paard Nederland; PRE = Pura Raza Española (Andalusian). Statistical modelling The result desired to evaluate statistically was the duration and composition of the riding sessions in relation to horse and rider characteristics. Medians, as well as 25 th and 75 th percentiles (P25/P75) are used for descriptive purposes. These medians and percentiles are based on the mean values solely including the horses that performed the exercise in question (zero values were not included). The principle outcomes evaluated were duration and number of reprises; in total, and separated for walk by short and long reins respectively, posting and sitting trot respectively, and sitting and light seat canter as well as turning left/right (straight per se was not analysed) and executing lateral movements bent left/right in each gait. The dependent variables were first aimed for mixed model analysis without transformation and checked for normality using Shapiro-Wilks test. If the Shapiro-Wilks test indicated non-normality (P<0.05) the variables were log-transformed and retested for normality. If normality was still not reached variables were analysed using random-effects logistic regression. For normally distributed variables, if there was one rider with zero in the data, these were analysed including zero as an observation (one zero occurred 3 times in 3 variables). In other cases the analyses were undertaken only on the riders that had data above zero in each outcome. If at least 3 riders had zero in a selected outcome, variables were analysed with a dichotomous outcome in logistic regression contrasting horses that were engaged in one activity to those without (all observations in this analysis). The random effect was horse within rider. There was one observation per horse, and horse and rider characteristics were evaluated one by one. The independent variables tested were rider level (Table 1), horse age (<6 years versus older), whether horses had been ridden by the rider >1 year or less, horse gender (male/female), horse discipline (dressage/other), and horse Comparative Exercise Physiology 11 (1) 37

4 M. Eisersiö et al. Table 2. The categorisations of ridden exercises performed at the riding sessions. 1 Category Event Description Gait halt Standing still on long or short reins walk Four-beated gait with 2 or 3 hoofs in contact with the ground at all time trot Two-beated diagonal gait with a suspension phase in between canter left Three-beated gait: right hind limb, right diagonal pair, left front limb, suspension phase right Three-beated gait: left hind limb, left diagonal pair, right front limb, suspension phase backing up Horse is moving in reverse in diagonal footfalls unidentified The horse s limbs are moving in a sequence unrecognised in any gait Ridden exercise lengthening The horse is extending the length of the strides collection The horse is taking shorter strides with a rounded croup, neck high and flexion at the poll flying change Changing from left to right lead canter or right to left lead canter counter canter Right lead canter turning left or left lead canter turning right Ridden track straight Riding on a straight line either on or off the track corner left Riding through the corner moving to the left right Riding through the corner moving to the right turn/volt left Turning to the left right Turning to the right Lateral movements shoulder in left Movement on 3 or 4 tracks to the left, neck bent away from the direction of travel right Movement on 3 or 4 tracks to the right, neck bent away from the direction of travel half-pass left Movement on 3 or 4 tracks to the left, neck bent in the direction of travel right Movement on 3 or 4 tracks to the right, neck bent in the direction of travel leg yield left Movement sideways to the left, straight body with a slight bend at the poll to the right right Movement sideways to the right, straight body with a slight bend at the poll to the left Rider position in the sitting The rider sits down in the saddle at trot and canter saddle posting The rider stands and sits every other stride at the trot hunt seat The rider is relieving the horse s back from pressure by leaning slightly forward at trot/canter Rein length long reins The reins are hanging in a loop and the horse has an unrestrained head and neck position short reins The reins are held so that the rider has contact with the horse s mouth 1 The definitions are adapted from Anonymous (1997) and Decarpentry (1949). level (Table 1). For the variable horse level, the horses were also divided into 2 categories depending on educational status. Advanced and medium level horses were placed in the category upper level horses, while young horses and basic level horses fell in the lower level category. (This classification was done because data repeatedly suggested that advanced and medium, and young and basic horses respectively, had similar estimates in the analysis.) Concerning the direction in which the horse was most easy to bend (laterality), this was analysed using 4 variants of this variable, because one horse was given different easiestbending direction in walk/trot and canter respectively, and in one horse direction could not be stated, hence it was analysed as both left and right for this horse (Table 1). For easiest bending-direction it was decided to consider the result significant only if all 4 analyses were statistically significant. The percent of the variation contributed by riders for each outcome variable was estimated, dividing its variation by the sum of all variation. PROC MIXED/ GLIMMIX (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA) was used for modelling. In general both of the corresponding left/right variables had to be significant for results to be reported. Results for left/right variables P-values 0.05 P<0.1 were reported if the corresponding right/left variable had P<0.05, which was considered the limit for statistical significance. Exceptions to the rule of reporting only results where results were significant (according to the above cut-offs) for both directions were significant results for number of reprises relative to easy bend. 3. Results Documentation of riding sessions Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate the distribution and composition of the riding sessions by gait, turning left/right and rider position in the saddle. Note the similarity within rider between horses of when during the riding sessions each gait is executed, the duration of each gait, as well as the amount of walking and transitions between gaits. The 38 Comparative Exercise Physiology 11 (1)

5 Training schedules in dressage Horse 1 Horse 2 Horse * Y 3 Rider number 4 5 * Y 6 ** ** ** 7 * * * 8 ** Y Start Start Start Duration in minutes Figure 1. The duration and composition of the riding sessions in the 8 riders (one line one rider with 3 horses). Shown is the gait; walk (thin line), trot (middle-size) and canter (thick line) (lead of canter not separated). Black is moving straight, while red/blue colours indicate whether turning left/right, passing left/right corners, or doing lateral movements to the left/right. White space mean that the horse did something else than walk, trot or canter, like halting, backing up or unidentified limb movements. Horse level is indicated: Y is for young horse, * is for medium level horse and ** is for advanced horse and the remaining horses are basic level horses. Horse 1 Horse 2 Horse * Y 3 Rider number 4 5 * Y 6 ** ** ** 7 * * * 8 ** Y Start Start Start Duration in minutes Figure 2. Demonstrates the duration and composition of the riding sessions in the 8 riders (one line one rider with 3 horses). Shown is the gait; walk (thin line), trot (middle-size) and canter (thick line) (lead of canter not separated). The line is coloured black when riders are sitting, yellow when posting and magenta in light seat. Horse level is indicated: Y is for young horse, * is for medium level horse and ** is for advanced horse and the remaining horses are basic level horses. Comparative Exercise Physiology 11 (1) 39

6 M. Eisersiö et al. rider s position in the saddle during trot and canter also holds similarities within rider between horses (Figure 2). The median length of the riding sessions was 31 min of which the riders had short reins median 90% (P25/P75: 81/96%) of the time and long reins 10% (P25/P75: 4/18%) of the time. The median proportion of the riding session spent in each gait was for walk 38% (P25/P75: 25/51%), trot 39% (P25/P75: 32/46%), left lead canter 8% (P25/P75: 4/14% (23 horses)) and for right lead canter 9% (P25/P75: 6/15%). Figure 3 describes the distribution of gaits for the riding session, including rein length at walk and rider position in the saddle at trot and canter, revealing that walk on short reins and posting trot took up most of the time of the riding session. Further, sitting in the saddle at the canter was more common than riding in light seat. The median number of reprises and the median duration of the reprises at walk, trot and canter can be seen in Table 3 (including number of horses in each exercise). The riders spent an equal percent, 28-29%, of the riding session riding straight, turning left and turning right, excluding lateral movements. Corners were ridden 4.5% of the time. Lateral movements (shoulder in, half-pass and leg yield, described in Table 2) were performed median 8% (P25/P75: 6/10%) of the whole riding session. At the walk lateral movements were performed median 11% (P25/P75: 6/16%) of the time and the median number of reprises was 6 (P25/P75: 3/12). At the trot the median was 12% (P25/P75: 9/15%) of the time and the median number of reprises were 8 (P25/P75: 5/10). In left lead canter the median was 7% (P25/P75: 4/11%) of the time and for right lead canter 3% (P25/P75: 2.5/11%) of the time. The median number of reprises were 2.5 reprises at left lead canter (P25/P75: 2/3) and 1 reprise at right lead canter (P25/P75: 1/2). The number and duration of the reprises for lateral movement separated by type of lateral movement are presented in Table 3 further demonstrating that lateral movements were more common at walk and trot compared to canter. The data on speed only represented the horses ridden outdoors (n=12). The speed at walk was median 1.36 m/s (P25/P75: 1.26/1.42 m/s, n=12), at trot 2.96 m/s (P25/P75: 2.81/3.19 m/s, n=12), at left lead canter 3.94 m/s (P25/P75: 3.60/4.48 m/s, n=10) and at right lead canter the median speed was 3.98 m/s (P25/P75: 3.84/4.46 m/s, n=11). Speed was missing for one horse at left lead canter and for one horse at right lead canter. One horse was not ridden in left lead canter. Further, one horse was not ridden into the corners of the riding arena. Lateral movements were performed by 13 horses at the walk, 17 horses at the trot, 8 horses at left lead canter and 9 horses at right lead canter. Lengthening was performed by 6 horses at the trot and 4 horses at the canter. Collection was performed by 3 horses at the walk, 4 horses at the trot and 4 horses at the canter. Fourteen horses did counter-canter, 9 horses made flying changes and 9 horses were backing up during the riding session. Also, one rider performed piaffe, passage and Spanish walk with one horse and one rider rode pirouettes with one horse Duration (min) Long reins Short reins Sitting Posting Sitting Light seat Sitting Light seat Walk Trot Left lead canter Right lead canter Figure 3. The duration of time spent in each gait showing the median, minimum, maximum and first and third quartile. The number of horses in each exercise is shown in the graph. 40 Comparative Exercise Physiology 11 (1)

7 Training schedules in dressage Table 3. The mean number of reprises and mean duration of the reprises in each gait. Gait n No of reprises Duration of reprises (min:s) Min Median Max Min Median Max Walk (long reins) : 02 0: 33 1: 13 Walk (short reins) : 10 0: 20 1: 35 Shoulder in : 02 0: 11 0: 31 Half-pass : 02 0: 07 0: 44 Leg yield : 05 0: 10 0: 19 Trot : 18 0: 38 1: 56 Shoulder in : 02 0: 08 0: 22 Half-pass : 03 0: 10 0: 21 Leg yield : 07 0: 11 0: 19 Left lead canter : 16 0: 38 3: 27 Shoulder in : 05 0: 08 0: 12 Half-pass : 05 0: 09 0: 17 Leg yield : 12 0: 12 0: 12 Right lead canter : 13 0: 44 2: 34 Shoulder in : 04 0: 04 0: 04 Half-pass : 01 0: 10 0: 28 Leg yield : 11 0: 11 0: 11 The riding session related to horse and rider characteristics The significant results from the models are presented in Table 4 where least square means, back-transformed if from log-transformed outcomes, are shown together with P-values and number of observations in each analysis. Using models without fixed effects between 0-87% (P25/P50/P75: 26/44/54%) of the total variation in training was attributed to the riders. Upper level horses were ridden for a longer time at the canter and were also ridden in sitting canter for a longer duration compared to lower level horses (Table 4). The lower level horses were turned to the left at left lead canter (borderline P=0.09) and to the right at right lead canter (P=0.005) more frequently compared to upper level horses. Further, upper level horses were more frequently asked to perform lateral movements at the trot compared to lower level horses. Advanced horses and advanced riders performed more lateral movements at the canter compared to the medium level horses and intermediate riders (Table 4). All riders used posting trot on all horses as part of their training routine. Posting was generally more common than sitting trot (Figure 3). However, advanced riders spent more time in sitting trot compared to intermediate riders and dressage horses were ridden for a longer duration in sitting trot and shorter duration at posting trot compared to horses used for other disciplines as well (Table 4). Further, dressage horses were ridden more often in counter-canter and asked to stand still on long reins more often compared to horses in other disciplines (Table 4). The time in training determined the durations spent in trot and canter. A longer time was spent at the trot and less time at the canter if the horse had been with its rider less than one year compared to more than one year. Further, if the horse had been in training less than a year there were a longer duration of posting at the trot and more time spent turning at the walk (left P=0.02, right borderline P=0.06). There were no significant relationships between the laterality of the horse and preference to turning left/right or performing lateral movements to the left/right. However, whether the horse was perceived as easy to bend left or right was consistently significant in all 4 analyses for total duration of sitting trot and whether the horses were ridden in light seat right lead canter. If the horse was perceived as more easy to bend to the left it was ridden in sitting trot for min (standard error 0.8, P<0.05) more than if it was more easy to bend to the right. If it was easier to bend to the right, the odds ratio (OR) was (95% CI lower levels , upper levels , P<0.04) that it was ridden in light seat right lead canter than if the horse was easier to bend to the left. Comparative Exercise Physiology 11 (1) 41

8 M. Eisersiö et al. Table 4. Mixed model results for horses performing different ridden exercises. Dependent variable Independent variable n 1 Category Least square mean (95% CI) Category Least square mean (95% CI) P-value Duration left lead canter (min) 2 Horse s level 23 Upper 5 (3.2, 7.7) Lower 1.7 (1.2, 2.4) Duration right lead canter (min) (3.3, 6.0) 1.9 (1.5, 2.5) Duration left lead canter sitting (min) (3.3, 6.3) 2.4 (0.9, 3.8) Duration right lead canter sitting (min) (3.1, 5.2) 1.9 (0.9, 2.9) Turn right trot (%) (16.7, 30.0) 31.5 (25.4, 37.5) Turn left in left lead canter (%) (34.4, 68.8) 70.1 (56.2, 84.0) Turn right in right lead canter (%) (41.7, 60.2) 73.1 (63.2, 84.6) Turn left in right lead canter (%) (6.9, 24.0) 2 (1.1, 3.6) Lateral movements bent left trot (%) (6.1, 10.2) 5.2 (3.2, 7.2) Lateral movements bent right trot (%) (6.3, 9.0) 3.8 (2.5, 5.1) Lateral movements bent left in left lead canter (%) 8 Advanced 12.5 (8.3, 19.0) Medium 4.4 (2.9, 6.6) Lateral movements bent right in right lead canter (%) (4.1, 17.6) 2 (1.0, 3.9) Duration sitting trot (min) Rider level 21 Advanced 4.5 (3.2, 5.8) Intermediate 2.4 (1.5, 3.2) Lateral movements bent left in left lead canter (%) (8.3, 19.0) 4.4 (2.9, 6.6) Lateral movements bent right in right lead canter (%) (4.0, 13.8) 1.6 (0.8, 3.3) Duration halt long reins (min) Orientation 17 Dressage 0.7 (0.4, 1.2) Other 0.2 (0.1, 0.4) Duration sitting trot (min) (3.2, 5.1) 1.7 (0.8, 2.6) Duration posting trot (min) (5.2, 7.9) 9.3 (7.5, 11.5) Duration left lead canter (min) 23 4 (2.1, 7.7) 1.7 (0.9, 3.2) Turn left in right lead canter (%) (5.4, 32.3) 2 (0.8, 4.9) Duration trot (min) Time spent together 24 More than one year 9.9 (8.5, 11.4) Less than one year 12.9 (11.0, 14.7) Duration posting trot (min) (5.4, 8.0) 10.1 (8.0, 12.8) Duration left lead canter (min) (2.1, 5.2) 1.6 (0.9, 2.6) Duration right lead canter (min) (2.3, 4.4) 1.9 (1.3, 2.8) Turn left walk (%) (10.9, 20.3) 25.9 (19.8, 32.0) Turn right walk (%) (6.9, 17.6) 19.6 (13.2, 26.0) Number of horses performing the ridden exercise (total 24 horses). 2 Number of minutes the specified category was performed within the specified gait. 3 Percentage of time the horses were performing the specified exercise within the specified gait. 4 Non-significant (borderline). 42 Comparative Exercise Physiology 11 (1)

9 Training schedules in dressage 4. Discussion The riding exercises performed and the duration of the exercises was to a large extent connected to the educational level of the horse and its time in training with the rider. Work at the canter, i.e. longer duration and more reprises, a larger extent of canter work on straight lines and lateral movements at the canter, were more frequently included for upper level horses compared to lower level horses. This suggests that the canter is a more difficult gait both for the horses to perform and for the riders to ride compared to the trot and the walk. As more than a year in training with the rider also led to more time spent at the canter and less time in trot we speculate that the canter is also connected to a higher level of horse and rider cooperation and communication. The higher percentage of turning left and right in horses on lower levels and on horses with less than one year in training with its rider suggests that working the horse on bent lines represent elementary training and that it is perhaps also the foundation for more difficult exercises. Further, an increased speed of travel seems to increase the difficulty of lateral movements as the extent of lateral movements showed no difference between horse and rider characteristics at the walk, but was more common in upper level horses compared to lower level horses at the trot and canter. However, it is likely important to practice lateral movements at the walk on the lower levels to be able to succeed in this exercise at the trot and canter later on. One question that arises is if the difficulty of an exercise depends mostly on the horse s understanding of the rider s cues and the rider s ability to consistently and correctly manage those cues at increased speed of travel. Another alternative is that the difficulty relies mostly on developing balance and muscle mass suitable for the exercise in both horse and rider. In any case, when deciding which gaits and exercises to measure during a riding session it is important to consider the educational level of the horse and rider and the amount of time in training it has spent with its rider. The riders in our study were of different disciplines and educational level. While on the one hand they differed in disposition of the riding sessions, there were also many similarities between the riders in duration of the entire riding session, number of reprises in each gait and the extent of variation in the riding session. A striking result from the descriptive statistics in this study is the short duration of the reprises at walk, trot and canter. The median duration and 75 th percentile of all gait reprises and reprises in lateral movements respectively was less than one min (data not shown), indicating that the riders were changing gait and exercise very frequently during the riding session with or without giving the horse a break in between. There were also only a few significant or borderline results concerning number of reprises. Specifically, upper level horses and horses in training for more than one year were ridden more reprises in right lead canter compared to lower level horses (P=0.005) and horses in training for less than one year (P=0.04), and lower level horses were ridden more walk reprises on short reins compared to upper level horses (borderline, P=0.06). Surprisingly no significant results were found for the horse s laterality (easy side of bending) and the amount of time spent riding to the left and right or the amount of time spent in lateral movements to the left and right. In riding methodology it is often emphasised that the horse should be trained equally to the left and right and straightness in the horse is one of the cornerstones of horse training. This indicates that riders are keen on training their horses an equal amount to the left and right regardless of the laterality in the horse. In contrast, it is more difficult to explain the results of horse laterality connected to sitting trot and light seat at the canter. Perhaps the rider s handedness/laterality affects the rider s seat and contributes to the ability to sit the trot on horses that are easier to bend right, as handedness effect more than merely the rider s hands. It is also possible that laterality of the horse is connected to the need to ride more forward at the canter for the purpose of straightening the horse and engaging the hindquarters. Laterality of both horses and riders is a key issue when mastering riding. This is both a focus for research and one of the primary steps on the training scale (Anonymous, 1997; Kuhnke et al., 2010). Further and more detailed studies of the laterality of horses and riders are needed for reliable conclusions. Although we only found few significant results we consider this variable important to consider in particular for studies of disposition of riding session related to orthopaedic injury. We found no significant differences in duration and reprises of walk on long or short reins related to horse and rider characteristics. However, Figures 1 and 2 describe a visual difference in time spent at the walk between different riders, as does the high estimates of the between-rider variation (for these variables >65% of the variation was attributed to rider). Yet, the duration and number of reprises of walk during a riding session determine the number of rest periods given to the horse and to some extent also the intensity of the training session, which may affect the occurrence of orthopaedic injury. Previous overground studies on dressage included kinematic and temporal characteristics of walk, trot and canter (Clayton, 1994a,b, 1995). Piaffe (Clayton, 1997; Holmström et al., 1995), canter lead changes (Deuel and Park (1990), canter pirouettes (Burns and Clayton, 1997), walk-trot and trot-canter transitions (Argue and Clayton, 1993a,b), and transitions between trot and halt (Tans et al., 2009). None of the previous studies have directly addressed the composition of the riding sessions. Comparative Exercise Physiology 11 (1) 43

10 M. Eisersiö et al. This is the first study, to our knowledge, with the aim to document in detail what activities are performed during entire riding sessions and it serves as a pilot study for further studies on riding sessions. For large-scale epidemiological studies on horse training there is a need to accumulate a substantial amount of training data. Such extensive data collection becomes excessively time consuming, and the process has to be mainly automated. Nevertheless, the first step in this automated process is to make manual, validated recordings of data and to outline and describe the events taking place using video recordings and manual protocols. In this pilot study using manual recording, we have gained insights into what variables should be defined and measured using sensors and other automated techniques when performing large scale studies. In future studies the heart rate of horse and rider should be included to indicate the work load, GPS technique for accurate speed measurements and inertial measurement units for more automated identification of the gait as well as to determine various angles of different body parts. All riders rode quite short riding sessions with each horse and we ponder whether this length of session is representative for professional riders only, who have more limited time for each horse, compared to leisure riders and/or if the time was slightly adjusted due to being part of this study. The data collection was rather time efficient for preparing horses and riders, but did, however, require the riders to ride 3 selected horses in a row. As collection, lengthening, flying changes, counter-canter, piaffe, passage, Spanish walk, pirouettes and backing up represented a minor percentage of the riding sessions, they were not analysed in the dataset. Further, as some ridden exercises are more subjective than others and exercises in collection, in particular, is up for debate (Clayton, 2006; Valere, 2013), additional studies on collection in horses are warranted for categorisations of this exercise to become more objective. Whether riding in collection will influence soundness or not is another important issue in further studies. Certain horse and rider variables were closely connected to one another. The age of the horse, the horse s educational level and the amount of time spent with the rider were closely connected. An upper level horse was always more than 5 years old (with one exception) and had always spent more than one year with its rider. While the lower educated horses were either younger or older than 5 years and had spent either more or less than a year with its rider. Further, in several analyses horse level had a similar effect as horse age and time in training on several outcome variables (data not shown). and exercise. This variation in disposition could perhaps be a key factor in the relationship between training of the horse and the occurrence of orthopaedic injury. Such factors can be determinants for the more general results of the association between training factors and orthopaedic injury earlier found in Thoroughbred racehorses, showjumpers and dressage horses (Bailey et al., 1999; Dyson et al., 2008; Egenvall et al., 2013; Lindner and Dingerkus, 1993; Murray et al., 2010; Olivier et al., 1997; Verheyen and Wood, 2004). Using this gathered information about the disposition of riding sessions we learn that the duration of each gait and percentage of riding on bent versus straight lines needs to be documented first hand as these variables comprise significant variation between horse and rider characteristics. Additionally, we suggest that the rider s position in the saddle, saddle fit, the degree to which horses collect and lengthen, as well as to develop measures relative to their rhythm, impulsion and straightness would enhance the picture. The rider has a substantial influence sitting on the horse and there is a large possibility to vary exercises extensively. Taken together we consider it likely that it is even more important to register training at a very detailed level in performing riding horses, compared to when studying trotters and racehorses. In light of our few significant results, we also suggest that we need to measure and analyse the amount of exercises to the left and right, including lateral movements, both in duration and frequency of changes is paramount and need to be considered. 5. Conclusions The riders contributed a large share of the observed variation in the training regimens. Training schedules are to a large extent related to the educational level of the horse. More time is spent at the canter and in lateral movements on upper level horses compared to lower level horses. The riders in our study varied the riding session considerably by changing gait, exercise and direction very often, but they also had their own strategies for setting up a riding session. The findings in this study can be used as a model for describing riding sessions and can serve as a pilot study for large scale epidemiological studies on training schedules connected to orthopaedic injury in the horse. The latter should be separated by discipline to make conclusions relevant to specific disciplines. Studying training schedules in detail and relating them to orthopaedic injury is a field of research that could largely benefit the horse s welfare. Acknowledgements The study was funded by The Swedish Research Council Formas. We thank the riders for their contributions. The character of a riding session is differentiated to a large extent depending on the amount of variation in gait 44 Comparative Exercise Physiology 11 (1)

11 Training schedules in dressage References Anonymous, The principles of riding: the official instruction handbook of the German National Equestrian Federation. Kenilworth Press, Shrewsbury, UK. Argue, C.K. and Clayton, H.M., 1993a. A study of transitions between the trot and canter in dressage horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 13: Argue, C.K. and Clayton, H.M., 1993b. A preliminary study of transitions between the walk and trot in dressage horses. Acta Anatomica 146: Bailey, C.J., Reid, S.W., Hodgson, D.R. and Rose, R.J., Impact of injuries and disease on a cohort of two and three year old Thoroughbreds in training. Veterinary Record 145: Burns, T.E. and Clayton, H.M., Comparison of the temporal kinematics of the canter pirouette and collected canter. Equine Veterinary Journal Suppl. 23: Clayton, H.M., 1994a. Comparison of the collected, working, medium and extended canters. Equine Veterinary Journal 17 Suppl.: Clayton, H.M., 1994b. Comparison of the stride kinematics of the collected, working, medium and extended trot in horses. Equine Veterinary Journal 26: Clayton, H.M., Comparison of the stride kinematics of the collected, working, medium and extended walks in horses. American Journal of Veterinary Research 56: Clayton, H.M., Classification of collected trot, passage and piaffe based on temporal variables. Equine Veterinary Journal 23 Suppl.: Clayton, H.M., Current research: equine motion detector. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 26: De la Guérinière, F.T., École de Cavalerie. School of Horsemanship (translated by T. Boucher (1994)). Allen, London, UK. Decarpentry, A., Academic equitation. A system based on the methods of D Aure, Baucher and L Hotte. Équitation academique (translated by N. Bartle). Robert Hale Ltd, London, UK. Deuel, N.R. and Park, J., Canter lead change kinematics of superior Olympic dressage horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 10: Dyson, P.K., Jackson, B.F., Pfeiffer, D.U. and Price, J.S., Days lost from training by two- and three-year-old Thoroughbred horses: a survey of seven UK training yards. Equine Veterinary Journal 40: Egenvall, A., Bonnett, B.N., Wattle, O. and Emanuelson, U., Veterinary-care events and costs over a 5-year follow-up period for warmblooded riding horses with and without previously recorded locomotor problems in Sweden. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 83: Egenvall, A., Tranquille, C.A., Lönnell, A.C., Bitschnau, C., Oomen, A., Hernlund, E., Montavon, S., Franko, M.A., Murray, R.C., Weishaupt, M.A., Van Weeren, R. and Roepstorff, L., Days-lost to training and competition in relation to workload in 263 elite show-jumping horses in four European countries. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 112: Holmström, M., Fredricson, I. and Drevemo, S., Biokinematic effects of collection on the trotting gaits in the elite dressage horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 27: Kuhnke, S., Dumbell, L., Gauly, M., Johnson, J.L., McDonald, K. and Von Borstel, U.K., A comparison of rein tension of the rider s dominant and non-dominant hand and the influence of the horse s laterality. Comparative Exercise Physiology 7: Lindner, A. and Dingerkus, A., Incidence of training failure among Thoroughbred racehorses at Cologne, Germany. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 16: Lönnell, A.C., Bröjer, J., Nostell, K., Hernlund, E., Roepstorff, L., Tranquille, C.A., Murray, R.C., Oomen, A., Van Weeren, R., Bitschnau, C., Montavon, S., Weishaupt, M.A. and Egenvall, A., Variation in training regimens in professional showjumping yards. Equine Veterinary Journal 46: Murray, R.C., Walters, J.M., Snart, H., Dyson, S.J. and Parkin, T.D.H., Identification of risk factors for lameness in dressage horses. Veterinary Journal 184: Olivier, A., Nurton, J.P. and Guthrie, A.J., An epizoological study of wastage in Thoroughbred racehorses in Gauteng, South Africa. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 68: Tans, E., Nauwelaerts, S. and Clayton, H.M., Dressage training affects temporal variables in transitions between trot and halt. Comparative Exercise Physiology 6: Valere, N., A scientific approach of equitation should start with historical studies. Journal of Veterinary Behavior 8: Verheyen, K.L. and Wood, J.L., Descriptive epidemiology of fractures occurring in British Thoroughbred racehorses in training. Equine Veterinary Journal 36: Xenophon, 350 BC. The art of horsemanship. Available at: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/on_horsemanship. Comparative Exercise Physiology 11 (1) 45

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