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1 Chapter 1 : Tsuut'ina Nation - Wikipedia Enter your mobile number or address below and we'll send you a link to download the free Kindle App. Then you can start reading Kindle books on your smartphone, tablet, or computer - no Kindle device required. Sarcee, Gros Ventres The Confederacy had[ when? The basic social unit of the Niitsitapi above the family was the band, varying from about 10 to 30 lodges, about 80 to people. European Canadians and Americans mistakenly referred to all the Niitsitapi nations as "Blackfoot",[ citation needed ] but only one nation was called Siksika or Blackfoot. This size group was large enough to defend against attack and to undertake communal hunts, but was also small enough for flexibility. Each band consisted of a respected leader[ citation needed ], possibly his brothers and parents, and others who were not related. As well, should a band fall upon hard times, its members could split up and join other bands. In practice, bands were constantly forming and breaking up. The system maximized flexibility and was an ideal organization for a hunting people on the northwestern Great Plains. Chief Aatsista-Mahkan, c. During the summer, the people assembled for nation gatherings. In these large assemblies, warrior societies played an important role for the men. Membership into these societies was based on brave acts and deeds. For almost half the year in the long northern winter, the Niitsitapi lived in their winter camps along a wooded river valley. Where there was adequate wood and game resources, some bands would camp together. During this part of the year, buffalo also wintered in wooded areas, where they were partially sheltered from storms and snow. They were easier prey as their movements were hampered. In spring the buffalo moved out onto the grasslands to forage on new spring growth. The Blackfoot did not follow immediately, for fear of late blizzards. As dried food or game became depleted, the bands would split up and begin to hunt the buffalo. In midsummer, when the chokecherries ripened, the people regrouped for their major ceremony, the Okan Sun Dance. This was the only time of year when the four nations would assemble. The gathering reinforced the bonds among the various groups and linked individuals with the nations. These ceremonies are sacred to the people. After the Okan, the people again separated to follow the buffalo. They used the buffalo hides to make their dwellings and temporary tipis. In the fall, the people would gradually shift to their wintering areas. The men would prepare the buffalo jumps and pounds for capturing or driving the bison for hunting. Several groups of people might join together at particularly good sites, such as Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump. As the buffalo were naturally driven into the area by the gradual late summer drying off of the open grasslands, the Blackfoot would carry out great communal buffalo kills. Waiting and Mad, Charles Marion Russell, Painting of a Blackfoot woman. The women processed the buffalo, preparing dried meat, and combining it for nutrition and flavor with dried fruits into pemmican, to last them through winter and other times when hunting was poor. At the end of the fall, the Blackfoot would move to their winter camps. The women worked the buffalo and other game skins for clothing, as well as to reinforce their dwellings; other elements were used to make warm fur robes, leggings, cords and other needed items. Animal sinews were used to tie arrow points and lances to throwing sticks, or for bridles for horses. The Niitsitapi maintained this traditional way of life based on hunting bison, until the near extirpation of the bison by forced them to adapt their ways of life in response to the encroachment of the European settlers and their descendants. Nearly three decades later, they were given a distinct reservation in the Sweetgrass Hills Treaty of In, the Canadian Niitsitapi signed Treaty 7 and settled on reserves in southern Alberta. This began a period of great struggle and economic hardship; the Niitsitapi had to try to adapt to a completely new way of life. They suffered a high rate of fatalities when exposed to Eurasian diseases, for which they had no natural immunity. Eventually, they established a viable economy based on farming, ranching, and light industry. Their population has increased to about 16, in Canada and 15, in the U. With their new economic stability, the Niitsitapi have been free to adapt their culture and traditions to their new circumstances, renewing their connection to their ancient roots. They had typically dyed or painted the soles of their moccasins black. One legendary story claimed that the Siksika walked through ashes of prairie fires, which in turn colored the bottoms of their moccasins black. Due to language and cultural patterns, anthropologists believe the Niitsitapi did not originate in the Great Plains of the Midwest North America, but migrated from the upper Northeastern Page 1

2 part of the country. They coalesced as a group while living in the forests of what is now the Northeastern United States. They were mostly located around the modern-day border between Canada and the state of Maine. By, the Niitsitapi were moving in search of more land. They left the Great Lakes area and kept moving west. The travois was designed for transport over dry land. From the Great Lakes area, they continued to move west and eventually settled in the Great Plains. Depiction of Bison being driven over a "buffalo jump". The buffalo jump was one of the most common ways. The hunters would round up the buffalo into V-shaped pens, and drive them over a cliff they hunted pronghorn antelopes in the same way. Afterwords the hunters would go to the bottom and take as much meat as they could carry back to camp. They also used camouflage for hunting. By subtle moves, the hunters could get close to the herd. When close enough, the hunters would attack with arrows or spears to kill wounded animals. The people used virtually all parts of the body and skin. The women prepared the meat for food: This processed it to last a long time without spoiling, and they depended on bison meat to get through the winters. The women tanned and prepared the skins to cover the tepees. These were made of log poles, with the skins draped over it. The tepee remained warm in the winter and cool in the summer, and was a great shield against the wind. Both men and women made utensils, sewing needles and tools from the bones, using tendon for fastening and binding. The stomach and bladder were cleaned and prepared for use for storing liquids. Dried bison dung was fuel for the fires. The Niitsitapi considered the animal sacred and integral to their lives. Up until around, the Blackfoot traveled by foot and used dogs to carry and pull some of their goods. They had not seen horses in their previous lands, but were introduced to them on the Plains, as other tribes, such as the Shoshone, had already adopted their use. The Blackfoot called the horses ponokamita elk dogs. They could be ridden for hunting and travel. Photographed by Edward S. Horses revolutionised life on the Great Plains and soon came to be regarded as a measure of wealth. Warriors regularly raided other tribes for their best horses. Horses were generally used as universal standards of barter. Medicine men were paid for cures and healing with horses. Those who designed shields or war bonnets were also paid in horses. For the Indians who lived on the Plains, the principal value of property was to share it with others. In addition both groups had adapted to using horses about, so by mid-century an adequate supply of horses became a question of survival. Horse theft was at this stage not only a proof of courage, but often a desperate contribution to survival, for many ethnic groups competed for hunting in the grasslands. They had to withstand attacks of enemies with guns. Then, the tribe moved southward to the Milk River in Montana and allied themselves with the Blackfoot. The area between the North Saskatchewan River and Battle River the name derives from the war fought between these two tribal groups was the limit of the now warring tribal alliances. Blackfoot war parties would ride hundreds of miles on raids. A boy on his first war party was given a silly or derogatory name. But after he had stolen his first horse or killed an enemy, he was given a name to honor him. Warriors would strive to perform various acts of bravery called counting coup, in order to move up in social rank. The coups in order of importance were: Loosely allied with the Nehiyaw-Pwat, but politically independent, were neighboring tribes like the Ktunaxa, Secwepemc and in particular the arch enemy of the Blackfoot, the Crow, or Indian trading partners like the Nez Perce and Flathead. Once the Piegan gained access to horses of their own and guns, obtained from the HBC via the Cree and Assiniboine, the situation changed. By David Thompson reports that the Blackfoot had completely conquered most of Shoshone territory, and frequently captured Shoshone women and children and forcibly assimilated them into Blackfoot society, further increasing their advantages over the Shoshone. During the so-called Buffalo Wars about â, they penetrated further and further into the territory from the Niitsitapi Confederacy in search for the buffalo, so that the Piegan were forced to give way in the region of the Missouri River in Cree: Around, the alliance between the Blackfoot and the Gros Ventre broke, and the latter began to look to their former enemies, the Southern Assiniboine or Plains Assiniboine, for protection. The Blackfoot had established dealings with traders connected to the Canadian and English fur trade before meeting the Lewis and Clark expedition in On their return trip from the Pacific Coast, Lewis and three of his men encountered a group of young Blackfoot warriors with a large herd of horses, and it was clear to Meriwether Lewis that they were not far from much larger groups of warriors. Lewis explained to them that the United States government wanted peace with all Indian nations, [31] and that the US leaders had successfully formed Page 2

3 alliances with other Indian nations. In the ensuing struggle, one warrior was fatally stabbed and another shot by Lewis and presumed killed. Page 3

4 Chapter 2 : Blackfoot Creation and Origin Myths Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Anglican missionary work among the Canadian Blackfoot and Sarcee nations began almost immediately once these reserves were established. Tims established a mission on the Blackfoot Siksika Reserve near Gleichen in The Canadian Pacific Railway, completed in, also ran through this territory. Blackfoot Crossing, on the eastern side of the Siksika Reserve, was the site of the Treaty 7 signing. He founded and became general superintendent and financial agent of the Calgary Indian Missions, a Diocesan agency which co-ordinated support for Anglican work on four reservesâ Sarcee, Peigan, Blood and Siksika. In, he established the Old Sun Boarding School about 7 km west of Gleichen, followed by a new school for boys only the White Eagle Boarding School eight years later. In, boys and girls were enrolled together in the remodelled Old Sun Boarding School, an amalgamation of the two schools. It was named after Old Sun, a revered medicine man, warrior and leader of one of the largest Blackfoot Confederacy bands. Within a few years of the Treaty, the Siksika Reserve population dwindled from about 2, to less than due to diseases contracted through frequent contact with white settlers and the railway builders. In the decade before WWI, disease outbreaks at the Old Sun School affected most of the student body, causing many deaths, quarantines and several temporary school closings ordered by the government. By, the birth rate barely exceeded the mortality rate among these Blackfoot people. In, the government agreed to provide long term funding for the school and a larger building was constructed at South Camp the following year. It was expanded a decade later to accommodate more students. After World War II, boys remained in school all day as more senior students attended Provincial schools in town. Fire destroyed the frame school building in and it was soon replaced by a substantial brick building. The school was taken over by the government in, with many former Anglican support staff transferring to federal payroll. The White Eagles building is used as an isolation ward during smallpox epidemic. Needed renovations are stalled due to lack of funding. From July to December, the building is used as a day school. Government offers new funding support. Reconstruction of buildings is prolonged forcing cancellation of fall term. Day school classes are offered for three years until replacement school is built. Kindergarten classes are continued in largely vacant building. Government reduces dormitory capacity to 75 as Mount Royal College takes over most of building for use as a Native Learning Centre vocational studies for adult education. Campus is known as the Old Sun Community College. Compiled by General Synod Archives, September 23, Page 4

5 Chapter 3 : Blackfoot - History, Modern era, Settlement patterns, Acculturation and Assimilation Suseekoon, by Henry, Blackfoot MS. vocab., Siksika name. Tco ko, or Tsu qos, by Chamberlain (, p. 8): Kutenai name. Tsà -OttinÃ, by Petitot (, p. ), meaning "people among the beavers". Ussinnewudj Eninnewug, by Tanner (, p. ), meaning "stone mountain men": Ottawa name. Connections. The Sarcee were connected with the Sekani and Tsattine divisions of the Athapascan linguistic family and probably separated from the latter. Hanes and Matthew T. They traditionally called each other Nizitapi, or "Real People. The Blackfoot are also known as the Blackfeet. The Blood, Siksika, and Piegan freely intermarried, spoke a common language, shared the same cultural traits, and fought the same enemies. This confederation traditionally occupied the northwest portion of the Great Plains from the northern reaches of the Saskatchewan River of western Saskatchewan and southern Alberta, Canada, to the Yellowstone River in central Montana including the headwaters of the Missouri River. The Northern Blackfoot live farthest north, the Blood and North Piegan in the middle just north of the Canadian border, and the South Piegan furthest south along the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains in northern Montana. The confederation had more than one tribal leader. Each tribe consisted of a number of hunting bands, which were the primary political units of the tribe. Each of these bands was headed by both a war leader and a civil leader, the former chosen because of his reputation as a warrior, and the later chosen because of his eloquent oratory. The Blackfoot were one of many tribes to rely on buffalo for survival. In, fur trapper and explorer Alexander Henry estimated the North Blackfoot population at 5, In, artist George Catlin estimated the population of the entire confederation at 16, By, the population began decreasing significantly from epidemics of diphtheria in and smallpox in, and from increasing warfare. One southern group of 2, in central Montana known to some as Small Robes reportedly disappeared altogether. Still, the Blackfoot reigned over the northern Plains region of southern Alberta and northern Montana into the mid-nineteenth century. By, however, only 1, Blackfoot lived in Montana. As a member of the Algonquian language family, the Blackfoot are related to other Algonquianspeaking tribes whom ethnologists believe migrated onto the plains from the eastern woodlands several centuries before contact with whites. Some Blackfoot do not readily accept that historic interpretation. Raiders on the Northwestern Plains, John C. Ewers stated that the Blackfoot were the "earliest Algonquian residents of the plains. During the nineteenth century, the Blackfoot confederation was the most powerful of the Northern Plains Native groups, actually impeding to some extent the westward U. In the time before the horse and firearms, commonly known as the "Dog Days," the Blackfoot used arrows and lances in wars with traditional enemies, including the Shoshone, the Plains Cree, the Sioux, the Flathead, and the Assiniboin. Often, they allied in battle with their neighbors the Gros Ventre and the Sarcee. After acquiring horses and firearms around the middle of the eighteenth century, the Blackfoot became the most powerful tribe of the Northern Plains. By the mid-nineteenth century, they had pushed their enemies, particularly the Shoshone, Flathead, and Kootenai, west across the Rocky Mountains. In the mid-eighteenth century, fur trappers exploring westward, with the hope of establishing trading relationships with the Native population, were the first non-indians to visit this region. Trading posts not only introduced them to new technologies, such as guns, but also to new diseases. Smallpox epidemics devastated the Blackfoot population in,, and The Blackfoot became respected as an aggressive military force, attacking and destroying several trading posts in their territory. Stories of such events terrified the settlers moving west, who applied to their governments for protection. Due to such concerns, as well as the desire to acquire Blackfoot land, a number of treaties and agreements were negotiated that led to the Blackfoot ceding "T he buffalo have disappeared, and the fate of the buffalo has almost overtaken the Blackfeet. This treaty ceded most of the 26 million acre composing traditional Blackfoot territory within U. A reserve was left for their exclusive use. New treaties in and significantly decreased the size of their territory along the southern boundary. Continued pressures from expanding white settlements led to hostile resistance by some Blackfoot. In retaliation, the U. Cavalry, commanded by Major Eugene M. In, an executive order further reduced the Blackfoot territory in Montana and formally established a reservation on the east flanks of the Rocky Mountains next to the Canadian border. To the north, the Canadian Page 5

6 government established reservations in Alberta for the Blackfoot in through Treaty No. The Bloods reserved almost, acres, the North Blackfoot over, acres, and the North Piegan over, acres. Additional land in the United States was relinquished through agreements in and The conditions of that agreement continue to be at issue with respect to tribal use of park lands. The modern-day reservation boundaries were essentially set by this time. Lands within the reservation were allotted to individual tribal members between and under the General Allotment Act of This process led to so-called "excess" lands falling into non-indian ownership. He pointed to two significant periods divided by the Indian Reorganization Act of The first period lasted from, with the onset of famine caused by the near extermination of the buffalo, to This period was characterized by Blackfoot dependency on the reservation agent for food and other essential supplies. In addition, there was a massive cultural change due to the new sedentary, agricultural lifestyle. The second period, stretching from to the s, was characterized by self-sufficiency and self-government, which the Indian Reorganization Act encouraged. Today the Blackfoot Reservation has an established government and an active population. Many Blackfoot support themselves through ranching, industry, and oil and natural gas exploration. The Blackfoot have always been concerned with their traditional land, recognizing it as sacred and important to their survival. This concern is reflected today in the Blackfoot claim for priority rights over the water resources on the reservation, rights to certain natural resources within the boundaries of Glacier National Park as specified in the agreement, and the appropriate use of reservation lands by both members and non-members. Other issues include the development of industry, the use of oil and natural gas resources, and the maintenance of ranches on the reservation. It is over 1. The other three are all located in Alberta, Canada: By the s, 15, Blackfoot lived on the Canadian reserves, while 10, lived on the U. The Suyitapis are the power source for medicine bundles, painted lodge covers, and other sacred items. A traditional disdain for fishing persists for many, despite the rich on-reservation fisheries. The Blackfoot traditionally relied on the buffalo for food, clothing, shelter, and much of their domestic and military equipment. Several hunting methods were used throughout Blackfoot history, such as the "buffalo surround" and cliff drives. However, once the Blackfoot acquired the horse and mastered its use, they preferred charging the buffalo on their fast and well-trained "buffalo runners. The traditional shelter of the Blackfoot was a tipi that normally housed one family of about eight individuals. According to Ewers, the typical household was composed of two men, three women, and three children. Between six and 20 buffalo skins, often decorated with pictures of animals and geometric designs, covered the poles. Furnishings included buffalo robe beds and willow backrests. Ranching and agriculture then became the primary means of survival. Dried meat was stored in rawhide pouches. It was also made into pemmican, a mixture of ground buffalo meat, service berries, and marrow grease. Pemmican was an important food source during the winter and other times when buffalo were scarce. In addition to buffalo, men hunted larger game, such as deer, moose, mountain sheep, antelope, and elk. The Blackfoot supplemented their diet with berries and other foods gathered from the plains. Women gathered roots, prairie turnips, bitterroot, and camas bulbs in the early summer. They picked wild service berries, choke cherries, and buffalo or bull berries in the fall, and gathered the bark of the cottonwood tree, enjoying its sweet interior. Fish, reptiles, and grizzly bears were, except for a few bands, considered unfit for consumption. For the Sun Dance, a section of tree trunk with skin stretched over both ends was traditionally used. The other type of percussion instrument was like a tambourine with hide stretched over a broad wooden hoop. Rattles were traditionally used for various ceremonies, with the type varying with the particular ceremony. Some were made of hide, others of buffalo hooves. Also, whistles with single holes were used in the Sun Dance. The women tailored dresses for themselves from the durable and pliable skins of antelope or mountain sheep. These dresses were ankle length and sleeveless, with straps to hold them up. They were decorated with porcupine quills, cut fringes, and simple geometric designs often colored with earth pigments. In the winter, separate skin sleeves were added to these dresses along with a buffalo robe. The women also wore necklaces of sweet-grass and bracelets of elk or deer teeth. Clothing changed as contact with white traders increased. Many women began to use wool and other types of cloth to make many of their garments. The buffalo robe, however, for reasons of both warmth and comfort, remained important through the nineteenth century. The men wore antelope or mountain sheep skin leggings, shirts, breechcloths, and moccasins. In the winter they wore a long buffalo Page 6

7 robe, often decorated with earth pigments or plant dyes and elaborate porcupine quill embroidery. They also wore necklaces made from the claws and teeth of bears, and from braided sweet grass. In general, this dress was common among Blackfoot men until the last decade of the nineteenth century. Ewers, became popular, due to both pressure from missionaries and the disappearance of the buffalo. Dances, usually performed at summer gatherings, reflected Blackfoot emphasis on hunting and war. Men were honored in the dances for bravery in battle or for generosity in sharing meat from a hunt. The Blackfoot Sun Dance was a major annual dance ceremony involving the construction of a special circular lodge. The actual dance involved men fasting and praying, and dancing from the wall to a central pole and back inside the Sun Dance lodge. Voluntary piercing of the chest for ritual purposes was sometimes a concluding feature of the dance. Page 7

8 Chapter 4 : Biography â CHULA â Volume XIV () â Dictionary of Canadian Biography With Eagle Tail: Arnold Lupson and 30 Years Among the Sarcee, Blackfoot and Stoney Indians on the North American Plains [Colin F. Taylor, Hugh Dempsey] on blog.quintoapp.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. B by Richard C. Hanes and Matthew T. They traditionally called each other Nizitapi, or "Real People. The Blackfoot are also known as the Blackfeet. The Blood, Siksika, and Piegan freely intermarried, spoke a common language, shared the same cultural traits, and fought the same enemies. This confederation traditionally occupied the northwest portion of the Great Plains from the northern reaches of the Saskatchewan River of western Saskatchewan and southern Alberta, Canada, to the Yellowstone River in central Montana including the headwaters of the Missouri River. The Northern Blackfoot live farthest north, the Blood and North Piegan in the middle just north of the Canadian border, and the South Piegan furthest south along the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains in northern Montana. The confederation had more than one tribal leader. Each tribe consisted of a number of hunting bands, which were the primary political units of the tribe. Each of these bands was headed by both a war leader and a civil leader, the former chosen because of his reputation as a warrior, and the later chosen because of his eloquent oratory. In, fur trapper and explorer Alexander Henry estimated the North Blackfoot population at 5, In, artist George Catlin estimated the population of the entire confederation at 16, By, the population began decreasing significantly from epidemics of diphtheria in and smallpox in, and from increasing warfare. One southern group of 2, in central Montana known to some as Small Robes reportedly disappeared altogether. Still, the Blackfoot reigned over the northern Plains region of southern Alberta and northern Montana into the mid-nineteenth century. By, however, only 1, Blackfoot lived in Montana. As a member of the Algonquian language family, the Blackfoot are related to other Algonquianspeaking tribes whom ethnologists believe migrated onto the plains from the eastern woodlands several centuries before contact with whites. Some Blackfoot do not readily accept that historic interpretation. Raiders on the Northwestern Plains, John C. Ewers stated that the Blackfoot were the "earliest Algonquian residents of the plains. During the nineteenth century, the Blackfoot confederation was the most powerful of the Northern Plains Native groups, actually impeding to some extent the westward U. In the time before the horse and firearms, commonly known as the "Dog Days," the Blackfoot used arrows and lances in wars with traditional enemies, including the Shoshone, the Plains Cree, the Sioux, the Flathead, and the Assiniboin. Often, they allied in battle with their neighbors the Gros Ventre and the Sarcee. After acquiring horses and firearms around the middle of the eighteenth century, the Blackfoot became the most powerful tribe of the Northern Plains. By the mid-nineteenth century, they had pushed their enemies, particularly the Shoshone, Flathead, and Kootenai, west across the Rocky Mountains. In the mid-eighteenth century, fur trappers exploring westward, with the hope of establishing trading relationships with the Native population, were the first non-indians to visit this region. Trading posts not only introduced them to new technologies, such as guns, but also to new diseases. Smallpox epidemics devastated the Blackfoot population in,, and The Blackfoot became respected as an aggressive military force, attacking and destroying several trading posts in their territory. Stories of such events terrified the settlers moving west, who applied to their governments for protection. Due to such concerns, as well as the desire to acquire Blackfoot land, a number of treaties and agreements were negotiated that led to the Blackfoot ceding "T he buffalo have disappeared, and the fate of the buffalo has almost overtaken the Blackfeet. This treaty ceded most of the 26 million acre composing traditional Blackfoot territory within U. A reserve was left for their exclusive use. New treaties in and significantly decreased the size of their territory along the southern boundary. Continued pressures from expanding white settlements led to hostile resistance by some Blackfoot. In retaliation, the U. Cavalry, commanded by Major Eugene M. In, an executive order further reduced the Blackfoot territory in Montana and formally established a reservation on the east flanks of the Rocky Mountains next to the Canadian border. To the north, the Canadian government established reservations in Alberta for the Blackfoot in through Treaty No. The Bloods reserved almost, acres, the North Blackfoot over, acres, and the North Piegan over, acres. Additional land in the United States was relinquished through agreements in and The conditions of that Page 8

9 agreement continue to be at issue with respect to tribal use of park lands. The modern-day reservation boundaries were essentially set by this time. Lands within the reservation were allotted to individual tribal members between and under the General Allotment Act of This process led to so-called "excess" lands falling into non-indian ownership. He pointed to two significant periods divided by the Indian Reorganization Act of The first period lasted from, with the onset of famine caused by the near extermination of the buffalo, to This period was characterized by Blackfoot dependency on the reservation agent for food and other essential supplies. In addition, there was a massive cultural change due to the new sedentary, agricultural lifestyle. The second period, stretching from to the s, was characterized by self-sufficiency and self-government, which the Indian Reorganization Act encouraged. Today the Blackfoot Reservation has an established government and an active population. Many Blackfoot support themselves through ranching, industry, and oil and natural gas exploration. The Blackfoot have always been concerned with their traditional land, recognizing it as sacred and important to their survival. This concern is reflected today in the Blackfoot claim for priority rights over the water resources on the reservation, rights to certain natural resources within the boundaries of Glacier National Park as specified in the agreement, and the appropriate use of reservation lands by both members and non-members. Other issues include the development of industry, the use of oil and natural gas resources, and the maintenance of ranches on the reservation. It is over 1. The other three are all located in Alberta, Canada: By the s, 15, Blackfoot lived on the Canadian reserves, while 10, lived on the U. The Suyitapis are the power source for medicine bundles, painted lodge covers, and other sacred items. A traditional disdain for fishing persists for many, despite the rich on-reservation fisheries. The Blackfoot traditionally relied on the buffalo for food, clothing, shelter, and much of their domestic and military equipment. Several hunting methods were used throughout Blackfoot history, such as the "buffalo surround" and cliff drives. However, once the Blackfoot acquired the horse and mastered its use, they preferred charging the buffalo on their fast and well-trained "buffalo runners. The traditional shelter of the Blackfoot was a tipi that normally housed one family of about eight individuals. According to Ewers, the typical household was composed of two men, three women, and three children. Between six and 20 buffalo skins, often decorated with pictures of animals and geometric designs, covered the poles. Furnishings included buffalo robe beds and willow backrests. Ranching and agriculture then became the primary means of survival. Dried meat was stored in rawhide pouches. It was also made into pemmican, a mixture of ground buffalo meat, service berries, and marrow grease. Pemmican was an important food source during the winter and other times when buffalo were scarce. In addition to buffalo, men hunted larger game, such as deer, moose, mountain sheep, antelope, and elk. The Blackfoot supplemented their diet with berries and other foods gathered from the plains. Women gathered roots, prairie turnips, bitterroot, and camas bulbs in the early summer. They picked wild service berries, choke cherries, and buffalo or bull berries in the fall, and gathered the bark of the cottonwood tree, enjoying its sweet interior. Fish, reptiles, and grizzly bears were, except for a few bands, considered unfit for consumption. For the Sun Dance, a section of tree trunk with skin stretched over both ends was traditionally used. The other type of percussion instrument was like a tambourine with hide stretched over a broad wooden hoop. Rattles were traditionally used for various ceremonies, with the type varying with the particular ceremony. Some were made of hide, others of buffalo hooves. Also, whistles with single holes were used in the Sun Dance. The women tailored dresses for themselves from the durable and pliable skins of antelope or mountain sheep. These dresses were ankle length and sleeveless, with straps to hold them up. They were decorated with porcupine quills, cut fringes, and simple geometric designs often colored with earth pigments. In the winter, separate skin sleeves were added to these dresses along with a buffalo robe. The women also wore necklaces of sweet-grass and bracelets of elk or deer teeth. Clothing changed as contact with white traders increased. Many women began to use wool and other types of cloth to make many of their garments. The buffalo robe, however, for reasons of both warmth and comfort, remained important through the nineteenth century. The men wore antelope or mountain sheep skin leggings, shirts, breechcloths, and moccasins. In the winter they wore a long buffalo robe, often decorated with earth pigments or plant dyes and elaborate porcupine quill embroidery. They also wore necklaces made from the claws and teeth of bears, and from braided sweet grass. In general, this dress was common among Blackfoot men until the last decade of the nineteenth century. Page 9

10 Ewers, became popular, due to both pressure from missionaries and the disappearance of the buffalo. Dances, usually performed at summer gatherings, reflected Blackfoot emphasis on hunting and war. Men were honored in the dances for bravery in battle or for generosity in sharing meat from a hunt. The Blackfoot Sun Dance was a major annual dance ceremony involving the construction of a special circular lodge. The actual dance involved men fasting and praying, and dancing from the wall to a central pole and back inside the Sun Dance lodge. Voluntary piercing of the chest for ritual purposes was sometimes a concluding feature of the dance. Page 10

11 Chapter 5 : Old Sun School â Gleichen, AB - The Anglican Church of Canada The Tsuut'ina likely acquired most of their Plains Indian culture from the Blackfoot. [ citation needed ] Although in most respects the Tsuut'ina are typical Northern Plains Indians, their Sarcee language remains pure Athabaskan to this day. Of special interest are letters from the Bishop of Saskatchewan, John McLean, and letters of instructions from the Church Missionary Society in England, There is also a letter from Bishop Pinkham Tims, asking for matches for Mrs. Old Sun undated ; letters in rhyme, Archdeacom Tims to his daughter? M Early History of the Diocese of Calgary. M Accounts and Papers of St. Gibbon Stocken May 30, M Indian Missions, Notes and Statistics. Notes consist of lists concerned with the need for boarding schools, information re First Nations mode of life, and missions. Also contains Blackfoot statistics one page printed. Gould, General Secretary, M. M Indian Missions, Drawings and Plans. The plans are two sketch plans of proposed additions to the Industrial Home for Indian children at the Blackfoot Reserve, Gleichen. Also includes sketches showing Rev. Tims participating in activities on the Blackfoot Reserve. M Indian Missions, Diary of W. Haynes, Mission House, Brocket, Alberta. M Annual Returns to Synod, St. Consists of lists of members of various parishes; includes one list of burials M Blackfoot language materials.. Tims in order to introduce Christianity to the Blackfoot. Includes Blackfoot syllabarium printed ; syllabic alphabet signed J. Also includes printed leaflet giving elementary religious teaching in Blackfoot language, and St. Pages consist of a grammar, and pages 63 to an English-Blackfoot dictionary. The birth certificate was issued in two copies. The appointment, by Bishop Pinkham,, made Tims the special representative to visit St. M Pamphlets and Programs. Canon Stocken August 19, ; program of the enthronement of Rev. M Diocesan Examinations for Priests and Deacons. Contains examples of examinations set in the Diocese of Calgary. A few are dated to Also contains two printed leaflets one dated of instructions for candidates for Holy Orders in the Diocese of Calgary. Contains notebook showing general expenditures ; memorandum book ; notebooks containing historical and biographical notes; and exercise book containing article on "Foreign Missions". M Notebook and Two Diaries. Contains notebook of religious notes and daily journals of Archdeacon Tims and Contains sixteen diaries of Archdeacon Tims,,,,,, and Contains seventeen diaries of Archdeacon Tims Samuel Trivett, Archdeacon Tims, and J. M Album of Newspaper Clippings. Contains newspaper clippings about church matters; brief index in front of book. Armitage ; instructions for election to Synod; "One-Eyed Woman: Plummer on 50th wedding anniversary. Tims by Ron Getty of the Glenbow re artifacts. M Personal Correspondence from relatives and friends. M Personal Correspondence from Mrs. Hinchcliffe; application for jobs; from Canon H. Godsal; and from John W. House re tobacco dance. Van Koughnet re missionaries engaging in trade with Indians; memo explaining why the Church of England should be assisted in establishing an Industrial School; and report on St. M Reverend Frank Swainson Correspondence. M Bishop Pinkham correspondence. Correspondence to Bishop re explanation of trouble on Blackfoot Reserve; includes resignation. M Blackfoot Language Papers. Includes notebook of Blackfoot translations for special services: Page 11

12 Chapter 6 : Sarcee language, alphabet and pronunciation The Sarcee adopted several aspects of Blackfoot culture, including military societies and the Sun Dance. As hunting and gathering provided them with sustenance, tobacco was their only crop; it was planted with much ceremony. See Article History Alternative Titles: Blackfeet, Piegon Blackfoot, also called Blackfeet, North American Indian tribe composed of three closely related bands, the Piegan officially spelled Peigan in Canada, or Piikuni; the Blood, or Kainah also spelled Kainai, or Akainiwa ; and the Siksika, or Blackfoot proper often referred to as the Northern Blackfoot. The three groups traditionally lived in what is now Alberta, Canada, and the U. The Blackfoot in the United States are officially known as the Blackfeet Nation, though the Blackfoot word siksika, from which the English name was translated, is not plural. Among the first Algonquian-language speakers to move westward from timberland to open grassland, the Blackfoot probably migrated on foot using wooden travois drawn by dogs to transport their goods. In the early 18th century they were pedestrian buffalo hunters living in the Saskatchewan valley about miles km east of the Rocky Mountains. They acquired horses and firearms before Driving weaker tribes before them, the Blackfoot pushed westward to the Rockies and southward into what is now Montana. At the height of their power, in the first half of the 19th century, they held a vast territory extending from northern Saskatchewan to the southernmost headwaters of the Missouri River. In a Piegan Lodge, photograph by Edward S. Courtesy of the Edward E. Ayer Collection, The Newberry Library, Chicago The Blackfoot were known as one of the strongest and most-aggressive military powers on the northwestern Plains. For a quarter of a century after, they prevented British, French, and American fur traders, whom they regarded as poachers, from trapping in the rich beaver country of the upper tributaries of the Missouri. At the same time, they warred upon neighbouring tribes, capturing horses and taking captives. Each Blackfoot band was divided into several hunting bands led by one or more chiefs. These bands wintered separately in sheltered river valleys. In summer they gathered in a great encampment to observe the Sun Dance, the principal tribal religious ceremony. Many individuals owned elaborate medicine bundlesâ collections of sacred objects that, when properly venerated, were said to bring success in war and hunting and protection against sickness and misfortune. When the buffalo were almost exterminated in the early s, nearly one-quarter of the Piegan died of starvation. Thereafter the Blackfoot took up farming and ranching. Early 21st-century population estimates indicated some 90, individuals of Blackfoot descent in Canada and the United States. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: Page 12

13 Chapter 7 : Blackfoot blog.quintoapp.com Add tags for "With Eagle Tail: Arnold Lupson and 30 years among the Sarcee, Blackfoot and Stoney Indians on the North American plains". Be the first. Similar Items. While still a child, Bull Head contracted smallpox during the epidemic of â Although he lost his right eye, he survived to win a reputation as a warrior unparalleled in the Sarcee tribe. He took part in thirty battles, killed five enemy, took three scalps, and captured many horses and war trophies. His elder brother, Chula Little Chief, was killed by Cree in By the early s Bull Head had succeeded him as chief of the tribe and taken his name. He was generally known as Bull Head to government officials, however, although he was Little Chief, or Chula, to his own people. Some of the Sarcee appeared unfriendly, but McDougall entrusted his horse herd to the chief and spent a peaceful night in his camp. In, when the Indians of southern Alberta assembled to negotiate a treaty with the Canadian government, Bull Head reluctantly agreed to the terms and signed Treaty No. However, when confinement to a reserve became a reality in with the destruction of the buffalo herds in Canada, Bull Head refused to remain near the Blackfoot and demanded location near Fort Calgary Calgary. For a number of years afterwards, Bull Head was considered to be a fractious chief, yet his so-called obstinacy was usually part of a spirited defence of his people. In members of his band stole a washtub which they made into a drum. The North-West Mounted Police demanded its return, but Bull Head refused, saying that his tribe needed a drum more than the people of Fort Calgary needed a washtub. Rather than provoke a confrontation, the police dropped the matter. A year later, at a time many Sarcee were starving, a man named Crow Collar broke into the ration house and angrily damaged the weigh scales. When the police tried to apprehend him, Bull Head refused to give him up. Superintendent John Henry McIllree then tried to arrest the chief. Crow Collar was surrendered the following day and Bull Head came in a day later, accompanied by virtually the entire tribe. Even though Bull Head wore the medal given to him at the treaty and proclaimed his desire to maintain peace, his followers were initially discouraged from coming into Calgary. Once the chief had met with the military authorities, however, the Sarcee made regular visits to town to put on dances in exchange for food. Bootleggers and riff-raff were constantly encouraging prostitution and selling illicit liquor. On a number of occasions Bull Head himself was arrested and jailed for the use of alcohol. As a rule, however, he tried to control the social conditions on his reserve, but starvation and disease, particularly tuberculosis, remained troublesome during his lifetime. Employment opportunities were limited and agriculture was only marginally successful, so the tribe had to rely on government rations. In he told the authorities that the best way to keep its members peaceful was to see they were well fed. During the rebellion, rations were doubled, but they were reduced again after it was over. In, speaking at a reception for the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall in Calgary, he again pursued the problem of inadequate rations. At the same time Bull Head encouraged self-sufficiency within the tribe. In the Indian agent reported that the chief got the people working in their gardens and planting small plots of grain. He also urged them to build houses to replace their worn lodges. To set an example, he had the first log house on the reserve. Has the reputation of being troublesome in older times but of late has been very quiet indeed. Harry William Gibbon Stocken, an Anglican minister who laboured on the reserve from to, found the chief demanding but friendly. If he did not agree with his plans, he would not accept his food. Later he relied on the missionary to provide much-needed tea for the camp, and when Stocken was being transferred to another reserve begged him to stay. In the federal government urged the Sarcee to surrender part of their reserve so that the funds could be used to buy cattle and farm equipment. While some of the younger Indians agreed, Bull Head was entirely opposed. The Reserve is just big enough for ourselves; the whitemen are bothering us to give up our land. The Treaty was made. Perhaps his greatest contributions were in keeping the Sarcee united and his reserve intact in spite of devastating social and health problems and the pressures of Calgarians who coveted their lands. Dempsey At the request of Edmund Montague Morris, Bull Head himself sketched the highlights of his warrior days on the buffalo robe that is now held by the Ethnology Dept. A striking photograph of the chief is in the PAA. NA, RG 10, Arni Brownstone, War paint: Susan Jackel, Edmonton, MacEwan, Portraits from the plains Toronto, Page 13

14 Morris, The diaries of Edmund Montague Morris; western journeys, â, transcribed by Mary Fitz-Gibbon Toronto, [portrait of subject reproduced on p. Shaw, Tales of a pioneer surveyor, ed. Stocken, Among the Blackfoot and Sarcee Calgary, Page 14

15 Chapter 8 : Encyclopedia of the Great Plains BLACKFOOT The Tsuu T'ina (previously Sarcee) were a nomadic hunter/gatherer tribe of the western plains. They were located on the upper courses of the Saskatchewan and Athabaska Rivers of Alberta. From the Siksika Blackfoot words sa arsi, "not good. Castors des Prairies, by Petitot,, p. Circee, by Franklin,, vol. Mauvais Monde des Pieds-Noirs, by Petitot Sussee, by Umfreville in, p. Suseekoon, by Henry, Blackfoot MS. Ussinnewudj Eninnewug, by Tanner, p. The Sarcee were connected with the Sekani and Tsattine divisions of the Athapascan linguistic family and probably separated from the latter. When first known to Europeans, the Sarcee were usually found on the upper courses of the Saskatchewan and Athabaska Rivers toward the Rocky Mountains. Subdivisions Jenness states that the tribe is constituted of the following five bands at the present time: The Sarcee evidently drifted to the Saskatchewan River from the north and, as Jenness thinks, "possibly towards the end of the seventeenth century. Early in the nineteenth century the Indians of the section acquired horses and guns, intertribal warfare was increased to such an extent that several tribes united for mutual protection, and the Sarcee allied themselves for this purpose with the Blackfoot. Nevertheless, they continued to suffer from attacks of the Cree and other tribes, and their numbers were still farther reduced by epidemics, particularly the smallpox epidemics of and and one of scarlet fever in In, along with the Blackfoot and Alberta Assiniboine, they signed a treaty ceding their hunting grounds to the Dominion Government, and in submitted to be placed upon a reservation, where they declined steadily in numbers until Mooney estimated that there was a Sarcee population of in Mackenzie estimated that there were Sarcee warriors in and that their tents numbered Sir John Franklin estimated that they had tents. When their reservation life began Jenness believes that they numbered between and, but they seem to have declined steadily and in there were on the reserve, "all commonly considered Sarcee though an uncertain proportion were originally Cree and Blackfoot. The Sarcee are noted as the only northern Athapascan band which is known to have become accustomed to life on the Plains, though it is probable that they merely represent a recent case of Plains adaptation such as took place at an earlier period with the Apache and Kiowa Apache successively. Additional Canadian Indian Resources. Page 15

16 Chapter 9 : J. W. Tims Family The Blackfoot Confederacy, Niitsitapi or Siksikaitsitapi (á ¹á Ÿá á á á, meaning "the people" or "Blackfoot-speaking real people") is a historic collective name for the four bands that make up the Blackfoot or Blackfeet people: three First Nation band governments in the provinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia, and one federally recognized Native American tribe in Montana, United States. The Making of the Earth During the flood, Old Man was sitting on the highest mountain with all the beasts. The flood was caused by the above people, because the baby a fungus of the woman who married a star was heedlessly torn in pieces by an Indian child. Old Man sent the Otter down to get some earth. For a long time he waited, then the Otter came up dead. Old Man examined its feet, but found nothing on them. Next he sent Beaver down, but after a long time he also came up drowned. Again nothing was found on his feet. He sent Muskrat to dive next. Muskrat also was drowned. At length he sent the Duck? It was drowned, but in its paw held some earth. Old Man saw it, put it in his hand, feigned putting it on the water three times, and at last dropped it. Then the above-people sent rain, and everything grew on the earth. Clark Wissler and D. He whistled, and all the people came together. He gave one man a cup of one kind of water, saying, "You will be chief of these people here. The Blackfoot, Piegan, and Blood all received black water. Then he said to the people, "Talk," and they all talked differently; but those who drank black water spoke the same. This happened on the highest mountain in the Montana Reservation [Chief Mountain? One time, when they were traveling about, Old Man met Old Woman, who said, "Now, let us come to an agreement of some kind; let us decide how the people shall live. Then Old Man began, "The women are to tan the hides. When they do this, they are to rub brains on them to make them soft; they are to scrape them well with scraping tools, etc. But all this they are to do very quickly, for it will not be very hard work. We will have the eyes and mouth in the faces, as you say; but they shall all be set crosswise. They will be in the way. There shall be four fingers and one thumb on each hand. The genitals shall be at our navels. The genitals shall be at the pubes. Then Old Woman asked what they should do about life and death. Should the people always live, or should they die? They had some difficulty in agreeing on this; but finally Old Man said, "I will tell you what I will do. I will throw a buffalo chip into the water, and, if it floats, the people die for four days and live again. But, if it sinks, they will die forever. I will throw in this rock. If it floats, the people will die for four days. If it sinks, the people will die forever. She was very sorry now that it had been fixed so that people died forever. So she said to Old Man, "Let us have our say over again. We shall die for four days and then come to life again. We will throw a buffalo chip into the water. If it sinks, we will die forever; if it floats, we shall live again. So when we die, we die forever. The First Marriage Now in those days, the men and the women did not live together. The men lived in one camp and the women in the other. The men lived in lodges made of skin with the hair on; the women, in good lodges. She said she had been sent by the chief of the women to invite all the men, because the women were going to pick out husbands. Now the men began to get ready, and Old Man dressed himself up in his finest clothes. He was always fine looking. Now the chief of the women came out to make the first choice. She had on very dirty clothes, and none of the men knew who she was. She went along the line, looked them over, and finally picked out Old Man because of his fine appearance. Now Old Man saw many nicely dressed women waiting their turn, and when the chief of the women took him by the hand he pulled back and broke away. He did this because he thought her a very common woman. When he pulled away, the chief of the women went back to her lodge and instructed the other women not to choose Old Man. While the other women were picking out their husbands, the chief of the women put on her best costume. When she came out, she looked very fine, and as soon as Old Man saw her, he thought, "Oh! There is the chief of the women. I wish to be her husband. Now the chief of the women came down once more to pick out a husband, and as she went around, Old Man kept stepping in front of her, so that she might see him. But she paid no attention to him, finally picking out another for her husband. After a while all the men had been picked out except Old Man. Now he was very angry; but the chief of the women said to him, "After this you are to be a tree, and stand just where you are now. So he brought them over the ice to the far north. When they were crossing the Page 16