April A Joint Initiative of. Technical Support Wildlife Institute of India. Supported by. Assam Forest Department

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1 Report prepared by M Firoz Ahmed, Jimmy Borah, Chatrapati Das, Ajit Basumatary, R. N. Sarma, D. D. Gogoi, S. N. Buragohain, N. K. Vasu, B. K. Talukdar, Y. V. Jhala and Q. Qureshi April 2010 A Joint Initiative of Assam Forest Department A Society for Biodiversity Conservation in NE India Technical Support Wildlife Institute of India Supported by

2 A camera trapped tiger

3 Report prepared by M Firoz Ahmed, Jimmy Borah, Chatrapati Das, Ajit Basumatary, R. N. Sarma, D. D. Gogoi, S. N. Buragohain, N. K. Vasu, B. K. Talukdar, Y. V. Jhala and Q. Qureshi April 2010 A Joint Initiative of Assam Forest Department A Society for Biodiversity Conservation in NE India Technical Support Wildlife Institute of India Supported by

4 Published by: Aaranyak 50 Samanwoy Path, Survey Beltola, Guwahati Assam, India. Tel: Website: Published: April 2010 Copyright 2010 in photographs: Individual credited. Copyright 2010 Aaranyak and Assam Forest Department, India. All rights reserved. Any reproduction in full or in part of this publication must mention the title and credit as suggested below. Suggested citation: Ahmed, M. F., J. Borah, C. Das, A. Basumatary, R. N. Sarma, D. D. Gogoi, S. N. Buragohain, N. K. Vasu, B. K. Talukdar, Y. V. Jhala and Q. Qureshi Monitoring Tigers and Prey Animals of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India. Technical Report, Aaranyak, TRCI: 04/ pp. Design: Fine Edge, Guwahati

5 Shri Rockybul Hussain Minister, Environment & Forest, Tourism, P&S, Information & Public Relation. Government of Assam Foreword The Assam Forest Department has been conserving flagship species like rhino, tiger and elephant across the state in a network of protected areas. Assam has three tiger reserves, five national parks and 20 wildlife sanctuaries that cover about 5% of total geographical area of state. Tiger conservation in Assam was officially initiated in 1973 by listing Manas Tiger Reserve amongst first few Tiger Reserves established across the country. However, because of sustained efforts to protect the one-horned Indian rhino in the state, tiger population has automatically been covered under effective conservation especially in the Kaziranga and Orang National Parks. Tiger population has drastically dwindled all over the country during the last few decades. Perhaps, Assam was not immune. However, tiger population in the state seems better than many other states in the country. Kaziranga, Orang and Nameri are few best examples of tiger conservation areas in Assam. Kaziranga NP is considered as the source population for the northeast Indian region. The grasslands of Kaziranga are known to be the best tiger habitats in the world. When the hope for tiger conservation is fast dimming all over the world, Assam's forests continue to offer best habitats for this charismatic and majestic animal for centuries. The Assam Forest Department in collaboration with Aaranyak, a research and conservation organization with reputation in the region, has been carrying out camera trapping exercise in Assam since 2008 to monitor the tiger population. This report consist the result of the first year (2009) camera trapping exercise for monitoring tigers in the Kaziranga National Park. The result presented in this report is overwhelming. Further, being the best tiger habitat, Kaziranga shall now be able to attract more attention from national and international agencies as far as conservation of biodiversity is concerned. I must congratulate the Aaranyak team and the Assam Forest Department for initiating this partnership to find out valuable information on tiger population of the Kaziranga NP. I also convey my best wishes to the management of the Kaziranga NP and the staff of the park for their relentless efforts to save the wildlife from poaching. The Assam Forest Department shall continue its effort to uphold the conservation of biodiversity in the state. My best wishes to Aaranyak for their efforts to complement research, conservation and protection of biodiversity in the state. (Rockybul Hussain)

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7 Acknowledgement We are grateful to David Shepherd Wildlife Foundation for financial support to this work. Thanks also due to Rufford Small Grants Foundation, London for partially supporting purchase of equipments. Thanks Wildlife Institute of India for technical help, training and advice provided during execution of the project. We are grateful to Mr. Rockybul Hussain, Minister of Environment & Forest cum Tourism, Government of Assam and Mr. Suresh Chand, Chief Wildlife Warden of Assam along with other senior forest officials for their support. Mr. M C Malakar, Ex-Chief Wildlife Warden of Assam was very kind in guiding us while initiating this project. Thanks to the Range Officers of the park DD Boro, Deben Kalita, Atikur Rahman, K K Deori and Ekramul Mazid for their all out help. We are thankful to Abishek Harihar and Bivash Pandav for giving training to biologists and assisting through out data collection and analysis. Many thanks to Ranjit Baruah and Rupak Bhuyan, the two Forester of the Park who were never annoyed by our frequent visit, phone calls and requests to arrange our logistics during the long field work. Deben and Ganesh, and all other armed guards, thank you all for your commitment to save our lives from dangerous wild animals. Thanks to Tipu, Philip and Babu for assistances. We are also thankful to all those frontline staffs that helped us in the field. Arif, Kamal, Mayur, Mazid, Rajeev, Johnson Das, Abhijit Das, Naba Nath, Santanu Dey, Krishna Das, Biraj Saikia, Anil Das, Mahikanta Phukan and all those who volunteered in the field, we are thankful to all of you for your time and efforts. We thank Pranjit Sarma for preparing the GIS maps. Many thanks to Ashok Dey and Udayan Borthakur and Jayanta Baruah for assisting in the field. We are thankful to Bhaskar Sarkar for painfully managing our accounts.

8 A tiger resting in a pool, a rare view in the Kaziranga NP though tigers are thriving there. M. Firoz Ahmed

9 Content Introduction 1 Objectives 2 The Study Site 3 Methods 7 Results 11 Discussion 16 Recommendations 18 What Next? 18 References 19 Appendix 01: A. Standard datasheet for camera trap monitoring. 22 B. Standard datasheet for Sign Survey. 23 Appendix 02: Individual Camera Trapped Tigers. 24 Appendix 03: Photographs of other camera trapped animals. Appendix 04: Activity Photographs of the study. 43 Appendix 05: Name and GPS coordinates of trap locations 45 37

10 Tables used in the report Table 1. Capture history of individual tigers photo-captured in the Kaziranga National Park, Assam; 40 individuals, 25 occasions during January-March, Table 2. Summary of the result of capture-recapture study of tigers in the Kaziranga National Park, Assam; carried out during January-March, Table 3. Relative abundance indices for prey species recorded in Kaziranga National Park using camera traps from January to March Total effort 1250 trap-days. RAI 1: Number of days required to get single photo capture, RAI 2: Number of photos per 100 trap-days. Table 4. Comparison of tiger density amongst different tiger habitats in India and Nepal (estimated using Half MMDM approach). Figures used in the report Fig 1. The trail monitor, Trailmaster 1550 along with cameras and other accessories. Fig 2. Map of the Kaziranga National Park showing the trap polygon, effective sampling area (half MMDM buffer) and the trap locations. Session January-March, Map prepared by GIS Lab, Aaranyak. Fig 3. Map of the Kaziranga Tiger Reserve showing the Kaziranga National Park, Laokhowa WLS, Buhrachapori WLS, adjacent reserve forests and the Brahmaputra River. Map prepared by GIS Lab, Aaranyak. Fig 4. Cumulative number of individual tiger captured and photographs obtained with increasing number of sampling occasions in the Kaziranga National Park, Assam (Session: January-March, 2009).

11 Executive Summary The Kaziranga National Park in the alluvial floodplains of Assam is an important tiger habitat in the country and perhaps the only viable source population left in the entire Northeast India. Even before it became a tiger reserve (notified in 2007), tiger conservation was on under the rhino as a flagship species. Since 1996, there has been very little research on tigers of the park. It is very important to monitor tiger and prey animal population to adapt to the management need in an important tiger habitat like the Kaziranga NP to ensure long term survival of tigers not only in the park but also in the entire region. To carry out regular monitoring of tigers and prey animals in the Kaziranga NP, the park authority and Aaranyak has already established a collaboration in 2008 and as a follow up this project was designed and being implemented to complement the management authority, state forest department and the National Tiger Conservation Authority. The overall goal of this project is 'Long term conservation of source population of tigers in the Kaziranga National Park through intensive monitoring and ensuring habitat connectivity to nearby tiger inhabiting areas.' The objective of this project for the first year was 'identification of individual tigers and estimate density of tigers in the in the study area.' Intensive field surveys were carried out in the park during October 2008 to March Expert from Wildlife Institute of India and other competent institutions and organizations were advising the team in designing and executing research on tigers and prey animals. Over 3500 man-hours were invested in executing this project. Result of this study is going to have significant implications on management of tigers and prey animals and habitats in the entire country. Kaziranga has been known to have highest density of tigers in the world which is further established with unbelievable density of tigers in any 2 tiger habitat by scoring (±7.79) tigers/100 km. As many as 39 individual tigers (including a cub <1 yr) were identified in the camera trapped area of the park indicating that the tigers are thriving in the park.

12 Mosaic of wetlands, tall grasslands and forests are fairly common in the Kaziranga NP. M. Firoz Ahmed

13 Introduction India is known to harbour the largest population of tiger amongst the 13 range countries in Asia (Seidensticker et al., 1999). Tiger in India is 2 potentially distributed over 300,000 km of forest areas (Wikramanayake et al., 1999). However, existence of tiger is threatened in the country due to habitat degradation and fragmentation, prey depletion, tiger poaching and development projects (Seidensticker et al., 1999; Karanth, 2001). The Brahmaputra floodplains and the northeastern hills is one of the important areas in the Indian subcontinent from tiger conservation perspective (Jhala et al., 2008). Being in the transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese biogeographical regions (Mani, 1974), the region is the biogeographical gateway for much of the India's flora and fauna and as a consequence has the richest biological values (Rodgers and Panwar, 1998). The tiger is distributed throughout the region, but at low densities due to low prey density in the tropical and subtropical forest areas (Jhala et al., 2008). The Brahmaputra floodplains, however, known to have the highest tiger densities reported in the world due to high prey biomass (Karanth 2 and Nichols, 1998). Assam with 36% of forest coverage (27,938 km ) of its 2 total geographical area has 20,359 km of forest area with high priority for 2 tiger conservation (Jhala et al., 2008). Currently, 1164 km area is occupied by tigers (Jhala et al., 2008). 2 The Kaziranga National Park (area 860 km ) and the Kaziranga Tiger 2 Reserve (area 1033 km ) along with the adjoining Karbi Anglong Hills 2 covers a total area of km. This is also one of the important Tiger Conservation Units identified by Sanderson et al. (2006). Kaziranga tigers are considered as a source population for the entire region (Jhala et al., 2008). This is the second study to address the population of tigers and prey animals and their ecology in the Kaziranga National Park. Karanth and Nichols (1998) estimated the density of tigers in the park as 16.8 tigers/100 2 km that is considered one of the highest in the world. Their study also documented high density of ungulates in the park supporting highest density status of tigers in the world. However, since then there was no effort made to reevaluate or intensively monitor such an important source

14 population of tigers in the country. Keeping this in mind this scientific study was initiated by Aaranyak in collaboration with the Kaziranga National Park Authority and the State Forest Department. The study is planned to monitor tigers and prey animals for a long term to understand their ecology in floodplain ecosystems. During the year 2009 this study attempted camera trapping of tigers in the park. However, we plan to address holistic issues of tiger research (monitoring tigers, prey and habitat) during This report presents the findings of our study in the Kaziranga National Park carried out during January-March Objectives The objective of this study was to 1. Identification of individual tigers in the study area using camera traps, and 2. Estimating density of tigers in the Park using photographic capture-recaptures.

15 The Study Site The Kaziranga National Park (26 34 N to N and E to E) sprawl in Nagaon and Golaghat districts of Assam. The Brahmaputra River flows by the northern boundary and Karbi Anglong hills stands to the south. The park, with over 100 years of conservation history was 2 declared as a National Park in 1974 and covers an area of 430 km. At 2 present the park covers 860 km including the proposed additions (Fig 2). 2 However, the Kaziranga Tiger Reserve covers an area of 1033 km that includes the Laokhowa and Buhrachapori Wildlife Sanctuaries (Fig 3). Composed mostly of the alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra River, the park is characterized by tall grassland, lowland forest and innumerable small and large wetlands. The Diffolu River originating from Karbi Anglong Hills to the south flows east to west and divides the park in two sections before merging into the Brahmaputra. Deopani and Mora- Diffolu are the other two rivers that drain through the park. While numerous streams from the Karbi Anglong drains into the park. Kaziranga NP supports significant floodplain biodiversity in the region. It holds the largest population of Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Also supports significant population of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), swamp deer (Cervus duvaucelli ranjitsinghi), Asiatic water buffalo (Bubalus arnee), and tiger (Panthera tigris). This park is also home to some 490 species of birds (Barua and Sharma, 1999; Choudhury, 2004). The climate of the park is tropical with four distinct seasons: dry winter (December-February), Pre monsoon (March-May), Monsoon (June- August) and Post monsoon (September-November). Annual rainfall varies from 2000 to 2900 mm. Temperature ranges from minimum 7 C in winter to maximum 35 C in summer. The vegetation of the park can be classified into grassland (66%), woodland (28%) and aquatic vegetation (6%) (Marry et al., 1998). The wet alluvial grasslands that grow up to a height of five meter are composed of Erianthus ravannae (Ekra), Saccharum elephantanum (Kher), Saccharum spontaneum (Kahua), Arundo donax (Nal) and Phragmites karka (Khagori). Woodlands of the park are characterized by some evergreen patches on the high grounds often with cane brakes and scattered trees among grasslands.

16 Annual flooding is a natural phenomenon in the Park. Every year the park area is inundated by surging water of the Brahmaputra River during monsoon, usually more than once. The flood water level reaches 2-3 meters in places within the park, forcing the animals to take shelter on highlands natural and man-made. A large number of animals also seek refuge in the highlands like the Karbi Anglong Hills and adjacent reserve forests like Panbari Reserve Forest (RF), Bagser RF, Kukurakata RF close to the park boundary. Major prey animal in the Kaziranga National Park are hog deer Axis porcinus, sabar Cervus unicolor, swamp deer Cervus duvaucelii, barking deer Muntiacus muntjak, wild pig Sus scrofa, Himalayan crestless porcupine Hystrix brachyura, hog badger Arctonyx collaris, Asiatic wild buffalo Bubalus arnee. Calves of elephant Elephas maximus and rhino Rhinoceros unicornis are also regularly predated upon by tigers in the park. Moreover, gaur Bos gaurus once found the park has not been spotted during the last five years or stray records are not authenticated. Carnivores other than tiger, known to occur in the park include Leopard Panthera pardus, Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus, Large Indian Civet Viverra zibetha, Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica, Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Small Indian Mongoose Herpestes javanicus, Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata, Common Otter Lutra lutra, Oriental small-clawed otter Amblonyx cinereus and Hog Badger Arctonyx collaris. Fig 1. The trail monitor, Trailmaster 1550 along with cameras and other accessories.

17 Fig 2. Map of the Kaziranga National Park showing the trap polygon, effective sampling area (half MMDM buffer) and the trap locations. Session: January-March, Map source: GIS Lab, Aaranyak.

18 Fig 3. Map of the Kaziranga Tiger Reserve showing the Kaziranga National Park, Laokhowa WLS, Buhrachapori WLS, adjacent reserve forests and the Brahmaputra River. Map source: GIS Lab, Aaranyak.

19 Methods Capture-Recapture Survey of Tigers (Field Techniques) We used the photographic capture-recapture method. This technique has already been tested and effectively used by several workers (Karanth, 1995; Karanth and Nichols, 1998; Karanth et al., 2006; Harihar et al., 2006). The study area (Fig 2) was divided into 1.5 x 1.5 km grid. A cluster of fifty (50) grids were then selected that were accessible from road, trails and antipoaching camps. This selection was necessary to facilitate intense monitoring of the camera traps as rhino and elephants often caused operational damage. To find out suitable locations for camera traps that are frequented by tigers we carried out sign survey in the selected grids. Signs like pugmark, scat, scrap marks and kills are always left behind by tigers indicating their presence in an area. We recorded all these signs during road and trail transects. Other than tiger signs, signs of prey and other animals were also recorded on transects. The sign survey was conducted by a team of biologists and forest staff from the nearest antipoaching camp. All observations were recorded on standard data sheet (Appendix 01). Two cameras (Olympus Stylus 80, Olympus America Inc. Fig 1) were connected to a Trailmaster 1550 Active Infrared Monitor (Goodson and Associates, Inc, USA, Fig 1) through a multi trigger at each of the selected 50 locations. The two cameras photographed both the flanks of the tigers to confirm individual identification. Both the cameras were mounted on steel reinforced box (to protect it from large animals like elephant and rhino, see P-42) and positioned 5-6 meter away from each other from the center of the trail (personal observation based on field testing). The sensor height of the trap was positioned approximately 0.4 m above ground at horizontal position. The traps were made unobtrusive and cryptic as much as possible. Each camera-trap was given a unique number (#1-50) and all locations were finally recorded by GPS and marked on the map. Each film (ISO 200) was given a unique number before it was loaded. The unique number on camera-trap and on films helped in tracking vital information at a later stage of data analysis. All cameras were set to print the date and time of each exposure thereby enabling accurate information of individual tiger

20 movement. Each exposed and marked rolls were sent to a photo lab for developing separately and carefully. Printed photographs were used to identify individual tigers. Individuals were identified using differences in stripe pattern on flanks, limbs, tail and forequarter (Schaller, 1967; Karanth, 1995) and each of them was given a unique number. The Kaziranga tigers were separated into male, female, unknown sex and cub. Then each of them was numbered individually, e.g. KZT_025_M (male), KZT_010_F (female), KZT_038_U (unknown sex) and KZT_039_C (cub). The study area was divided into two blocks of 25 grids each to facilitate intense camera trapping. Camera trapping was carried out for minimum of 25 days in each block. To minimize trap-avoidance by tigers we moved the cameras by meters every 7-8 days or as soon as such behaviour was noticed. All cameras were monitored daily to record any activity and to verify proper functioning. All data were recorded on a data sheet (Appendix 01). A data downloader (TrailMaster TM Data Collector II, Fig 1) was used to download the events from the trail monitors for future references. Camera trapping was carried out during January-March Data Analysis Individual capture histories were constructed for all the identified tigers using a standard 'X-matrix format' (Otis et al., 1978; Nichols, 1992). In the matrix '1' indicates capture of a particular tiger during specific sampling occasions and '0' indicates no capture. For example, a capture history of of a tiger indicates that it was captured only on second, sixth and tenth sampling occasions during a survey of 10 occasions. To analyze the capture history data we used the software CAPTURE and considered that the population was demographically closed during our 50-day study (Otis et al., 1978; White et al., 1982; Rexstad and Burnham, 1991). We selected the model, M h, (Otis et al., 1978; Nichols, 1992) and estimation option implemented in CAPTURE. Since all tigers in the sample area did not have equal capture probabilities owing to home range considerations and camera trap locations, the jackknife estimator of model, M h, tend to be the most robust to deviations from model assumptions and not affected by trap response or time.

21 ˆ The program CAPTURE estimates capture probabilities (p ) per sample ˆ and the tiger population size, N (i.e. estimated number of tigers in the sample area including tigers that were not photographed at all). The density (D) of tigers in the study area was estimated using the equation- D = N / (A (W)) [where D- estimated density, N- estimated population size, (A (W))- effectively sampled area] (Karanth and Nichols, 1998 & 2002; Harihar et al., 2006). We calculated the effectively sampled area (A) by drawing a trap polygon connecting the outermost camera traps and adding a strip width (W) to the trap polygon. The strip width was calculated using half of the 'mean maximum distance moved (MMDM)' by all the tigers that moved between cameras. Trap polygon area and effective sampling area were calculated using GIS software ERDAS Imagine 9.0 and Arc GIS 9.0. Nontiger habitat (such as villages and large river channels) outside the hard boundary of the park was removed. This methodology is also explained in length in Karanth and Nichols (2002). Encounter Rate Survey of Tiger Signs Sign survey (Karanth and Nichols, 2002) was carried out on roads and trails in the park covering the sampling area. A two member team along with an armed guard walked a on the road an trails collecting data on signs (pugmark, scratch, rakes, scat) of tigers. Each trail was divided into one kilometer sample and data on signs were collected every alternate kilometer. All the data were systematically recorded on a datasheet. Encounter rate was calculated as tracks/10 km. Relative Abundance Indices (RAI) of Prey Animals Following Carbone et al. (2001), we calculated two relative abundance indices (RAI) using independent photographs (O'Brien et al., 2003, Datta et al., 2008) of a species. They are number of days required to acquire a photograph (RAI 1) and number of photographs acquired per day (RAI 2). In this report, the RAI 2 is expressed as photographs per 100 trap-days.

22 Box 1. Stripes of a tiger never lie! How two different individual tiger are identified? Tigers have different stripe patterns even on both the flanks of the same animal. Like our finger print, all tiger can be individually identified based on stripe patterns. Initially all the pictures from a study area are grouped into male and female. Then looking at differences in stripe patterns on abdomen, shoulder, thigh or tail all individual tigers are identified. A regularly monitored tiger can easily be distinguished by one or more unique stripe it has. Step 1. Two camera trapped photographs. Step 2. Stripes enlarged to show differences in patterns. Step 3. Distinctive and obvious stripe pattern seen in two individual tigers.

23 Model Photographic captures of tigers Table: Model selection by CAPTURE M o M h M b Mbh Criteria Results Our study was spread over 50 days during January-March 2009 and camera trapping was carried out at 50 trap locations in two blocks in the park. For data analysis we divided the survey duration into 25 sampling occasions. The total sampling effort realized was 1250 trap-days. The effort yielded 249 photographs (of both flanks taken by two facing cameras) out of which 242 were used for analysis (cubs below one year of age and poor quality photographs were discarded). The pictures included 126 right flanks and 116. All but three tigers were photo-captured with both the flanks. The three, a male and two of unknown sex could be identified distinctly from rest of the individuals as we had both flanks for rest of the individuals captured. Individual tigers have their unique stripe pattern and are easily identified by comparing the stripe pattern (Karanth and Nichols, 2002; see Box 1). Based on the unique stripe patterns 38 individual tigers were identified in the sampled area. The 38 individuals included 20 females, 15 males and 3 individual of unknown sex. Cubs below one year were discarded from analysis. The capture history of the sample survey is shown in Table 1. Over 3000 man-hours were spent by a team of 6-8 persons during 50 days of camera trapping exercise. All the individual tiger photographs are presented on Appendix 02. Test for population closure and model selection The CAPTURE (Otis et al., 1978; White et al., 1982; Rexstad and Burnham, 1991) computed result supported our assumption the sampled population was closed for the study period (z=0.266, p=0.61). We selected the model M h (the jackknife estimator, that incorporates individual heterogeneity), as it tends to be the most robust model of all the models incorporated in CAPTURE (Karanth and Nichols, 2002; Karanth et al., 2004; Sharma et al., 2009). Tigers having a complex social organization, dominant breeders, overlapping home ranges, non breeding floaters and transient individuals, it is most likely that each individual will have different capture probabilities. This was a strong basis of selecting M as the most likely model for capture h probabilities and population size estimation.

24 Table 1. Capture history of individual tigers photo-captured in the Kaziranga National Park, Assam; 38 individuals, 25 occasions. Session: January-March, 2009.

25 Total number of traps (see Fig 2) 50 Sampling occasions (number of days when traps were on) 25 Sampling effort (number of traps x sampling occasions) 1250 trap-days Camera trap polygon area (Â) 101 km 2 Estimated buffer width (½ MMDM) W 1.57 km Effectively Sampled Area (Â (W)), ½ MMDM 144 km 2 Number of captures and recaptures, n 110 Number of individual tiger captured, M(t+1) 38 Estimated number of tiger in the sampled area (Nˆ ) using model M h jackknife 47 (±5.01) Estimated Tiger Density in the sampled area (½MMDM) (±7.79)/100 km 2 Estimated Tiger Density in the sampled area (MMDM) (±6.14)/100 km 2 Estimated number (Nˆ ) of tiger in the sampled area using model M b 38 (±0.63) Density estimated using M b model, ½MMDM approach (±5.65)/100 km 2

26 Encounter Rate of Tiger Signs We sampled 21 km roads and trails for tiger signs. Signs were encountered in all the segments sampled. A total of 47 (±0.41) signs of scat, scrape and pugmarks were recorded. These included 19 (±0.26) scats, 17 (±0.27) scraps and 11 (±0.11) pugmarks. Mean encounter rate of tiger signs in the study area was 22 signs/10 km. Similarly, those of tiger scat, scrap and pugmark were 9.05 scats, 8.11 scraps and 5.24 pugmarks per 10 km. Relative abundance of prey animals Due to time and resource constrain we were not able to estimate the density of the prey animals of tigers during our study. However, we used the camera trapped data of prey animals to calculate relative-abundance index (RAI; Carbone et al., 2001). The results are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Relative abundance indices for prey species recorded in camera traps in Kaziranga National Park from January-March Total effort 1250 trap-days. RAI 1: Number of days required to get single photo capture, RAI 2: Number of photos per 100 trap-days. Species Total photo Independent Photo RAI 1 RAI 2 Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak Hog Deer Axis porcinus Sambar Cervus unicolor Swamp Deer Cervus duvaucelii Wild Boar Sus scrofa Hog Badger Arctonyx collaris Porcupine Hystrix brachyura Wild Buffalo Bubalus arnee Rhino Rhinoceros unicornis Elephant Elephas maximus

27 Table 4. Comparison of tiger density amongst different tiger habitats in India and Nepal (estimated using Half MMDM approach). # of Individual/Photo Fig 4. Cumulative number of individual tiger captured and photographs obtained with increasing number of sampling occasions in the Kaziranga National Park, Assam (Session: January-March, 2009).

28 Discussion Photographic capture-recapture studies offer a reliable and practical approach to estimate abundance of tiger that has already been proved by various studies (Karanth, 1995; Karanth and Nichols, 1998, 2002; Karanth et al., 2004; Harihar et al., 2006; Sharma et al., 2009). Photographic capture is also used in estimating an index of relative abundance of prey animals that are cryptic or otherwise difficult to study using conventional methods (Carbone et al., 2001; Datta et al., 2008; Johnson et al., 2006; O'Brien et al., 2003). ˆ 1. During this study overall probability of capture of tigers (M t+1/n ) was high 80.85%. 2. The accumulation curve (Fig. 4) suggested that the rate of photo capture of tigers remained more or less constant, indicating no effect of trap shyness on tigers during the study period. However, we observed five instances of trap avoidance throughout the study. We attempted to correct that by shifting the traps by m every 7-10 days. 3. The accumulation curve (Fig. 4) of new individuals reached 'near th asymptote' by 20 trap-day, suggesting that 20 days of trapping may be sufficient for high density tiger areas like Kaziranga NP 2 when trap density is 50 traps per 100 km. Further, optimum trap density for an area like Kaziranga NP is yet to be determined. 4. Cubs are poorly detected by camera traps as they rarely accompany mothers (Karanth et al., 2004; Sharma et al., 2009). During our study only one cub below one year was photographed only once (mother not photographed). Another cub (>1 yr) was photographed once though its mother was photographed thrice. Further, a lactating tigress (obvious from extended mammary glands and nipples) was photographed thrice but without a cub. 5. We used ½MMDM approach to estimate the density of tigers in the Kaziranga NP. As demonstrated by Sharma et al., 2009, density tends to overestimate using this approach. However, only using this approach we could compare tiger density across different study sites in India and neighbouring Nepal. The density of tiger in Kaziranga NP calculated using ½MMDM approach is the highest 2 in the world (32.64 (±7.79) tigers/100 km ).

29 Density estimated using the full MMDM approach is also very 2 high in the park (26.22 (±6.14)/100 km ). See Table 4 for comparison of tiger densities amongst different study sites in India. 6. Kaziranga's alluvial grassland provide optimal habitats for tigers, where, perhaps tigers reaches its highest possible density in the world as shown by Karanth and Nichols (1998) and results of this study. The present study, however, recorded almost twice the density of tigers in the park compared to last estimation (Karanth and Nichols, 1998). Karanth & Nichols, 1998 Present Study 7. Co-predators: No sign or photographs of co-predators like leopard Panthera pardus and wild dog Cuon alpinus were detected during this study. However, report about kill atop a tree (a likely kill of a leopard) was detected more than three years ago in the camera trapped area (Pers. comm. Forest Staff). 8. Prey animals: According to Karanth and Nichols (1998), Kaziranga 2 NP has highest density of large prey animals (16.9 animals/km ) that included wild buffalo and swamp deer. However, the park also harbours hog deer, swamp deer, sambar, rhino and elephants in relatively good number (see RAI, Table 3). While sambar is a known preferred prey, tigers in Kaziranga NP also predate upon rhino and elephant calves and also feed on carcasses of rhino that die naturally or killed by poachers. During this study we recorded three elephant calf killed by tigers and surprisingly one of them was ~4 yrs old. Similarly, swamp deer are also often predated by tigers in the park (forest guards, pers. comm.). 9. Relative abundance indices of prey animals (see RAI, Table 3) are very high in Kaziranga NP, which was calculated using photo trapping rates of different prey animals. 10. It is important to note that the relative abundance indices (RAI) of some prey species presented in this report may not represent true relative abundance. For example, prey species like hog deer do not use roads frequently, where as our cameras were placed on roads and wider trails. Hence, chances of camera trapping them were not

30 as much as animals like rhino that has a higher RAI and known to use roads more frequently. Similarly, sambar also has a low RAI as they are more secretive in nature and prefers forest areas. 11. Depletion of large prey species: Gaur (Bos gaurus), one of the major prey species of tigers used to be common through out the Kaziranga Karbi-Anglong Landscape has nearly disappeared from the Kziranga NP. Depletion is so obvious that the last authentic sighting was in 1999 (Vasu, 2003; D D Boro, pers. Comm.). The primary reason for depletion of this important prey species can be contributed to hunting in the Karbi Anglong Hills. Gaur, moving to hills during monsoon had less opportunity to climb down due to extensive hunting pressure compounded by disturbances and habitat loss. 12. Establishment of protected areas and ensuring proper protection from hunting is likely to help reestablish the gaur population in the landscape. We suggest scientific study in the Karbi Anglong Hills to address this issue in immediate future. Recommendations 1. We would like to recommend regular monitoring of tigers and prey population in the Kaziranga NP to understand population dynamics and ecology in such a high density tiger habitats. 2. Considering the high density of tigers, human-tiger conflict on the fringe areas of the park may go up and suggest that the management take necessary steps (short term and long term) to minimize such conflicts. 3. Train more frontline staff of the park in regular monitoring of camera traps and also in recording sighting data of tigers and other animals on regular basis. The same data could be used to see trend of tiger sighting over time and space in the park. What Next? 1. Estimate prey density in the Kaziranga NP while we continue to monitor the tiger population for second consecutive year. 2. Sample eastern range of the park to understand pattern of density in the park. 3. Understand the population dynamics of prey and predators in the Kaziranga National Park in the long run.

31 References Barua, M. and P. Sharma Birds of Kaziranga National Park, India. Forktail 15: Carbone, C., S. Christie, K. Conforti, T. Coulson, N. Franklin, J. R. Ginsberg, M. Griffiths, J. Holden, K. Kawanishi, M. Kinnaird, The use of photographic rates to estimate densities of tigers and other cryptic mammals. Animal Conservation 4, Choudhury, A. U Kaziranga- Wildlife in Assam. Rupa and Co., New Delhi. 94 p. Datta, A., M. O. Anand and R. Naniwadekar Empty forests: Large carnivores and prey abundance in Namdapha National Park, northeast India. Biological Conservation 141 (2008): Harihar, A., B. Pandav and S P. Goyal Monitoring tiger and its prey in Chilla Range, Rajaji National Park, Uttaranchal, India. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Research Report No. 06/001. Pp iii+80. Harihar, A., B. Pandav and S. P. Goyal Responses of tiger (Panthera tigris) and their prey to removal of anthropogenic influences in Rajaji National Park, India. Eur J Wldl Res 55: Jhala, Y. V., R. Gopal, Q. Qureshi (eds.) Status of the Tigers, Copredators, and Prey in India. National Tiger Conservation Authority, Govt. of India, New Delhi, and Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. TR 08/001, 151 p. Johnson, A., C. Vongkhamheng, M. Hedemark, T. Saithongdam Effects of human-carnivore conflict on tiger (Panthera tigris) and prey populations in Lao PDR. Animal Conservation 9: Karanth K.U. and N. S. Kumar Distribution and dynamics of tiger and prey populations in Maharashtra, India. Final Report (year 1 surveys) to Save The Tiger Fund, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation & Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Fund, US Fish and Wildlife Service. Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore, India. Karanth, K. U. and J. D. Nichols Ecological Status and Conservation of Tigers in India. Final Technical Report to the Division of International Conservation, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington DC and Wildlife Conservation Society, New York. Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore, India.

32 Karanth, K. U and J. D. Nichols. (Eds) Monitoring tigers and their prey. A manual for researchers, managers and conservationists in Tropical Asia. Bangalore: Centre for Wildlife Studies. Karanth, K. U and J. D. Nichols Estimation of tiger densities in India using photographic captures and recaptures. Ecology 79: Karanth, K. U Estimating tiger Panthera tigris populations from camera-trap data using capture-recapture models. Biological Conservation 71: Karanth, K. U The way of the tiger: Natural history and conservation of endangered big cat. Voyaguer Press, MN, USA (Special South Asia Edition, 2002, Center for Wildlife Studies). 132 p. Karanth, K. U., J. D. Nichols, S. Kumar and J. E. Hines Assessing tiger population dynamics using photographic capture-recapture sampling. Ecology 87(11): Karanth, K. U., R. S. Chundawat, J. D. Nichols and N. S. Kumar Estimation of tiger densities in the tropical dry forests of Panna, Central India, using photographic capture-recapture sampling. Animal Conservation 7: Mani, M.S. (ed.), Ecology and biogeography in India. The Hague p. Mary, P.O., G.S. Solanki, D. Limboo and K. Upadhaya Observations on feeding and territorial behaviour of Indian rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India. Tigerpaper 25(4): Nichols, J. D Capture-recapture models: using marked animals to study population dynamics. BioScience 42: O'Brien, T. G., M. F. Kinnaird, H. T. Wibisono Crouching tigers, hidden prey: sumatran tiger and prey populations in a tropical forest landscape. Animal Conservation 6, Otis, D. L., K. P. Burnham, G. C. White and D. R. Anderson Statistical inference from capture data on closed animal populations. Wildlife Monograph 62: Rextad, E. and K. P. Burnham User's guide for interactive Program CAPTURE. Fort Collins: Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Unit.

33 Rodgers, W. A. and H. S. Panwar Planning a wildlife protected area network in India: Vol II. A Report prepared for the Department of Environment, Forests & Wildlife, Govt. of India. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. 267p Sanderson, E., J. Forrest, C. Loucks, J. Ginsberg, E. Dinerstein, J. Seidensticker, P. Leimgruber, M. Songer, A. Heydlauff, T. O'Brien, G. Bryja, S. Klenzendorf and E. Wikramanayake Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers: The Technical Assessment. WCS, WWF, Smithsonian, and NFWF-STF, New York Washington, D.C. Schaller, G. B The deer and the tiger. University of Chicago Press, U.S.A. 370 pp. Seidensticker, J., S. Christie and P. Jackson Preface. In Riding the tiger: tiger conservation in human-dominated landscapes: xv xix. Seidensticker, J., S. Christie and. Jackson. (Eds). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sharma, R. K., Y. Jhala, Q. Qureshi, J. Vittakaven, R. Gopal and K. Nayak Evaluating capture-recapture population and density estimation of tigers in a population with known parameters. Animal Conservation 2009: Sunquist, M. E Social organization of tigers Panthera tigris in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Smithsonian Contributon Zoology 336: Vasu, N. K Management Plan: Kaziranga National Park, World Hertage Site. Forest Department, Govt. of Assam, India. Pp. I-VII and White, G. C., D. R. Anderson, K. P. Burnham and D. L. Otis Capture- Recapture removal methods for sampling closed populations. Los Alamos National Laboratory Publications. LA-8787-NERP. Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA. Wikramanayake, E. D., E. Dinerstein, J. G. Robinson, K. U. Karanth, A. Rabinowitz, D. Olson, T. Matthew, P. Hedao, M. Conner, G. Hemley and D. Bolze Where can tigers live in the future? A framework for identifying high priority areas for the conservation of tigers in the wild. In Riding the tiger: tiger conservation in humandominated landscapes: Seidensticker, J., S. Christie and P. Jackson. (Eds). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

34 Appendix 01 A. Standard datasheet for camera trap monitoring.

35 B. Standard datasheet for sign survey.

36 Appendix 02 Individual Tigers Camera Trapped in the Kaziranga National Park (2009) During the study 39 individual tigers (including a cub < 1 yr) were identified. All the tigers with their unique ID number and sex are presented below. Unique code 'KZT_001_F' read as 'Kaziranga Tiger_No. 001_Female '. L=left flank and R=right flank. M=Male, U= Unknown Sex, C= Cub KZT_001_F KZT_001_F KZT_002_F KZT_002_F KZT_003_F KZT_003_F

37 KZT_004_F KZT_004_F KZT_005_F KZT_005_F KZT_006_F KZT_006_F

38 KZT_007_F KZT_007_F KZT_008_F KZT_008_F KZT_009_F KZT_009_F

39 KZT_010_F KZT_010_F KZT_011 F KZT_011 F KZT_012 F KZT_012 F

40 KZT_013_F KZT_013_F KZT_014_F KZT_014_F KZT_015_F KZT_015_F

41 KZT_016_F KZT_016_F KZT_017_F KZT_017_F KZT_018_F KZT_018_F

42 KZT_019_F KZT_019_F KZT_020_F KZT_020_F KZT_021_M KZT_021_M

43 KZT_022_M KZT_022_M KZT_023_M KZT_023_M KZT_024_M KZT_024_M

44 KZT_025_M KZT_025_M KZT_026_M KZT_026_M KZT_027_M KZT_027_M

45 KZT_028_M KZT_028_M KZT_029_M KZT_029_M KZT_030_M KZT_030_M

46 KZT_031_M KZT_031_M KZT_032_M KZT_032_M KZT_033_M KZT_033_M

47 KZT_034_M KZT_035_M KZT_035_M KZT_036_U

48 KZT_037_U KZT_038_U KZT_038_U KZT_039_C KZT_039_C

49 Appendix 03 Photographs of prey and other animals camera trapped in the park Elephant Elephas maximus Wild Buffalo Bubalus arnee Rhino Rhinoceros unicornis

50 Sambar Cervus unicolor Swamp Deer Cervus duvaucelii Hog Deer Axis porcinus

51 Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak Hog Badger Arctonyx collaris Porcupine Hystrix brachyura

52 Wild Boar Sus scrofa Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica

53 Large Indian Civet Viverra zibetha Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus

54 Metal box to house camera equipments that is designed to withstand assaut from elephants. Rituraj Konwae Elephants caught on camera while attempting to damage the cameras.

55 Appendix 04 Activity Photographs of the Camera trap survey in the Kaziranga National Park. Camera trapping was formally inaugurated by Dr. V B Mathur, Dean, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Field surveys to identify camera trap locations. Gerry Ellis Field surveys to record sign encounter data.

56 A camera trap being laid. Shifting of a camera trap to a new location. Forest staff observing a camera trap.

57 Appendix 04 Name and GPS coordinates of camera trap locations in the Kaziranga NP (session: January-March, 2009). Trap ID Trap Locations Latitude Longitude 1 Kurhimari Tourist Road Bokpara (east) Solmara Karasingh Bokpara (west) Borbeel Ajagar (east) Karasing-Bokpara Bokabeel Tiniali Ajagar (west) Rajapukhuri tniali Thungru Pengajaan Roumari Tiniali Thungru-Bholukajaan Bimoli (east) Gendarmari I Bagori Tourist Road II Bagori Tourist Road I Bimoli (west) Gendarmari II Dunga Beel Dunga-Bagori Road Bhaisarmari Dunga-Harmoti Road Kohora Tourist Road Ajagar Tourit Road Hanuman Tiniali Ajagar North Hanuman South Baruntika Hulalpath T-point Kathonibari III Hanuman East

58 Trap ID Trap Locations Latitude Longitude 35 Hanuman North Hulalpath Kathonibari I Kathonibari II Gobrai South Gobrai-Hanuman Dhekiatoli East Dhekiatoli West Arimora Dandi Borbeel (Arimora) Gobrai Gobrai North Mithunmari Arimora Arimora-Borbeel Tekelifuta

59 Project Field Team S. N. Buragohain, IFS, Director, Kaziranga NP D. D. Gogoi, AFS DFO, E Assam Wl Division Dr. B. K. Talukdar Secretary General, Aaranyak. R. N. Sarma Research Officer, KNP M. Firoz Ahmed Wildlife Biologist, Aarnayak Dr. Jimmy Borah Wildlife Biologist. Chatrapati Das Biologist, Aaranyak. Ajit Basumatary Biologist, Aaranyak. Pranjit Kumar Sarma RS & GIS Expert, Aaranyak

60 Arif Hussain Project Assistant, Aaranyak. Kamal Azad Volunteer Abdul Mazid Volunteer Mayur Bowri Volunteer Ashok Dey Volunteer Udayan Borthakur Volunteer Dr. Jayanta Baruah Volunteer Anil Das Driver Biraj Saikia Driver Ganesh Kutum Armed Guard, KNP Ganesh Rabha, Armed Guard, KNP

61

62 About Aaranyak Aaranyak, a society for biodiversity conservation has already completed twenty years of service towards the cause of nature conservation in the region. From a small beginning in 1989, it has been growing slowly and steadily to cater the complex need of biodiversity conservation in this diverse and culturally varied region of India. Aaranyak is also recognized as a Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (SIRO) by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Aaranyak has been contributing towards nature conservation through multidimensional approaches that include the following programmes and initiatives: Environmental Education and Capacity Building Programme (EECBP) North East Threatened Species Conservation Programme (NETSCOPE) Rhino Research and Conservation Initiative (RRCI) Elephant Research and Conservation Initiative (ERCI) Tiger Research and Conservation Initiative (TRCI) Primate Research and Conservation Initiative (PRCI) Leopard Research and Conservation Initiative (LRCI) Gangetic Dolphin Research and Conservation Initiative (GDRCI) Avifauna Research and Conservation Initiative (ARCI) Herpetological Research and Conservation Initiative (HRCI) Lagomorph Research and Conservation Initiative (LRCI) Otter Research and Conservation Initiative (ORCI) Community Based Conservation Programme (CBCP) Legal and Advocacy Programme (LAP) Water and Climate Programme (WCP) Geo-spatial Technology Application Programme (GTAP) Wildlife Genetics Programme (WGP) Wildlife Health and Research Programme (WHRP) For more information visit website or to info@aaranyak.org

63 M. Firoz Ahmed A partial view of the Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong landscape

64 Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Wildlife, Assam A society for biodiversity conservation in North East India Directorate, Kaziranga National Park