Lecture #10 Oct. 6, 2015 Cardiopulmonary physiology Respiratory Cardiovascular Musculoskeletal Vestibular Neurological Environmental Effects 1 2015 David L. Akin - All rights reserved http://spacecraft.ssl.umd.edu
The Human Respiratory System 2
Lung Measurements From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1985 3
Respiratory Volume vs. Exertion 4
Metabolic Processes Respiratory Quotient ( RQ )!! RQ = Exhaled volume of CO 2 Inhaled volume of O 2 Function of activity and dietary balance Sugar: C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O ( RQ =1.0) Protein: 2C 3 H 7 O 2 N + 6O 2 5CO 2 + 5 H 2 O ( RQ = 0.83) Fat: C 57 H 104 O 6 + 80O 2 57CO 2 + 52 H 2 O ( RQ = 0.71) For well-balanced diet, RQ~0.85 5
The Human Circulatory System 6
Blood Pressure in Circulatory System 7
Gas Exchange in the Lungs From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1985 8
Gas Exchange in the Tissues From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1985 9
Respiratory Problems Hypoxia Hypoxic Hypemic Stagnant Histotoxic Hyperoxia Hypocapnia Hypercapnia 10
Types of Hypoxia Hypoxic (insufficient O2 present) Decompression Pneumonia Hypemic (insufficient blood capacity) Hemorrhage Anemia Stagnant (insufficient blood transport) Excessive acceleration Heart failure Histotoxic (insufficient tissue absorption) Poisoning 11
Pressure Effects on Blood Oxygenation From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1996 12
Pressure Effects on Blood Oxygenation From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1996 13
Effects of Supplemental Oxygen From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1985 14
Hypoxia Effective Performance Time From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1985 15
Lung Overpressure Following Decompression From Nicogossian and Gazenko, Space Biology and Medicine - Volume II: Life Support and Habitability, AIAA 1994 16
Oxygen Toxicity From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1985 17
Effects of ppco2 From James T. Joiner, NOAA Diving Manual, Fourth Edition, 2001 18
Acute Effects of Hyperventilation From James T. Joiner, NOAA Diving Manual, Fourth Edition, 2001 19
Gravity Effects on Arterial Pressure 320 mm 95/55 mmhg 120/80 mmhg 1200 mm 1000 mmh 2 O = 74.1 mmhg 210/170 mmhg 20
The Human Circulatory System, Revisited 21
Cardiovascular Effects of Microgravity Cardiovascular deconditioning Upper body blood pooling Changes in blood volume Increased calcium content 22
Acceleration Effects on Arterial Pressure 320 mm 25/ mmhg 120/80 mmhg 1200 mm At 4 g s longitudinal: 1000 mmh 2 O = 296 mmhg 475/435 mmhg 23
Supersaturation of Blood Gases Early observation that factor of two (50% drop in pressure) tended to be safe Definition of tissue ratio R as ratio between saturated pressure of gas compared to ambient pressure P N2 R = =0.79 (nominal Earth value) P ambient 50% drop in pressure corresponds to R=1.58 (R values of ~1.6 considered to be safe ) 24
Tissue Models of Dissolved Gases Issue is dissolved inert gases (not involved in metabolic processes, like N2 or He) Diffusion rate is driven by the gradient of the partial pressure for the dissolved gas!! dp tissue (t) dt = k [P alveoli (t) P tissue (t)] where k=time constant for specific tissue (min -1 ) P refers to partial pressure of dissolved gas 25
Solution of Dissolved Gas Differential Eqn. Assume ambient pressure is piecewise constant (response to step input of ambient pressure) Result is the Haldane equation: P tissue! (t) =P tissue (0) + [P alveoli (0) P tissue (0)] 1 e kt Need to consider value of P alveoli P! alveoli =(P ambient P H2O P CO2 + P O2 P! alveoli = P ambient P H2O + 1 RQ ) Q RQ P CO2 Q where Q=fraction of dissolved gas in atmosphere ΔP O2 =change in ppo2 due to metabolism 26
Linearly Varying Pressure Solution Assume R is the (constant) rate of change of pressure - solution of dissolved gases PDE is! 1 R P t (t) =P alv0 + R t P alv0 P t0! k k This is known as the Schreiner equation For R=0 this simplifies to Haldane equation Produces better time-varying solutions than Haldane equation Easily implemented in computer models e kt 27
Haldane Tissue Models Rate coefficient frequently given as time to evolve half of dissolved gases:! ln (2) ln (2) T! 1/2 = k = k T 1/2 Example: for 5-min tissue, k=0.1386 min -1 Haldane suggested five tissue compartments : 5, 10, 20, 40, and 75 minutes Basis of U. S. Navy tables used through 1960 s Three tissue model (5 and 10 min dropped) 1950 s: Six tissue model (5, 10, 20, 40, 75, 120) 28
Workman Tissue Models Dr./Capt. Robert D. Workman of Navy Experimental Diving Unit in 1960 s Added 160, 200, 240 min tissue groups Recognized that each type of tissue has a differing amount of overpressure it can tolerate, and this changes with depth Defined the overpressure limits as M values 29
Workman M Values Discovered linear relationship between partial pressure where DCS occurs and depth! M = M 0 + M=partial pressure limit (for each tissue compartment) M 0 =tissue limit at sea level (zero depth) ΔM=change of limit with depth (constant) d=depth of dive Can use to calculate decompression stop depth 30 Md d min = P t M 0 M
Effect of Multiple Tissue Times 31
Physics of Bubbles Pressure inside a bubble is balanced by exterior pressure and surface tension P! internal = P ambient + P surface = P ambient + 2 r where γ=surface tension in J/m 2 or N/m (=0.073 for water at 273 K) Dissolved gas partial pressure P g =P amb in equilibrium Gas pressure in bubble P int >P amb due to γ All bubbles will eventually diffuse and collapse 32
Critical Bubble Size Minimum bubble size is defined by point at which interior pressure P int = gas pressure P g!!! r min = P g r<r min - interior gas diffuses into solution and bubble collapses! r>r min - bubble will grow! r=r min - unstable equilibrium 2 p ambient 33 Decompression/Neurovestibular Physiology ENAE 697 - Space Human Factors and Life Support
Historical Data on Cabin Atmospheres from Scheuring et. al., Risk Assessment of Physiological Effects of Atmospheric Composition and Pressure in Constellation Vehicles 16th Annual Humans in Space, Beijing, China, May 2007 34
Spacecraft Atmosphere Design Space from Scheuring et. al., Risk Assessment of Physiological Effects of Atmospheric Composition and Pressure in Constellation Vehicles 16th Annual Humans in Space, Beijing, China, May 2007 35
Effect of Pressure and %O 2 on Flammability from Hirsch, Williams, and Beeson, Pressure Effects on Oxygen Concentration Flammability Thresholds of Materials for Aerospace Applications J. Testing and Evaluation, Oct. 2006 36
Atmosphere Design Space with Constraints from Scheuring et. al., Risk Assessment of Physiological Effects of Atmospheric Composition and Pressure in Constellation Vehicles 16th Annual Humans in Space, Beijing, China, May 2007 37
EVA Denitrogenation - 14.7 psi Cabin Tissue&Nitrogen&Pressure&(psi)& 14.0# 12.0# 10.0# 8.0# 6.0# 4.0# 2.0# 0.0# Cabin Atmosphere 14.7 psi 21% O2 R Value = 1.4 Suit Pressure 4.3 psi 100% O2 0# 200# 400# 600# 800# 1000# 1200# Time&(min)& 5*min#.ssue# 80*min#.ssue# 240*min#.ssue# 38 Decompression/Neurovestibular Physiology ENAE 697 - Space Human Factors and Life Support
EVA Denitrogenation - 8.3 psi Cabin Tissue&Nitrogen&Pressure&(psi)& 6.0# 5.0# 4.0# 3.0# 2.0# 1.0# 0.0# R Value = 1.4 Suit Pressure 4.3 psi 100% O2 Cabin Atmosphere 8.3 psi 32% O2 0# 200# 400# 600# 800# 1000# 1200# Time&(min)& 5+min#/ssue# 80+min#/ssue# 240+min#/ssue# 39 Decompression/Neurovestibular Physiology ENAE 697 - Space Human Factors and Life Support
Constellation Spacecraft Atmospheres from Scheuring et. al., Risk Assessment of Physiological Effects of Atmospheric Composition and Pressure in Constellation Vehicles 16th Annual Humans in Space, Beijing, China, May 2007 40
Categories of Sensing Proprioception (internal to body) Self-Sensing Vestibular (inertial forces) Muscle and tendon sensors (extension) Joint sensors (angle) Exteroception (external to body) Visual Auditory Cutaneous 41
Anatomy of the Ear From James T. Joyner, ed., NOAA Diving Manual, Best Publishing, 2001 42
Vestibular System From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1985 43
Vestibular Sense Organs From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1985 44
Thresholds of Rotational Perception Rotational accelerations Yaw: 0.14 deg/sec 2 Roll and Pitch: 0.5 deg/sec 2 Mulder s Constant Acceleration x excitation time = 2 deg/sec 5 deg/sec 2 x 0.5 sec -> sensed 10 deg/sec 2 x 0.1 sec -> not sensed Rotational velocities - minimum perceived rotation rates 1-2 deg/sec (all axes) 45
Otolith Responses From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Lea & Febiger, 1985 46
Thresholds of Translational Perception a x : 0.006 g a y : 0.006 g a z : 0.01 g Apparent change in direction of g vector = 1.5 47
Space Motion Sickness Space Adaptation Syndrome 2/3 of astronauts report some effects Symptoms Primary: stomach discomfort, nausea, vomiting Secondary: pallor, cold sweats, salivation, depressed appetite, fatigue No correlation to susceptibility to motion sickness Primary hypothesis: sensory conflict (Treisman s Theory) 48
Progression of Space Motion Sickness From Roy DeHart, Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Williams and Wilkins, 1996 49
SAS Experience of First 34 Shuttle Flights 120 96 72 48 24 0 First Flight Subsequent Flight None Mild Moderate Severe 50 Decompression/Neurovestibular Physiology ENAE 697 - Space Human Factors and Life Support
SAS Experience of First 34 Shuttle Flights 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.00 First Flight % Subsequent Flight % None Mild Moderate Severe 51 Decompression/Neurovestibular Physiology ENAE 697 - Space Human Factors and Life Support
Space Motion Sickness Countermeasures Preflight training Desensitization Autogenic feedback training (AFT) Pharmaceuticals Oral - scopolamine/dex-amphetamine (Scopdex) Transdermal - scopolamine Intramuscular - promethazine Mechanical systems Pressurized insoles Load suits Neck restraints 52
Artificial Gravity 10000 1000 100 10 g rotation =ω 2 r Lunar gravity Mars gravity 0.5*Earth gravity 0.75*Earth gravity Earth gravity 1 0 2 4 6 Rotation Rate (rpm) 53
Allowable Rotation Rates Select groups (highly trained, physically fit) can become acclimated to 7 rpm 95% of population can tolerate 3 rpm Sensitive groups (elderly, young, pregnant women) may have tolerance levels as low as 1 rpm 54
References R. L. DeHart, ed., Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine, Second Edition Williams and Wilkins, 1996 A. E. Nicogossian, C. L. Huntoon, and S. L. Pool, Space Physiology and Medicine, Third Edition Lea and Febiger, 1994 A. E. Nicogossian, S. R. Mohler, O. G. Gazenko, and A. I. Grigoriev, eds., Space Biology and Medicine (Volume III, Book 1: Humans in Spaceflight) American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1996 J. T. Joiner, ed., NOAA Diving Manual: Diving for Science and Technology, Fourth Edition Best Publishing, 2001 55