PREFACE The greatest difficulty in undertaking a work such as this is defining the terms invasion and conquest. Both have overtly military connotations, though not all conquests are accomplished totally through military means. Still, conquest can best be described as the occupation and long-term domination of one country by another. Using this criterion, colonization can be defined as conquest, especially because most examples of colonization have a military aspect. Hence, the Spanish occupation of the New World, the British occupation of America, Canada, India, etc., all constitute conquests. If the colonization takes place with little military activity, the term occupation is used. The definition of invasion is much more difficult to nail down. Any battle involves invasion of territory, even if it is only enemy held ground on the other side of the battlefield. To narrow the scope of this edition, we will deal only with the violation of national borders - one country invading another. This immediately removes from consideration all civil wars, since a nation fights such a war against itself. While many would argue that Union forces attacking the Confederacy constituted an invasion, this cannot fit our criteria because the Confederate States of America was never officially an independent nation. This further removes from consideration most revolutions, unless they are against a foreign power and the revolutionaries achieve national status. The American Revolution is covered, because the United States became a nation in the midst of revolution with formal recognition by other countries. The Texas Revolution, on the other hand, is not, because Texas did not gain international recognition until after hostilities ended. Additionally, the placement of national boundaries creates another question. For most of its history, modern Italy has been a collection of nation-states trying to establish domination over one another. Do conflicts among these neighbors constitute invasions? Would the fighting between Serbs, Croats, and Muslims in post-communist Yugoslavia be considered a series of territorial invasions, or simply a struggle for local control? Is an attack against a neighbor, conducted with no intent of conquest (for example, Prussia versus Austria in 1866), considered an invasion? These are some of the considerations we faced in defining the scope of this work, and in some cases, inclusion ultimately comes down to an editorial judgment call. What some might view as an invasion, we might decide was a dynastic squabble among rival factions, and modern national identities may at times be overlaid on a set of historical states that no longer exist. In general, we explore actions by one nation against another with the intent or result of establishing the attacker s domination over the defender. By this definition, invasions almost always will be military, but ultimate conquests may be political or economic, as in the U.S. intervention in Latin American nations. Because the establishment and fall of empires normally involve the conquests of numerous enemies, these events are covered by the names of the empires, rather than by the listing of each conquest involved in the process of empire building. Every effort has been made to cover as much history of the world s invasions as possible - from the time Sargon the Great first expanded the borders of Akkadia to the American-led coalition effort to overthrow Saddam Hussein and establish democracy in Iraq. xv Invasions and Conquests_FM_ppi-xviii.indd 15 10/28/16 4:18 PM
This third edition includes a number of new articles to fill in some gaps in history that did not get covered earlier. We have updated some of the articles from the late 20 th and early 21 st centuries to describe activities that have taken place in conflicts that were ongoing at the time of the last edition, such as Iraq and Afghanistan. Newer invasions which have taken place since the last edition have also been included, such as the Russian incursion into Ukraine. Finally, a new article addresses a pressing issue of the contemporary world: to what extent can large-scale migration or refugee movements be considered an invasion? Also new to this edition are the seven section introductions that discuss warfare as it pertains to the time period covered in that section. I would like to thank all the contributors who aided in the production of this work. They are listed with their affiliations following this preface. I very much want to recognize the efforts of my wife, Jerri, for her patience with me during the research and writing of this work. xvi Invasions and Conquests_FM_ppi-xviii.indd 16 10/28/16 4:18 PM
Invasions and Conquests_P1-001-158.indd 2 10/28/16 5:43 PM
WARFARE IN THE ANCIENT WORLD As soon as man learned to use rocks and sharp sticks to hunt for meat he probably realized that such weapons could be used to impose his will on other people. The earliest for of warfare was brute muscle power with those throwing the most accurate stone or swinging the heaviest club enjoying the advantage. Over time, people realized that a sharp rock or stick was more effective than a dull one, so how to create and maintain that sharp edge came to be a major goal in weapon development. Using rocks as a projectile became more effective when someone realized that they could go further and faster when thrown by a long piece of leather. The development of the sling created the ability to harass and harm one s enemy at great range, hurting him while keeping oneself safe. Slingers became important units in ancient armies and men talented in its use were in demand as mercenaries. In order to maintain a steady supply of projectiles of proper size and weight, rocks were supplanted by pellets made of baked clay and later of lead. Sharpened rocks, and later metal, were shaped into pointed form and attached to the end of sticks, creating a weapon that could be used for stabbing (spear) or throwing (javelin). The spear was the primary weapon used in ancient armies, as masses of men advancing behind those spear points could stab enemies without the necessity of hand-to-hand combat. Spears of various lengths were the standard weapon until the end of the Greek and the beginning of the Roman Empires. The first metal to be used in weaponry was bronze. As it occasionally occurs naturally, it is not known when someone learned to blend copper with about a 12% alloy of tin in order to create bronze. The earliest bronze implements date to about 3000 BC on the island of Crete, with the use of the metal spreading to Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor over the next thousand years. It became the metal of choice for centuries as it could be forged into swords which had both a sharp point and sharp edges, creating a weapon for both thrusting and hacking. Swords were probably an evolution from axes and tomahawks, which used a sharped blade attached to the edge of stick of wood. Longer and more balanced than an ax, swords were originally sidearms carried by spearmen to used if the soldiers broke ranks and got into hand-to-hand fighting. Early sword were really long knives, used more for defense than offense. Bronze was also the primary metal used for personal armor: helmets, breastplates, greaves, etc. About 1500 BC one sees the first appearance of iron implements. Within five hundred years the use of wrought iron spread through the eastern Mediterranean world, but early on it was rare and expensive so bronze remained the primary metal for weaponry. When it was used to make swords, however, it proved superior to bronze in both strength and the ability to hold a sharper edge for a longer time. Late in the Stone Age came the development of the bow and arrow. While still needing talent to handle this weapon well, it was still easier to master than the sling and became the primary long-range weapon until the 15th century and the advent of gunpowder. The earliest bows came from the Middle East, India, and China and were initially made from bamboo. Later one sees the invention of the compound bow, whereby a shaft of wood has added to it pieces of bone and sinew which ultimately make it stronger and more flexible. Unstrung, a compound bow is curved; when strung, the curve is to the opposite side as the bow is bent back upon itself, giving the bowstring an extra tautness that creates greater range. Such weapons have been shown to have a range of at least 300 yards. For protection, early soldiers used shields which were initially made of leather. Often the shield was made of leather stretched over a wooden or metal circle. When tanned correctly, leather could prove to be extremely hard and tough, but to use it as a basis for personal protection small scales of bronze of iron would be fastened to the leather in an overlapping fashion to create a cover that was both flexible and almost impenetrable. 5 Invasions and Conquests_P1-001-158.indd 5 10/28/16 5:43 PM
THE ANCIENT WORLD For power and shock, ancient warriors perfected the use of the horse. Cavalry was common though not a decisive arm of the military as it would be many centuries before the development of the stirrup to give the rider the necessary stability to stay in the saddle through the maneuver and impact of battle. Cavalry was at first a symbol of wealth and prestige, but the horse was mainly a method of transport to the battlefield rather than part of the battle. That changed with the development of the chariot, a two-wheeled (usually) cart that could be ahuled around the battlefield and be used as a platform for archers, though for a long time it (like the cavalry) was primarily a method of transport for commanders. The exposure of the horses hauling the chariot to enemy arrows made it a less than perfect weapon, but when used effectively it could disperse enemy infantry and be extremely effective in pursuit. In areas were horses were less available, as in India, elephants were used. They too had serious shock value but were hard to maneuver and soldiers soon learned counter-methods to lessen their impact on the battlefield. The first ancient society to field a professional standing army, as opposed to a temporary militia force based on civilian volunteers or levies, were the Assyrians. About 700 BC King Tiglath-Pileser III put together a permanent, organized, well-equipped and maintained and trained force that became the terror of the Fertile Crescent. Iron was the metal of choice for all their weapons and armor. They depended mainly on massed infantry based on spearmen but supported with talented archers with longerrange bows with iron-tipped arrows. They employed a large number of chariots for shock value with a well-trained cavalry contingent that was used for harassment and pursuit. They would often field armies as large as 50,000 men who were trained for combat across different types of terrain, not just flat, open ground. They also were the first to implement intentional psychological warfare, creating such a terror in their enemies through exceptionally cruel practices that word of their approach could cause immediate surrender rather than any resistance. To support the army the Assyrians also developed an immense and well-organized logistical system to keep the army supplied on campaign. Although they were ultimately defeated, the Assyrians set a standard for professionalism that later kingdoms and empires knew they had to emulate in order to succeed. Employing all this technology and manpower to its best effect took the development of tactics, a doctrine of how weapons were to be used and how soldiers were to perform on the battlefield. Maneuver may not have been highly regarded with masses of spearmen colliding with each other, but good generals had to know their men and how best to handle them in combat. It was a time when bravery in battle, though necessary, was not as important as leadership, in all its factors. 6 Invasions and Conquests_P1-001-158.indd 6 10/28/16 5:43 PM
READINGS Text of the Armant Stela, 1456 B.C. Details of the Asiatic Campaigns of Thutmose III, Egyptian Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty. Horus of Edfu, great god, lord of heaven, may he give life! Words to be spoken: I have given you all life and dominion, all health, and all valour and strength. Month, lord of Thebes. The good god, lord of action, Menkheperre, given life forever, Tjenenut. Praising the god four times, so that he may be given life. Words to be spoken: I have given you all life and dominion, all health, all joy, while the kingship of the Two Lands is under your command. May you live like Re! Words to be spoken: I have given you millions of years, while all foreign lands are under your feet. Source: M.J. Nederhof Son of Re, his beloved, Tuthmosis, ruler of truth, given life forever. Live Horus: Mighty Bull, Appearing in Thebes; the Two Goddesses: Enduring of Kingship, like Re in Heaven; the Horus of Gold: Majestic of Appearances, Mighty of Strength; the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, Lord of Making Offerings: Men-kheper-Re; the Son of Re, of his Body: Thut-mose Heqa-Maat, beloved of Montu, Lord of Thebes, Residing in Hermonthis, living forever. Year 22, 2nd month of the second season, day 10. Summary of the deeds of valor and victory which this good god performed, being every effective deed of heroism, beginning from the first generation; that which the Lord of the Gods, the Lord of Hermonthis, did for him: the magnification of his victories, to cause that his deeds of valor be related for millions of years to come, apart from the deeds of heroism which his majesty did at all times. If (they) were to be related all together by their names, they would be (too) numerous to put them into writing Source: J.B. Pritchard When he shoots at a copper target, all wood is splintered like a papyrus reed. His Majesty offered an example thereof in the temple of Amun, with a target of hammered copper of three digits in thickness; when he had shot his arrow there, he caused protrusion of three palms behind it, so as to cause the followers to pray for the proficiency of his arms in valour and strength. I m telling you what he did, without deception and without lie, in front of his entire army, and there is no word of exaggeration therein. When he spent a moment of recreation, hunting in any foreign land, the quantity that he captured was greater than what the entire army achieved. He slew seven lions by shooting in an instant. He captured a herd of twelve wild bulls in an hour at the time of breakfast, their tails behind him. He killed 120 elephants in the foreign country of Nija when he came from Naharina. He crossed the river Euphrates, and trampled the towns on its banks, which were destroyed by fire forever. He erected a stela of victory on its [...] side. He captured a rhinoceros by shooting in the southern land of Taseti, after he had gone to Miu to seek out him who had rebelled against him in that land. He erected his stela there as he had done at the ends [...] Source: M.J. Nederhof His majesty made no delay in proceeding to the land of Djahi, to kill the treacherous ones who were in it and to give things to those who were loyal to him; witness, indeed, [their] names, 505 Invasions and Conquests_Reading_501-592.indd 505 10/28/16 4:20 PM
READINGS each [country] according to its time. His majesty returned on each occasion, when his attack had been effected in valor and victory, so that he caused Egypt to be in its condition as (it was) when Re was in it as king. [Year 22, 4th month of the second season, day... Proceeding] from Memphis, to slay the countries of the wretched Retenu, on the first occasion of victory. It was his majesty who opened its roads and foxed its every way for his army, after it had made [rebellion, gathered in Megid] do. His majesty entered upon that road which becomes very narrow, as the first of his entire army, while every country had gathered, standing prepared at its mouth.... The enemy quailed, fleeing headlong to their town, together with the prince who was in... (15)... to them, beseeching [breath], their goods upon their backs. His majesty returned in gladness of heart, with this entire land as vassal... [Asia]tics, coming at one time, bearing [their] tribute... 506 Invasions and Conquests_Reading_501-592.indd 506 10/28/16 4:20 PM
HISTORICAL TIME LINE OF ENTRIES Entry Title Beginning Ending Sargon the Great... r. 2334 BCE 2279 BCE Hittites... 1900 BCE 1200 BCE Egypt, Hyksos Invasion of... 1750 BCE 1567 BCE India, Aryan Invasion of... 1500s BCE? 500s BCE? Palestine, Egyptian Invasions of... 1500s BCE 1269 BCE Canaan, Israelite Invasion of... 13th Century 1050? BCE BCE Assyrian Empire... 1300 BCE 612 Chou Empire... 1027 BCE 221 BCE Kush, Expansion of... 725 BCE 350 Scythians... 700 BCE 300 Philip of Macedon... 640 BCE 602 Augustus, Caesar... 63 BCE 14 CE Chaldean (Neo-Babylonian) Empire, Expansion of... 612 BCE 539 BCE Cyrus the Great... 590? BCE 529 Persian Empire... 550-336 BCE Carthage, Expansion of... 553 BCE 146 Axum, Expansion of... 500 BCE 6th Century CE Greece, Persian Invasion of... 492 BCE 479 Italy, Roman conquest of... 396-218 BCE Alexander the Great... 356 BCE 323 Egypt, Alexander s Conquest of... 334 BCE 342 Persia, Alexander s Conquest of... 334 BCE 327 Greece, Roman conquest of... 328-168 BCE India, Alexander s Invasion of... 326 BCE 325 Seleucid Empire... 323 BCE 250 Mauryan Empire... 321 BCE 184 BCE Ptolemaic Dynasty... 305 BCE 30 BCE Sicily, Roman Conquest of (First Punic War)... 264 BCE 241 BCE Hannibal... 247 BCE 183 BCE Ch in Dynasty... 221 BCE 206 BCE Italy, Carthaginian Invasion of (Second Punic War)... 218 BCE 202 BCE Vietnam, Chinese Conquest of... 218 BCE 907 Spain, Roman Conquest of... 209 BCE 409 CE Han Dynasty... 206 BCE 220 CE Carthage, Roman Invasion of (Third Punic War)... 149 BCE 146 BCE Caesar, Julius... 100 BCE 44 BCE Gaul, Roman Conquest of... 58 BCE 49 BCE Britain, Roman Conquest of... 55 BCE 410 Germany, Roman Invasion of... 12 BCE 14 CE India, Kushan Invasion of... 50 250 Visigoths... 3rd Century 711 Constantine, Emperor... 274 337 595 Invasions and Conquests_Time line_593-600.indd 595 10/28/16 4:20 PM